INTRODUCTION

1. Nanotechnology
The field emerged from the desire to understand and control matter at the smallest
possible scale, with the potential to revolutionize various industries and fields.
Nanotechnology enables the design, fabrication, and manipulation of structures and
devices with unprecedented precision, leading to the development of new materials,
products, and technologies.Nanotechnology is a field of science and technology that
involves manipulating matter on an atomic or molecular scale, typically within the range
of 1 to 100 nanometers. Nanotechnology is a mindset, even though the scientific
community is fascinated with the field of nanoscience, most of the ongoing discussions,
definitions, and attention is focused on nanotechnology. As such, it represents a broad
term which demonstrates the apotheosis of man's ceaseless urge for knowledge having
practical potential. The meaning of the term nanotechnology is any technology operating
on the nanoscale which has applications in the real world, that is, to employ single atoms
and molecules to form functional structures [1]. The field of nanotechnology involves
the creation and utilization of chemical, physical, and biological systems with structural
features between single atoms or molecules to submicron dimensions, and also the
assimilation of resultant nanostructures into larger systems [2], [3].This allows for the
creation of materials, devices, and systems with unique properties and functionalities due
to their small size and high surface area-to-volume ratio. Nanotechnology has
applications in various fields such as medicine, electronics, energy, and materials science.
The field emerged from the desire to understand and control matter at the smallest
possible scale, with the potential to revolutionize various industries and fields.
Nanotechnology enables the design, fabrication, and manipulation of structures and
devices with unprecedented precision, leading to the development of new materials,
products, and technologies. Nanotechnology is an excellent example of an emerging
technology, offering engineered nanomaterials with the great potential for producing
products with substantially improved performances.13 Currently, nanomaterials find
commercial roles in scratch-free paints, surface coatings, electronics, cosmetics,
environmental remediation, sports equipment, sensors, and energy-storage devices.

1.2 Methods and principle of Nanotechnology

1.2.1 principles of nanotechnology

*Bottom-up assembly: Bottom-up assembly refers to a method of constructing

complex structures or systems by starting from the smallest components and
gradually building upwards. This approach contrasts with top-down assembly, where
larger components are assembled first. In the context of technology or manufacturing,
bottom-up assembly often involves the self-assembly of molecules or nanoparticles to
create functional materials or devices. It can also refer to programming techniques
 where small, modular components are combined to create larger software systems.
Overall, bottom-up assembly allows for precise control at the smallest scale, leading
to more intricate and customizable final products. Building structures from atomic or
molecular components, allowing precise control over properties.

* Top down assembly: top-down assembly refers to the fabrication or manipulation of

nanostructures by starting with larger-scale materials and then gradually reducing their size to
the nanoscale. This approach typically involves techniques such as lithography, etching, and
mechanical or chemical processes to precisely shape and manipulate materials at the nanoscale
level. Top-down assembly techniques are commonly used in the semiconductor industry for
manufacturing integrated circuits and other nanostructured devices.

1.1 APPLICATION OF NENOTECNOLOGY: Nanotechnology has

numerous applications across various fields:

1. *Medicine*: Nanotechnology is used in drug delivery systems, diagnostic tools, and targeted
cancer therapy, among other medical applications

*Drug Delivery*: Nanoparticles can be engineered to deliver drugs directly to target cells or
tissues, improving efficacy and reducing side effects. They can also encapsulate drugs,
protecting them from degradation and enabling controlled release over time.

*Cancer Treatment*: Nanoparticles can selectively target cancer cells, delivering

chemotherapy drugs or other therapeutic agents directly to tumors while minimizing damage to
healthy tissues. This targeted approach enhances treatment effectiveness and reduces systemic
toxicity.

*Diagnostic Imaging*: Nanoparticles can be used as contrast agents in various imaging

techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and
positron emission tomography (PET). These contrast agents enhance the visualization of tissues
and enable early detection of diseases.

*Therapeutic Agents*: Nanoparticles can be functionalized to carry therapeutic agents such

as genes, proteins, or RNA interference molecules (siRNA). These agents can treat a wide range
of diseases, including genetic disorders, infectious diseases, and neurological disorders.
 *Biosensors*: Nanotechnology enables the development of highly sensitive biosensors
capable of detecting biomarkers associated with diseases. These biosensors can provide rapid
and accurate diagnosis, facilitating early intervention and personalized medicine.

*Tissue Engineering*: Nanomaterials can mimic the extracellular matrix and provide
structural support for tissue regeneration. Scaffold materials with nanoscale features promote cell
adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation, making them valuable for tissue engineering
applications.

*Implantable Devices*: Nanotechnology enables the development of implantable devices

with enhanced biocompatibility and functionality. Nanocoatings can prevent biofouling and
improve the integration of implants with host tissues, reducing the risk of rejection and infection.

*Nano-robotics*: Nanorobots or nanomachines can perform precise tasks at the molecular

level, such as targeted drug delivery, tissue manipulation, or cell surgery. These nanorobots hold
promise for highly precise and minimally invasive medical procedures.

2. *Electronics*: Nanotechnology enables the creation of smaller, more efficient electronic

devices, such as nanoscale transistors and memory storage.

*Nanoelectronics*: This field focuses on the design, fabrication, and characterization of

electronic devices at the nanoscale. Nanoelectronic devices include transistors, diodes, sensors,
and memory devices, which leverage nanomaterials and nanofabrication techniques for improved
performance, miniaturization, and energy efficiency.

*Quantum Computing*: Nanotechnology plays a vital role in the development of quantum

computing devices. Quantum bits or qubits, the fundamental units of quantum information, can
be realized using nanoscale systems such as quantum dots, superconducting circuits, and spin
qubits. These devices hold the potential to revolutionize computing by enabling exponentially
faster calculations for certain types of problems.
 *Nanophotonics*: Nanotechnology enables the manipulation of light at the nanoscale,
leading to the development of nanophotonic devices for communication, sensing, and imaging
applications. Nanophotonic components include photonic crystals, plasmonic waveguides, and
nanoantennas, which exploit the unique optical properties of nanomaterials to control the flow of
light.

*Flexible and Wearable Electronics*: Nanotechnology enables the fabrication of flexible

and stretchable electronic devices using nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, and
nanowires. These flexible electronics have applications in wearable sensors, electronic skins, and
biomedical implants, offering seamless integration with the human body and diverse form
factors.

*Energy Harvesting and Storage*: Nanotechnology plays a critical role in improving the
efficiency and performance of energy harvesting and storage devices. Nanomaterials are used in
advanced batteries, supercapacitors, and solar cells to enhance energy conversion, storage
capacity, and cycle life. Additionally, nanoscale structures enable the development of lightweight
and flexible energy storage solutions for portable electronics and electric vehicles.

*Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS)*: NEMS involve the integration of electrical and

mechanical functionalities at the nanoscale. These systems utilize nanoscale mechanical
resonators, switches, and actuators for sensing, signal processing, and communication
applications. NEMS devices offer high sensitivity, low power consumption, and small footprint,
making them suitable for diverse applications in electronics and sensing.

3. *Energy*: Nanotechnology is used in the development of more efficient solar panels,

batteries, and fuel cells, contributing to renewable energy solutions.

*Solar Cells*: Nanotechnology enhances the efficiency and reduces the cost of solar cells by
improving light absorption, charge separation, and transport. Nanomaterials such as quantum
dots, nanowires, and perovskite nanoparticles are used to design next-generation solar cells with
higher conversion efficiency and lower manufacturing costs.

*Energy Harvesting*: Nanotechnology enables the development of energy harvesting

devices that convert waste heat, mechanical vibrations, and ambient light into electrical energy.
Nanomaterials such as thermoelectric nanocomposites, piezoelectric nanogenerators, and
photovoltaic nanowires enhance the efficiency of energy harvesting systems for various
applications, including wearable electronics, wireless sensors, and self-powered devices.

*Battery Technology*: Nanotechnology improves the performance and longevity of

batteries by enhancing energy density, charge/discharge rates, and cycle life. Nanomaterials such
as nanostructured electrodes, nanocomposite electrolytes, and solid-state nanobatteries enable the
development of high-performance lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries, and beyond
lithium-ion battery technologies for electric vehicles, grid storage, and portable electronics.

*Supercapacitors*: Nanotechnology enables the fabrication of supercapacitors with high

power density, fast charging/discharging rates, and long cycle life. Nanostructured carbon
materials such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, and porous carbon aerogels provide large surface
areas and short ion diffusion paths, improving the energy storage capacity and

1.2 NANOPARTICLES:

Nanoparticles are integral components in a wide variety of applications, including

medicine, semiconductors, catalysis, and energy. They are defined as particles with a size
between 1-1000 nm. At smaller size scales, particles can behave differently than their bulk
counterparts. For example, as particles become smaller, their surface area increases greatly.
This allows for properties such as increased electrical and thermal conductivity, lowered
melting points, stronger magnetism or unique optical properties to arise [1].

Nanoparticles are tiny particles with dimensions typically ranging from 1 to 100
nanometers. They can be made from various materials such as metals, metal oxides, polymers, or
carbon-based materials. Nanoparticles exhibit unique physical and chemical properties due to
their small size, which make them useful in a wide range of applications including medicine,
electronics, catalysis, and environmental remediation.

Nanoparticles possess a high surface area-to-volume ratio, allowing for enhanced reactivity
and surface effects compared to bulk materials. They can be engineered to have specific
properties such as magnetic, optical, or catalytic properties, depending on their composition and
structure. Nanoparticles play crucial roles in fields such as drug delivery, imaging, energy
storage, and nanoelectronics, offering potential solutions to various technological and medical
challenges.
 in addition to their technological applications, nanoparticles also have implications in
environmental and health contexts. Their small size and high surface area can lead to interactions
with biological systems and the environment, raising concerns about potential toxicity and
environmental impact. Understanding the behavior and effects of nanoparticles is essential for
safe and responsible development and deployment of nanotechnology across various industries
and disciplines. Research in nanotoxicology and environmental nanotechnology aims to address
these concerns and ensure the sustainable use of nanoparticles in society.

Nanoparticles are revolutionizing fields like medicine, where they enable targeted drug
delivery systems that can precisely deliver medication to specific cells or tissues, reducing side
effects and improving treatment outcomes. They're also used in diagnostics, where they enhance
imaging techniques for early disease detection. In electronics, nanoparticles are integral to the
development of smaller, faster, and more efficient devices, like quantum dots used in display
technologies. Moreover, in energy applications, nanoparticles contribute to advancements in
solar cells, batteries, and fuel cells, helping to address global energy challenges.

1.4 PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES:

1. *Large surface area*: Nanoparticles have an exceptionally high surface area compared to
their volume, which enhances their reactivity and makes them ideal for catalysis and surface-
based applications.

2. *Quantum effects*: At the nanoscale, materials may exhibit quantum mechanical properties,
such as quantum confinement, which can lead to novel optical, electronic, and magnetic
behaviors.

3. *Size-dependent properties*: Many physical and chemical properties of nanoparticles, such

as melting point, conductivity, and optical absorption, vary with particle size, offering tunability
for specific applications.

4. *Enhanced optical properties*: Nanoparticles can interact with light in unique ways,
depending on their size, shape, and composition, leading to applications in imaging, sensing, and
photonic devices.

5. *Improved mechanical properties*: Nanoparticles can enhance the mechanical properties of

materials when incorporated into composites, making them stronger, lighter, and more durable.
 6. *High reactivity*: Due to their high surface area-to-volume ratio, nanoparticles exhibit
increased chemical reactivity, enabling efficient catalysis, pollutant remediation, and surface
modification.

1.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES:

anoparticles exhibit unique physical properties due to their small size, including:

1. *Size*: Nanoparticles typically range from 1 to 100 nanometers in diameter, allowing for
large surface area-to-volume ratios.

2. *Surface Area*: High surface area facilitates increased reactivity and interactions with other
materials.

3. *Optical Properties*: Quantum effects can alter the optical properties of nanoparticles,
leading to phenomena like plasmon resonance and quantum confinement.

4. *Mechanical Properties*: Nanoparticles may demonstrate enhanced mechanical properties

such as increased strength, flexibility, or hardness compared to bulk materials.

5. *Electrical Conductivity*: Electrical properties can be tuned in nanoparticles, making them

suitable for various electronic application.

6. *Thermal Conductivity*: Nanoparticles can exhibit enhanced thermal conductivity, important

for applications such as thermal interface materials.

7. *Magnetic Properties*: Nanoparticles may display unique magnetic behaviors, such as

superparamagnetism or enhanced magnetic susceptibility.

8. *Chemical Reactivity*: Nanoparticles may have altered chemical reactivity compared to bulk
materials due to their high surface-to-volume ratio and quantum effects.

1.6 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES:

1. *Surface Reactivity*: Nanoparticles have a high surface area-to-volume ratio, leading to

increased surface reactivity compared to bulk materials. This makes them useful for catalysis,
sensing, and surface modification applications.
2. *Surface Functionalization*: Nanoparticles can be functionalized with various chemical
groups to modify their surface properties, such as hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity,
biocompatibility, and targeting capabilities.

3. *Redox Properties*: Nanoparticles can exhibit unique redox properties due to their size-
dependent electronic structure, making them suitable for applications in batteries, fuel cells, and
electrocatalysis.

4. *Adsorption and Absorption*: Nanoparticles can adsorb or absorb molecules onto their
surfaces, affecting their chemical behavior and interactions with other materials.

5. *Chemical Stability*: The chemical stability of nanoparticles depends on factors such as

composition, surface functionalization, and environmental conditions. Some nanoparticles may
undergo chemical reactions or degradation over time.

6. *Selective Binding*: Nanoparticles can be designed to selectively bind to specific molecules

or ions, enabling applications such as biosensing, drug delivery, and environmental remediation.

7. *Toxicity*: The chemical properties of nanoparticles can influence their toxicity, with factors
such as composition, size, surface charge, and surface chemistry playing significant roles in
determining their biological interactions and potential health effects.
 CHAPTER - II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Ankur Soam In the present work, Nickel ferrite and graphene nanocomposite has
been synthesized and investigated as flexible electrodes for supercapacitor application in an
aqueous electrolyte with sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). The structural properties of the asprepared
nanocomposite electrode were analyzed by X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. Scanning
electron microscopy was used to study the surface morphology and particles size in the
nanocomposite. Elemental analysis of the electrode was performed using Energy dispersive
spectroscopy. Supercapacitor performance of the nickel ferrite/graphene nanocomposite was
evaluated using cyclic voltammetry. We have observed that specific capacitance depends
significantly on the charging/discharging voltage window of the device. A maximum specific
capacitance of 22 mF/cm2 (73 F/gm) was achieved between voltage range of − 0.5 to + 0.5 V.
Nanocomposite electrodes showed the power density in the range of 200–900 W/kg.

Sacchidanand S. Scindia, In the present work, we report the high-performance

supercapacitive behavior of NFO/PPy core–shell composite. The composite electrode was
prepared by adopting simple and inexpensive in-situ chemical oxidation route in an aqueous
medium containing sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) as a surfactant and characterized for the
spectral, structural, electrical, thermal and morphological studies. The electrochemical properties
were recognized by cyclic voltammetry, charge–discharge and electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy. The supercapacitive performance of NFO/PPy electrode was studied in an aqueous
0.1N H2SO4 electrolyte solution. The effect of electrolyte concentration on specific capacitance
and the stability of electrode were studied. The highest specific capacitance (Cs) achieved with
NFO/PPy electrode was 721.66 Fg−1. The specific energy (Es), specific power (Ps) and coulomb
efficiency (_%) were observed to be 51.95 Whkg−1, 6.18 kWkg−1 and 99.08% respectively.
This electrode shows the outstanding electrochemical stability over 1000th continuous charging–
discharging cycles and emerged as an efficient electrode material for energy storage devices as a
supercapacitor.

S. J. Pawar Cobalt ferrite nanoparticles were synthesized by sol-gel method and used
for supercapacitor application. Structural and morphological properties were studied by X-ray
diffraction and field emission scanning electron microscopy, respectively. The potential use of
these nanoparticles as an electrode for supercapacitors was investigated by the electrochemical
behavior using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic charge-discharge tests. The CV
curves of the cobalt ferrite nanoparticle modified electrode showed a typical pseudocapacitive
behavior
 V.S. Kumbhar The present paper reveals the formation of cobalt ferrite (CoFe2O4)
thin film on stainless steel substrate by simple chemical route from an alkaline bath containing
Co2+ and Fe2+ ions. The films are characterized for structural, surface morphological and FT-IR
properties. The XRD and FT-IR studies revealed formation of single phase of CoFe2O4. The
formation of nano-flakes-like morphology is observed from scanning electron microscope. The
electrochemical behaviour of CoFe2O4 film has been studied using cyclic voltammetry in 1 M
NaOH electrolyte. The maximum specific capacitance of 366 F g−1 is obtained at the scan rate
of 5 mV s−1. Using AC impedance technique equivalent series resistance (ESR) value is found
to be 1.1 .

K. Malaie Herein, for the first time, magnesium ferrite rose nanoflowers (MFRNs) were
directly grown on nickel foam through a facile two-step hydrothermal and post-annealing
method. FESEM studies showed that MFRNs have a micro to nano architecture from
microflower bundles to nanopetals. The rose flowers consist of sheet-like petals with a thickness
of 22–44 nm. A mechanism was proposed for the growth of nanostructures, and then they were
studied by different electrochemical techniques of cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic
charge–discharge, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) for possible application in
supercapacitor electrodes. The MFRNs/NiF electrode showed a specific capacitance of 240 F g−
1 (or 121 mF cm−2) at a scan rate of 20 mV s−1. Furthermore, the charge–discharge
voltammetric

P. Ramadevi Hydrothermal method was employed for the synthesis of pure Cobalt
ferrite and Nickel doped Cobalt ferrite nanoparticles. The crystallinity, morphological and the
electrochemical investigation of the prepared samples were studied using X-Ray diffraction
(XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), FT-IR and Cyclic voltammetry (CV) study
analysis. The cubic spinel crystal structure was revealed by the XRD pattern. The average
crystallite size for the pure cobalt ferrite and the nickel doped cobalt ferrite doped samples were
20 nm and 25 nm respectively. The lattice constant of the pure and the doped samples were 8.29
Å and 8.36 Å respectively. SEM analysis revealed the presence of nanoclusters. The EDS
patterns confirmed the presence of the elements Ni, Co, Fe and O without any impurity. The
infra-red spectra showed the features of higher and lower energy bands corresponding to
tetrahedral (T-band) and the presence of octahedral (O-band) complexes confirmed the creation
of spinel ferrites. The electrochemical behavior of the prepared nanoparticles was investigated
through Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) study analysis using 2 M of KOH electrolyte solution. The
potential window was limited as 0 V to 0.6 V at various scan rates 10, 30, 50, 80 and 100 mV/s.
Cyclic Voltammetry study revealed that the Nickel dopant increased the specific capacitance
than the pure Cobalt ferrite. The specific capacitance of the pure cobalt ferrite and the
nickeldoped cobalt ferrite samples were obtained as 517 F/g and 561 F/g respectively._ 2020
Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific
committee of the 2nd International conference on Advanced Materials – Materials for a Better
Living.

Ankur Soam This study presents a fabrication and electrochemical properties

of nickel ferrite/graphene nanocomposite as electrodes material for supercapacitor application.
The as-prepared electrode was characterized using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron
microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and Xray photoelectron spectroscopy. The
electrochemical properties were measured using cyclic voltammetry, galvanostatic charging/
Discharging methods and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.Graphene nanosheets play an
important role of governing the morphology of the electrode material and thereby enhancing the
electrochemical performance of the composite electrode. The specific capacitance of 207 F/g is
obtained for nickel ferrite/graphene nanocomposite, which is almost 4 times larger than pure
nickel ferrite. The nanocomposite showed a stable capacitance of 95% after 1000 cycles in 1 M
Na2SO4 electrolyte. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy results indicate that graphene
nanosheets reduced charge transfer resistance on the composite electrode. The obtained results
show that the nanocomposite has a great potential to be used in supercapacitor with good
electrochemical performance and longer cycle stability.

V.Venkatachalam Novel nanocrystalline NiFe2O4 has been synthesize

through combustion route using citric acid as a fuel Phase of the synthesized material was
analyzed using powder X-ray diffraction. The XRD study revealed the formation of
spinel phase cubic NiFe2O4 with high crystallinity. The average crystallite size of
NiFe2O4 nanomaterial was calculated from scherrer equation. The electrochemical
properties were realized by cyclic voltammetry, chronopotentiometry and
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The electrode material shows a maximum
specific capacitance of 454 F/g with pseudocapacitive behavior. High capacitance
retention of electrode material over 1000 continuous charging-discharging cycles
suggests its excellent electrochemical stability. The results revealed that thenickel ferrite
electrode is a potential candidate for energy storage applications in supercapacitor.

Ranjit Kumar Panda Electric and magnetic properties of bulk and nano cobalt ferrite
and modified with Bi3+, Cr3+ and K2CrO4 in nano level have been investigated. Bulk cobalt
ferrite (CoFe2O4) system was prepared by conventional solid state route and nano CoFe2O4
system was prepared by auto combustion method of the chemical route. The contribution of
microstructures (intrinsic grain and extrinsic grain boundary, sample surface-electrode contact)
to the conduction mechanism was investigated by complex impedance spectroscopic analysis.
Both the intrinsic and extrinsic conductions were observed in the bulk cobalt ferrite system
whereas intrinsic grain conduction is found absent in its nano system. It is observed that though
the room temperature resistivity of the nano system is higher than bulk one but the rate of
decrease in resistance with elevated temperature is higher in former case. Perhaps, this may be
the reason behind the early surface-conduction in nano system. The high resistance of nano
system at room temperature (RT) is due to the increase in density of high resistive grain
boundaries. The high dielectric loss in nano system may be due to the early conduction of charge
carriers in high resistive regions in comparison to bulk system. It is observed that the saturation
magnetization of bulk cobalt ferrite was found to be higher than nano system. However,
coercivity is higher in nano-cobalt ferrite which can be related to the surface spin effects.

Bismuth substituted nano cobalt ferrite (CoFe2-xBixO4, x= 0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15) samples
were prepared by auto combustion technique. The single phase XRD pattern confirmed the
successful substitution of the larger cation. Surface morphology from FESEM image indicated
the control average particle growth (50 nm – 160 nm) as an effect of bismuth substitution. The
increased particle size has effectively modified the electrical properties of the system in three
major ways: (a) increase in resistivity, (b) evolution of grain relaxation and (c) reduction in
dielectric loss and surface conduction. Additionally, magnetic behavior is also affected due to
control particle growth. Magnetic hysteresis study at room temperature confirmed the rise in
saturation magnetization (MS = 74.5 to 86.5 emu/g.) and reduction in coercivity (HC = 1633 to
1524 Oe).

The samples of CoFe2-xCrxO4 (x = 0, 0.15, 0.3) series were prepared by auto

combustion route. X-ray diffraction technique was used to confirm the phase formation and
structure analysis. The surface morphology of samples was imaged by the field emission
scanning electron microscope. The average particle size was found to be ~55, ~43 and ~35 nm
for x= 0, 0.15, 0.3 respectively. The substitution of Cr3+ in the parent systems caused a
significant iv

reduction in particle size. The samples were subjected to magnetic characterization and
also studied with Mossbauer spectroscopy at room temperature. Analysis of extracted parameters
from Mossbauer spectroscopy concluded that Cr3+ has replaced the Fe3+ at B-site (octahedral).
The decrease in magnetization at B-site was responsible for the observed reduced saturation
magnetization and coercivity. The Cole-Cole plots of impedance showed the growth of
semicircle describing the effect of grain boundary and the suppression of semicircle describing
the electrode-sample surface conduction effect. The increasing radius of Cole-Cole semicircles
indicated the enhancement of the material resistivity which was also confirmed by the dc
resistivity measurement. All these results were explained on the basis of occupancy of Cr3+ at B-
site, surface anisotropy potential and reduced particle size. The parent cobalt ferrite system
further modified with K2CrO4 in which chromium exists in its highest oxidation state (6+). The
samples were synthesized by the auto-combustion method with different dopant concentration.
The modified systems contain all the characteristic XRD peaks of cobalt ferrite and no peaks
related to secondary phases are observed. The effect of dopant further reduces the particle size
and at its higher percentage, the particle size is reduced to ~15 nm. An interesting result of
metallic to semiconducting transition behavior is observed in the modified cobalt ferrite system
of higher dopant concentration. From the impedance spectroscopic analysis it is revealed that
grain conduction was active in the temperature belt of metallic region. The variations of
magnetic moment along with coercivity with addition of K2CrO4 were explained on the basis of
particle size.

Britta Andres The growing market of mobile electronic devices, renewable

o_-grid

energy sources and electric vehicles requires high-performance energy

storage devices. Rechargeable batteries are usually the _rst choice

due to their high energy density. However, supercapacitors have a

higher power density and longer life-time compared to batteries. For

some applications supercapacitors are more suitable than batteries.

They can also be used to complement batteries in order to extend a

battery's life-time. The use of supercapacitors is, however, still limited

due to their high costs. Most commercially available supercapacitors

contain expensive electrolytes and costly electrode materials.

In this thesis I will present the concept of cost e_cient, paper-based

supercapacitors. The idea is to produce supercapacitors with low-cost,

green materials and inexpensive production processes. We show that

supercapacitor electrodes can be produced by coating graphite on

paper. Roll-to-roll techniques known from the paper industry can be

employed to facilitate an economic large-scale production. We investigated

the inuence of paper on the supercapacitor's performance

and discussed its role as passive component. Furthermore, we used

chemically reduced graphite oxide (CRGO) and a CRGO-gold nanoparticle

composite to produce electrodes for supercapacitors. The highest

speci_c capacitance was achieved with the CRGO-gold nanoparticle

electrodes. However, materials produced by chemical synthesis and intercalation

of nanoparticles are too costly for a large-scale production

of inexpensive supercapacitor electrodes. Therefore, we introduced

the idea of producing graphene and similar nano-sized materials in

a high-pressure homogenizer. Layered materials like graphite can

be exfoliated when subjected to high shear forces. In order to form

mechanical stable electrodes, binders need to be added. Nano_brillated

cellulose (NFC) can be used as binder to improve the mechanical

stability of the porous electrodes. Furthermore, NFC can be prepared

in a high-pressure homogenizer and we aim to produce both NFC and

graphene simultaneously to obtain a NFC-graphene composite. The

addition of 10% NFC in ratio to the amount of graphite, increased

the supercapacitor's capacitance, enhanced the dispersion stability

of homogenized graphite and improved the mechanical stability of

graphite electrodes in both dry and wet conditions. Scanning electron

microscope images of the electrode's cross section revealed that NFC

changed the internal structure of graphite electrodes depending on

the type of graphite used. Thus, we discussed the inuence of NFC

and the electrode structure on the capacitance of supercapacitors.

Keywords: graphene, graphite, paper, nano_brillated cellulose, NFC,

supercapacitor, electric double-layer capacitor, EDLC, energy storage,

roll-to-roll, coating, kinetic energy recovery.

 PRODIP KUMAR MONDAL Rare earth substituted Fe in Cu-Zn ferrites are well-
known technological magnetic materials used for manufacturing of multilayer chip inductor and

applications in various electrical devices. The present work is focused on the effect of

rare earth ion on structural, magnetic and transport properties of (Cu0.5Zn0.5Fe2-

x)RExO4 [ x = 0.00, 0.05 and 0.10] ferrites where RE = La and Sm were prepared by

solid state reaction technique keeping in view of their ionic radial and valences for

maintain the charge neutrality sintered at 1100oC with 3 hours holding time. The Xray

diffraction analysis revealed that rare earth free sample shows formulation of

single phase cubic spinel structure with no extra peak but other two La and Sm

substituted Fe in Cu-Zn samples show additional peaks other cubic spinel structure

and corresponding to a second orthoferrite phase. Lattice parameter, bulk density, Xray

density and porosity of the studied samples are increased with both La or Sm

substituted ions. Lattice parameter of both series are slightly decrease with increase x

content. A significant increase in initial permeability about 620 is found in

(Cu0.5Zn0.5Fe1.95)La0.05O4 but increase La content decrease initial permeability. This

enhancement of permeability may be correlated with improved microstructural

features. But the initial permeability decreases with increasing Sm ions in ferrite.

Quality factor signifies the merit of the material from the application point of view.

The dielectric constant is found to decrease continuously with increasing frequency

and remain almost constant at higher frequency range. The dielectric behavior of the

experimental ferrite samples explained on the basis of the mechanism of the dielectric

polarization and conduction process. The decrease of saturation magnetization with

increasing of both rare earth substitutions has been explained on the Neel’s collinear

two sublattices magnetization model and Yafet-Kittels non-collinear magnetization

model.