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Inside Canadian Politics
Inside Canadian Politics
Second Edition

Alex Marland | Jared J. Wesley

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.

Published in Canada by
Oxford University Press
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Don Mills, Ontario M3C 0H5 Canada

www.oupcanada.com

Copyright © Oxford University Press Canada 2020

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted

Database right Oxford University Press (maker)

First Edition published in 2016

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the
appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the
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Every effort has been made to determine and contact copyright holders. In the case of any omissions, the publisher will be pleased to make
suitable acknowledgement in future editions.

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Title: Inside Canadian politics / Alex Marland and Jared J. Wesley.
Names: Marland, Alexander J., 1973- author. | Wesley, Jared J., 1980- author.
Description: Second edition. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20190189932 | Canadiana (ebook) : 20190189940 | ISBN 9780199032624 (softcover) | ISBN 9780199039234
(looseleaf) | ISBN 9780199032679 (EPUB)
Subjects: LCSH: Canada—Politics and government—Textbooks. | LCGFT: Textbooks.
Classification: LCC JL75 .M42 2020 | DDC 320.971—dc23

Cover images: (clockwise from top right) THE CANADIAN PRESS/Andrew Vaughan, ©Marc Bruxelle/Shutterstock, ©Andreas
Prott/Shutterstock, George Rose/Getty Images
Cover design: Laurie McGregor
Interior design: Sherill Chapman
Contents at a Glance
Figures and Tables
Preface
From the Publisher

1 Overview of Canadian Politics

PART I Government and Governance

2 The Constitution

3 Federalism

4 Regionalism and Political Cultures

5 The Executive

6 The Legislature

7 The Justice System

8 Public Policy and the Bureaucracy

PART II Politics and Democracy

9 Political Parties

10 Elections and Voting

11 Media and Communication

12 Interest Groups and Social Movements

13 Diversity and Representation

14 Canada in the World

Appendix First Ministers of Canada

Glossary
Notes
Index
Contents
Figures and Tables
Preface
From the Publisher

1 Overview of Canadian Politics

Inside This Chapter
Inside Canadian Politics
The Politics of Representation
Core Concepts
Indigenous Peoples
Three Elements of Canadian Politics
1. Core Cleavages
2. Key Institutions
3. Historical Evolution
Situating Indigenous Politics
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information

PART I | Government and Governance

2 The Constitution
Inside This Chapter
Inside the Constitution
Key Constitutional Principles
Parliamentary Democracy
Federalism
Indigenous and Treaty Rights
Core Components of the Constitutional Order
Constitutional Laws and Amendments
Constitutional Conventions
Judicial Opinions
The Evolution of the “Living Tree”
The Road to Confederation (pre-1867)
Canadian Confederation (1867)
The Path to Patriating the Constitution (1867–1982)
The Mega-constitutional Period (1982–1995)
The Post-constitutional Period (1995–present)
 The Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Charter Politics
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Lori Turnbull
UP FOR DEBATE: Should it be easier to amend the Canadian constitution?

3 Federalism
Inside This Chapter
Inside Canadian Federalism
The Story of Federalism in Canada
Federalism in Context
The Origins of Canadian Federalism
Distinguishing Features of Canadian Federalism
Federalism within a Constitutional Monarchy
Centralization and Decentralization
The Tools of Federal Power
The Limits of Federal Dominance
Interpretations of Canadian Federalism
Major Models of Federalism
The Politics of Fiscal Federalism
Gaps in the System
Addressing Imbalances
Fiscal Federalism: Is It Working?
Inter-state and Intra-state Federalism in Canada
The Evolution of Canadian Federalism
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Loleen Berdahl
UP FOR DEBATE: Is federalism working in Canada?

4 Regionalism and Political Cultures

Inside This Chapter
Inside Regionalism in Canada
Regionalism and National Identity in Canada
Approaches to the Study of Regionalism
Regional Political Cultures
Types of Canadian Regionalism
Sectionalism, Nationalism, and Secessionism
 Regionalism in Quebec
The Evolution of Regionalism in Canada
Origins of Regionalism
Persistence of Regionalism
Regionalism and National Unity
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: David McGrane
UP FOR DEBATE: Is regionalism pulling Canada apart?

5 The Executive
Inside This Chapter
Inside the Executive
The Executive Branch
The Formal Executive
The Political Executive
Heads of Government
Cabinets
Executive Accountability
Public-Service Management
Central Agencies
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Donald Savoie
UP FOR DEBATE: Do Canadian prime ministers and premiers have too much power?

6 The Legislature
Inside This Chapter
Inside the Legislature
The Structure of Legislatures
The House of Commons and the Senate
Number of Seats in the Parliament of Canada
The Partisan Composition of Elected Assemblies
Legislative Institutions
Legislator Remuneration
The Life of the Legislature
Daily Business
Legislative Committees
The Legislative Process
 Territorial Legislatures
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Jonathan Malloy
UP FOR DEBATE: Is strict party discipline necessary in Canadian legislatures?

7 The Justice System

Inside This Chapter
Inside the Justice System
Principles of Canadian Justice
The Foundations of Canadian Law
Functions and Roles in the Justice System
Ministers of Justice and Public Safety
The Judiciary
Peace Officers
Crown Attorneys
The Structure of the Justice System
The Courts
The Judicial Appointment Process
Law Enforcement
The Correctional System
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Emmett Macfarlane
UP FOR DEBATE: Do mandatory minimum prison sentences go too far?

8 Public Policy and the Bureaucracy

Inside This Chapter
Inside Public Policy and the Bureaucracy
Public Policy and Government
Connecting the Public to Policymaking
The Public-Policy Cycle
The Machinery of Government
Central Agencies
Line Departments
Agencies, Boards, and Commissions
Financial Administration
Deficits and Debt
Funding the Public Service
 Government Revenues
Government Spending
Toward Good Government
Patronage and the Merit Principle
Ethics and Scandal
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Jennifer Robson
UP FOR DEBATE: Should all government jobs be awarded based on merit?

PART II | Politics and Democracy

9 Political Parties
Inside This Chapter
Inside Political Parties
Political Parties in Canada
The Nature and Role of Political Parties
Types of Political Parties
Major and Minor Parties
Party Ideologies
Party Systems in Canada
Federal Party Systems
Provincial Party Systems
The Evolution of Major Parties
The Evolution of Minor Parties
Structure of Political Parties
The Extra-parliamentary Wing
Party Leaders
The Parliamentary Wing
Partisans
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Anna Esselment
UP FOR DEBATE: Should party leaders take bold steps to increase the presence of women and other
Canadians underrepresented in legislatures?

10 Elections and Voting

Inside This Chapter
Inside Elections and Voting
 Democracy in Canada
The Franchise
Election Laws
Election Administration
The Electoral System
Apportionment
Campaign Finance
Party Revenues
Party Spending Limits
Disclosure
Campaigning
National Campaigns
Local Campaigns and Candidates
By-elections
Vote Choice in Canadian Elections
Direct Democracy in Canada
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Mebs Kanji
UP FOR DEBATE: Are election and referendum campaigns mostly a waste of time?

11 Media and Communication

Inside This Chapter
Inside Media and Communication
The Politics of Communication
Media Economics
The News Media Landscape in Canada
Evolution of Canadian Media
Canadian Content
Canadian Political Journalism
Digital Democracy and Transparency
Political Communication Tactics
Public-Opinion Research, Political Marketing, and Message Discipline
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Tamara A. Small
UP FOR DEBATE: Does social media make Canadian democracy better?

12 Interest Groups and Social Movements

 Inside This Chapter
Inside Interest Groups and Social Movements
Pluralism and the Balance of Power
Interest Groups
Interest Group Tactics
Keys to Interest Group Success
Types of Interest Groups
Think Tanks
Social Movements
Hacktivism and Fake News
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Mireille Lalancette
UP FOR DEBATE: Should spending by interest groups be regulated in Canada?

13 Diversity and Representation

Inside This Chapter
Inside Diversity and Representation
Glass Ceilings
Models of Representation
The Canadian Mosaic
Canada’s Democratic Deficit
Barriers to Descriptive Representation
Affirmative Action and Employment Equity
Reasonable Accommodation
Diversity and the Courts
International Commitments to Human Rights
Indigenous Representation in Canada
Definitions and Designations
Demographics and Representation
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Cheryl Collier
UP FOR DEBATE: Should Indigenous and non-Indigenous politics be considered as part of a common
political system?

14 Canada in the World

Inside This Chapter
Inside Canada in the World
Staples Theory and Industrialization
 Canada and the Global Economy
National Security and Defence
Conscription and Peacekeeping
Terrorism
Global Affairs
Diplomacy
The Commonwealth and the Francophonie
International Development
Climate Change
Concluding Thoughts
For More Information
Deeper Inside Canadian Politics
Professor Profile: Miriam Anderson
UP FOR DEBATE: Should Canada give more money for foreign aid?

Appendix First Ministers of Canada

Glossary
Notes
Index
Figures and Tables
Figures
1.1 Mutually Reinforcing Cleavages in Canadian Politics
1.2 Canada: An Infographic
1.3 Map of Canada’s Provinces and Territories
1.4 Variations on the Canadian Flag: (a) the Red Ensign; (b) the Pearson Pennant; (c) the Diefenbaker Proposal;
(d) the Canadian Flag
2.1 Variants of Representative Democracy
2.2 Comparing the Proposed Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords
2.3 The Oakes Test
3.1 Unitary, Federal, and Confederal Systems
3.2 Fiscal Capacity and Equalization, by Province (Fiscal Year 2018–19)
3.3 The Evolution of Vertical Transfers
3.4 The Centralization and Decentralization of the Canadian Federation
4.1 Political Cultures in Canada
4.2 Percentage of People Who Described Their Sense of Belonging as Being Very Strong, by Province
4.3 Events and Leaders in Quebec Nationalism, 1968–95
4.4 The Origins of Regionalism
5.1 Layers of the Executive in Canada
5.2 The Formal and Political Executive in Canada
5.3 Elements of a Ministerial Portfolio
6.1 Characteristics of Federal, Provincial, and Territorial Legislatures
6.2 Majority, Minority, and Coalition Governments
6.3 The Parliamentary Life Cycle
6.4 Weekly House of Commons Timetable
6.5 How a Federal Bill Becomes Law in Canada
7.1 Federal Justice and Public Safety Portfolios
7.2 The Canadian Court System
7.3 Standard Supreme Court Appointment Process
8.1 The Public-Policy Cycle
8.2 Public Policy and the Election Cycle
8.3 Cabinet and Public-Service Managers in Canada
8.4 Federal Government Revenues, 2017–18
8.5 Consolidated Provincial Government Revenues, for Three Provinces
8.6 Federal and Ontario Government Expenditures
9.1 Four Political Ideologies in Canada
9.2 The Canadian Political Spectrum
9.3 The Canadian Federal Party Family Tree
9.4 Typical Structure of Federal Political Parties
10.1 Federal Government Compositions since 1867
10.2 House of Commons Seats of Each Province and Territory
10.3 Canada’s Largest and Smallest Federal Ridings, by Population
10.4 Canadians’ Reasons for Not Voting in a Federal Election
10.5 Turnout in Canadian Federal Elections, 1945–2019
10.6 Canadians Most and Least Likely to Vote
11.1 Government of Canada Media Expenditures by Type—A Five-Year Perspective
11.2 Number of Press Gallery Members, Ottawa and the Provinces
11.3 Roles and Responsibilities of Federal Organizations in Government Advertising
12.1 Spotting Fake News
13.1 The Evolution of National Indigenous Organizations
14.1 Canada’s Top Five Merchandise Trade Partners in 1992
14.2 Canada’s Top Five Merchandise Trade Partners in 2018
14.3 Official Development Assistance (ODA) as a Percentage of Gross National Income (GNI) in G7 Countries

Tables
1.1 Chapter Guide to Core Institutional Features of Canadian Politics in This Book
1.2 Three Eras of Canadian Politics (1867–present)
2.1 Characteristics of Westminster Parliamentary Democracy
2.2 Key Milestones in Canada’s Constitutional Evolution
2.3 The Amending Formula
2.4 Types of Constitutional Rules
3.1 Federal and Provincial Powers in Canada
3.2 Models of Federalism in Canada
4.1 The Varied Characteristics of Canadian Provinces and Territories
4.2 Strains of Canadian Regionalism
4.3 Progress on Quebec’s Five Demands for Constitutional Renewal
4.4 Major Provincial and Territorial Meetings
5.1 Structure of the Executive Council in Federal and Provincial Governments
5.2 Main Cabinet Committees, Government of Canada
6.1 Distribution of Canadian Senators and Members of Parliament
6.2 Composition of Federal and Provincial Governments, 1965–2019
6.3 Additional Remuneration for Extra Positions, Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, 2018
6.4 Summary of Routine Events in the House of Commons
7.1 Public Law and Private Law
7.2 Courts of Law in Canada
8.1 Examples of Government Departments and ABCs
8.2 General Ideological Approaches to Budgeting
9.1 Governing Party and Official Opposition in the 43rd Parliament of Canada
9.2 Other Parties in the 43rd Parliament of Canada
9.3 Results of Pivotal Canadian Federal Elections
9.4 Major and Minor Political Parties with Members in Recent Canadian Provincial/Territorial Legislative
Assemblies
9.5 Name Changes of Major Political Parties in Canada
10.1 Democratic Firsts for Canadian Women
10.2 Examples of Rationale for Current Federal Election Rules
10.3 Key Terms and Officials in Election Administration
10.4 “Wrong” Winners and Losers in Canadian Elections, 1945–2019
10.5 Referendums and Plebiscites in the Canadian Provinces and Territories, since 1980
11.1 Quantitative and Qualitative Public-Opinion Research Tools
12.1 Examples of Canadian Interest Groups and Their Tactics
13.1 Women Who Have Broken Glass Ceilings in Canadian Politics
13.2 Pitkin’s Types of Representation
13.3 Reasonable Accommodation of Minority Language Education
14.1 Canada’s Free-Trade Agreements (FTAs) as of 2019
Preface
Why Getting Inside Canadian Politics Matters
Canadian politics is generally peaceful, respectful of order, and characterized by good government. In other parts of
the world there are pitched political battles: government corruption, fights over inequality, systemic discrimination,
food shortages, human rights abuses, state control of the media, constitutional crises, leadership coups, and civil
wars. Canada features its share of political arguments and struggles. However, compared with most countries,
politics in this country is one of rhythm and predictability.
Approximately every four years Canadians vote in national elections. Three or more main political parties
compete for votes. The parties make campaign promises and, once elected, do relatively little to alter the course of
Canadian history. Governing parties seldom garner the support of half of eligible voters, yet few citizens question
their full authority to lead, even as some call for democratic reform. Prime ministers wield considerable authority in
this system, flanked by supportive ministers and obedient backbench legislators, and a public service that follows a
clear chain of command. Senators, opposition members of the legislature, journalists, activists, and especially
judges hold them in check from time to time. The expression “peace, order, and good government” describes
Canadian political culture for a reason.
This framework allows for the interplay between concepts such as liberalism, regionalism, multiculturalism,
feminism, and colonialism. This makes for intriguing inconsistencies and can produce unexpected alliances in
Canada. Indigenous leaders might dissuade community members from voting in federal, provincial, and territorial
elections. Political elites might struggle to reconcile religious freedoms with individual choice or freedom of
expression with the protection of marginalized groups. The Queen’s representative might be faced with choosing
whether to appoint an opposition leader as first minister or requiring a general election. Age-old conventions such
as cabinet solidarity and party discipline compete with the demands of a shortening news cycle and social media
firestorms. The federal government somehow surmounts trade obstacles with international partners with much
greater ease than lowering barriers among Canadian provinces. With a greater awareness of what happens inside
Canadian politics, you begin to appreciate its complexity and delicate nature.

Structure of Inside Canadian Politics

This thoroughly updated edition of Inside Canadian Politics integrates new information drawn from the period
after Justin Trudeau became Canada’s twenty-third prime minister. Among our objectives in preparing this second
edition was to improve the book’s readability. We rewrote anything in the first edition that we believed was
unnecessarily complex and sought to present it in a clearer fashion. We gave the book a solid edit to cut down on
unnecessary words and slimmed down content and definitions that detract from what students really need to know.
The only names, dates, and numerical data that we kept are ones that we believe readers ought to be aware of. We
prioritized discussing seminal events over recent minutiae that may no longer be relevant by the time you are
reading this book. We expanded concepts and added new ones that deserve more attention. The result, we hope, is
an even more engaging read that is filled with enduring insights that you can apply to other courses and current
events. We are optimistic that this revised edition will equip you with information about Canadian politics and
challenge you to make informed judgements about a variety of topics.
Each chapter begins with some general questions. What are the politics surrounding the Charter of Rights and
Freedoms? How do political cultures vary across the country? How are legislatures structured and organized? How
do governments pay for public-policy initiatives? What types of political parties exist? What kinds of activities
occur during election campaigns? How do social movements impact Canadian politics? How does Canada
participate in improving the global community? These are just some of the many topics explored in the book.
The chapters get you started with a set of three maxims to guide your understanding of the topic being explored.
You should know, for example, that the average citizen has many opportunities to make a difference in Canadian
politics (Chapter 1), that there is much more to the justice system than courtrooms and judges (Chapter 7), that
politicians are not required to answer journalists’ questions (Chapter 11), and that Canada has more success
negotiating free-trade agreements internationally than it does among its own provinces (Chapter 14). These maxims
are useful anchors that help you comprehend the subject matter that follows.
Throughout the book you will notice bolded terms. The bold typeface signals that we believe a concept is worth
knowing. Its definition is found in the page margin and in the glossary of terms at the back of the book.
Periodically you will come across Briefing Note boxes that explain concepts in greater detail.
Stories appear in the Inside Canadian Politics boxes. These features outline concepts in action and show how
politics works in practice. They present useful case studies.
A new feature in the second edition is a Professor Profile section found toward the end of each chapter. We
reached out to a variety of professors across Canada and asked what they remember from their first Canadian
political science course. We wanted to know what attracts them to study politics and what study tips they would
relay to students. These profiles will introduce you to some of the many people who research and teach about topics
that are discussed in this book.
Each chapter concludes with an Up for Debate supplement that outlines a topical controversy and shows how
differing approaches can lead to differences of opinion on divisive issues. You will get the most out of the book and
your course if you engage with others about what you read. These Up for Debate supplements are intended for in-
class discussion and seminar break-outs. We hope you will consider taking the discussion to the coffee shop or bar,
raising it at the kitchen table, or possibly engaging about it in an online forum. We preview each debate topic at the
start of the chapter so you can keep the question in mind as you read.
Throughout the book we treat Indigenous and non-Indigenous politics as part of a common Canadian political
system. We purposely incorporate the discussion of Indigenous politics into the various themes covered in this
book. This approach is an unsettled question among Canadian political scientists and therefore we challenge you to
think critically about this treatment. The Professor Profile in Chapter 1 and the Up for Debate supplement at the
end of Chapter 13 encourage discussion about this issue.
Two resources are presented in the book’s final pages. The First Ministers in Canada appendix lists a
chronology of prime ministers and premiers so that you can situate which leaders and which parties were in power
at a given period. This information can be insightful as you read the book and are trying to understand interparty
and federal-provincial-territorial dynamics at the time of a political event. The Glossary is a convenient reference
tool that compiles all of the definitions of bolded terms. We encourage you to supplement these resources by
consulting the Constitution Act, 1982, and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, 1982, which are easily found
online.

Overview of the Chapters

The core concepts, maxims, stories, and debates will prepare you for delving more deeply inside Canadian politics.
The text is complemented by photographs and cartoons, illustrative charts and figures, and innovative infographics,
all meant to reinforce and build on themes developed in the main narrative. Here is an overview of what you can
expect from each chapter.
Part I focuses on structures of government and governance in Canada. It begins with Chapter 1, which is an
overview of Canadian politics. It will introduce you to fundamental concepts such as democracy, politics, power,
and government. It then delves into three overarching elements that we believe every student should know about
the cleavages, institutions and history of Canadian politics. This includes tracing politics from the mid-1700s to
today. Along the way the chapter touches on fundamentals such as left-wing and right-wing politics, the names of
major Canadian political parties, and the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
Chapter 2 takes you inside Canada’s constitution, examining the democratic principles and institutional
components that lie at its core. You will learn about the intricate compromises and delicate nuances involved in
crafting the country’s highest law. You will read about the perils of constitutional politics in a country challenged
by the often competing demands of federalism and human rights. The chapter concludes with a debate as to
whether changes to the Canadian constitution should be easier to make than current amending formulas allow.
 Chapter 3 examines the structure of Canadian federalism in greater depth, tracing Canada’s evolution from one
of the most highly centralized to one of the most highly decentralized systems in the world. The discussion includes
the politics of fiscal federalism and the tensions that accompany the distribution of wealth among Canadian
governments. This leads to a debate on whether federalism is working.
Chapter 4 applies a sharper geographic lens to our understanding of Canadian politics. With a special focus on
Quebec, it compares the main varieties of regionalism in Canada and discusses their impact on the past, present,
and future of Canadian unity. It explores the forces of political culture across the country. The chapter ends by
asking whether regionalism is pulling Canada apart.
Chapter 5 offers a glimpse inside the seat of power in Canadian politics: the executive. From the Queen and her
representatives, to the prime minister and premiers, to the bureaucracy—all elements of Canada’s executive branch
play leading and interconnected roles. While they provide checks and balances on each other, and while other
institutions are designed to hold them democratically accountable, the question at the conclusion of the chapter
remains valid: do Canadian prime ministers and premiers have too much power?
Chapter 6 throws open the doors of Canada’s legislatures. The discussion goes beyond the process of a bill
becoming law to study the dynamics of partisanship on the rules and business surrounding the legislative process.
In particular, the topic of debate surrounds the necessity of strict party discipline in Parliament and the
provincial/territorial legislatures. This leads to a chapter on the third and final branch of the Canadian political
system.
Chapter 7 goes beyond the conventional examination of the judiciary to expose the inner workings of Canada’s
broader justice system as a whole. After examining the core principles of Canadian justice and the specific,
interconnected roles of judges, Crown attorneys, the police, and corrections officials, the chapter concludes with a
debate on the effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentences for criminal offenders.
Chapter 8 takes us back inside the world of the bureaucracy to address the state of public policy and public
administration in Canada. The conversation ranges from the role of ideology in the development of government
programs and services—those that are part of the social safety net—to the specific processes and challenges
involved in creating or changing elements of public policy. To this end, the chapter closes by asking whether all
government jobs should be based on merit or whether there is room for political patronage.
Chapter 9 opens Part II, on politics and democracy. It kick-starts a series of discussions about electoral politics
and representation in Canada, focusing on political parties. The chapter outlines the various types of political
parties operating in Canada today and traces each party’s roots to the late eighteenth century. Connecting this
conversation to broader issues of democratic diversity, the closing debate surrounds the ability of parties to recruit
members of underrepresented and marginalized groups.
Chapter 10 builds on this discussion, focusing on the fundamental democratic values, ideals, and rules
underpinning Canadian elections. The chapter assesses how well the electoral system, redistricting processes,
campaign finance regulations, and other laws align with the often high-minded norms of democracy. It explores the
factors that influence how people vote. The chapter describes how local and national election and referendum
campaigns are waged, closing with a debate on whether such campaigns even matter to the functioning of Canadian
democracy.
Chapter 11 ties these conversations to the nature of media and political communication in Canada. The
practices and biases of news construction and media management are exposed. An introduction to access to
information is followed by a rare discussion of the strategies and tactics involved in political marketing today. The
capstone debate asks whether social media makes Canadian democracy better or worse.
Chapter 12 steps outside the conventional realm of electoral politics to address the function of political activism
in Canada. The roles of interest groups and social movements are discussed, with a particular focus on their
performance in lobbying governments to effect political change. With this in mind, the chapter asks to what extent
spending by interest groups should be regulated.
Chapter 13 provides a high-level assessment of Canada’s ability to promote diversity and representation for all
its citizens, taking all of the material in the preceding chapters into account. Specifically, it evaluates the state of
Canada’s democratic deficit against the backdrop of the country’s multicultural mosaic and its constitutional
commitment to uphold the inherent right to self-government for Indigenous peoples. The concluding debate asks
whether Indigenous and non-Indigenous politics belong in the same political system.
 Chapter 14 concludes the book by looking at the broadly interconnected themes of political economy, security,
and global affairs. The chapter provides useful perspective on how Canada positions itself in the broader global
community and offers valuable context for the sorts of divisions that define the country’s internal politics. The final
debate of the book asks a pressing question that strikes at the heart of Canadian identity: should Canada give more
money for foreign aid?
Together these chapters provide a high-level glimpse inside the world of Canadian politics. The journey begins
with the structural components—the institutions and other building blocks—of Canadian democracy, gradually
working toward the more behavioural aspects of day-to-day Canadian politics. As you begin learning about
Canadian politics, try complementing what you read in these pages by drawing on current information from news
sources like The Globe and Mail, CBC News, or perhaps The Hill Times. See what’s trending at the #cdnpoli Twitter
hashtag. Talk with your peers to see if they have the same reactions to Canadian news stories and political debates
that you do. Chances are, you will be exposed to different opinions, and you’ll be on your way to getting Inside
Canadian Politics.

A Word of Thanks
A lot of people participate in publishing a textbook like this. We wish to acknowledge the many external referees
across Canada who took time to point out ways to improve the previous edition and who identified opportunities to
adjust the revised manuscript. We are committed to producing a quality book and acted on every suggestion
wherever possible.
We would like to thank all the professors who agreed to be profiled. We have been fortunate to work with many
capable professionals at Oxford University Press, including Stephen Kotowych, Leah-Ann Lymer, Emily Kring,
and Lisa Ball; Susan Bindernagel, copy editor; and student research assistants Clare Buckley, Hannah Loder, and
Rissa Reist.
Finally, we want to thank you for reading. We hope that something in this book will inspire you to get involved
in your political community so that you may learn firsthand about the inner workings of Canadian politics.
From the Publisher
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everywhere of the blessed white horse upon the purple ground, an
ensign given to Dido by the ancient and immortal gods, should
remind each and every one of his duty.
Thus, with the standards gaily fluttering in the breeze from every
eminence, and festoons of flags across the streets, the fair city of
New Carthage looked more like a city celebrating some joyous
festival than a town about to be plunged into all the horrors of a most
bloody combat.
The trained veterans at her disposal did not much exceed some
two thousand men. Fifteen hundred of these Elissa placed under the
orders of a chief named Mago, with instructions to post the greater
number along the walls, both on the land side and the sea side, upon
the battlements of which, at every point, were heaped-up piles of
darts, huge stones, and masses of lead. Moreover, cross-bows,
called scorpions, on account of the sting they discharged in the
shape of a small but deadly missile, were ranged round the walls at
short intervals, with their ammunition placed ready beside them.
The remainder of Mago’s men were stationed either upon the
commanding eastern hill that jutted out into the sea, upon which
stood the temple of Æsculapius, or in the citadel.
Another superior officer whom she had under her orders was
named Armes. Him she posted, with two thousand men of those
whom she had trained from the townspeople, at the gate leading to
the isthmus.
A body of one hundred men of the veterans she reserved to
herself as a personal guard, to accompany her whither she would
throughout the expected siege, and another hundred under old
Captain Gisco she left in charge of the palace and the women
therein. The palace was so situated that it was only immediately in
danger from the sea side on the south-east, where the walls of the
garden formed a part of the actual walls of the city. Upon the other
three sides the high and battlemented walls of the garden were so
placed that, while they overlooked the town, they were quite
separate from its outward defences, and the only entrance upon that
side was a gateway, so defended by a drawbridge over a deep fosse
that a few men could defend it against thousands. The small postern
door on the south-east side, leading to the harbour, Elissa caused to
be barricaded with stones, while the marble steps leading down to
the sea she had partially destroyed and partially blocked up with
strongly tethered masses of the prickly pear cactus which grew so
freely on the cliffs, and which were calculated to form a terrible
obstacle to any escalading foe.
In conclusion Elissa gave instructions for bands of the armed
inhabitants of the town to be placed on the walls at intervals along
the whole of the sea front, which was menaced by the powerful fleet
of Lælius, and upon the land front facing the isthmus, as either of
these parts could, although the walls were very high, be assailed
with scaling ladders. She had thus made the very best disposition of
the small force at her command. One place, however, she failed to
garrison in strength, partly from want of men and partly on account of
its natural strength, and this was where, on the north side of the
isthmus, the lagoon washed the walls of the city. And now, having
done all in her power for the defence, she returned to her palace,
and assembled all the frightened women therein to the morning
repast.
Elissa herself was clad in her war gear, and merely removed her
golden helmet, and cast her beautiful shield, inlaid with its golden
horse, upon one side ere she sank upon one of the silk-cushioned
divans around the board whereon was spread the meal. The eye of
the young maiden was bright, her look determined, and her cheek
flushed with a noble courage. Although still only in her twenty-first
year, she had all the ability and experience of an old commander;
and, noting her confident appearance, her youth was quite forgotten
by the other women present, who looked to her for protection.
One of them was a most lovely maiden named Idalia, a girl of
seventeen summers, with large, dreamy eyes like those of a fawn.
Her beauty was so great, her face such a pure oval and so gentle,
her willowy form so bewitchingly enticing and rounded, that she was
quite the equal in beauty of Elissa herself, although in an entirely
different style. She was, by nature, timorous even as the fawn whom
her eyes resembled.
Rising from her seat, Idalia approached Elissa, whose glorious
masses of dark, ruddy hair, having broken loose from their
restraining fillet, were streaming over the light steel cuirass inlaid
with gold which covered her. The sunlight, breaking in from an open
window behind, shone through the almost black tresses, distinctly
showing up the ruddy lights beneath. Without a word Idalia, whose
eyes were filled with tears, caressingly laid an arm round Elissa’s
neck and kissed her gently, almost reverently. Then, lifting up the
flowing locks, she pressed them also to her lips, then quietly
readjusted them below the silver fillet which had previously
restrained them.
“Wherefore dost thou weep?” exclaimed Elissa kindly, patting the
pale cheek so near her own. “Fear not, we shall beat off the
Romans, and thou shalt come to no harm. So banish these tears; I
will protect thee, pretty one. Come, be reassured by me; do I look
fearful of the result? That thy life shall be safe I warrant thee, for
whoever else may fall, the great goddess Tanais, whose votary thou
art, will surely protect such a beauteous young maid as thou.”
“Oh, Elissa, dear Elissa!” replied the fair maid, in sad but musical
tones, “believe me that I trust in thee and in the goddess Tanais also;
but ’tis not for myself I weep. ’Tis with fear for my beloved Allucius.
Canst thou or the goddess Tanais protect him? Alas! I fear ’tis not in
thy power, and I weep lest he may fall.”
“Allucius, Prince of the Celtiberians, must do his duty with the rest
of us,” rejoined Elissa straightforwardly but not unkindly; “and he
hath a post of honour, since I have placed him as second in
command to Armes at the city gate. But should he fall, he will die a
most honourable death, and one that will be worthy of thee.
Therefore, sweet one, put a more cheerful face upon the matter, I
pray thee, for thou wouldst not have him act the poltroon, and shield
himself behind thy chiton, wouldst thou? But thou canst pray to the
gods for him.”
“Nay, nay,” cried the girl proudly, drawing herself up and dashing
away her tears, “I would not have him other than a noble soldier. I
thank thee for teaching me my duty, Elissa, and I will be brave.”
“I think thou art making a most unnecessary fuss, Idalia,” here
interrupted the Princess Cœcilia spitefully. “What folly thou dost talk
about this Allucius. Why trouble about him at all when thou knowest
that, with thy youth and thy beauty, thou are safe thyself? For the
worst that can happen to thee is that thou mayst fall perchance to
the lot of some Roman noble. Who knows but Scipio might take a
fancy to thee himself. Thou hast already met him, since thou wast
with Elissa at the Court of Syphax.”
“Princess Cœcilia!” exclaimed Idalia.
But Cœcilia continued peevishly in a torrent of words: “Nay,
interrupt me not; I know what thou wouldst say, that ’tis merely for
Elissa he hath come here, and that ’tis on account of her late foolish
coquettings with him in Numidia that all these miseries are come
upon us. For what other reason, save to make her his, hath he come
here to attack us women instead of going to fight Hasdrubal or Mago
as, had he been worth calling a man, he would have done? But fear
not thou, Idalia, those Romans are not particular as to whether they
have one girl or twenty; and since Elissa hath brought him here, and
thou art moreover a worshipper of Tanais, thou wilt doubtless be but
too pleased to save thyself at the expense of thine honour.”
“Princess Cœcilia!” exclaimed Elissa, whose eyes were flaming
with fury as she rose to her feet, “begone! retire to thine apartment,
and see thou stir not thence without mine orders. For despite thy
calumnies, I do much misdoubt me but ’tis thine own traitorous
conduct that hath brought the Romans upon us. Should it prove so,
beware! Cleandra, I beg thee accompany the princess to her
apartment, and give instructions to the palace guard that mine aunt
is to be considered a prisoner.”
“Oh! in sooth, Elissa!” exclaimed the now utterly cowed little
princess, turning pale, “in good sooth, Elissa, thou hast altogether
misunderstood me. I did but speak in jest. Indeed, I did not mean a
word.”
“Begone!” replied Elissa, “I will not hear thee more,” and she
waved her hand to Cleandra to lead her off.
This Cleandra did with some difficulty, for the little woman’s whole
body was now convulsed with sobs, and her knees trembled and
shook so together that she could scarcely stand. It was almost
impossible not to feel pity for her as the huge tears washed the paint
from her now considerably damaged complexion. But Cleandra
obeyed her orders, and then rejoined her mistress and friend, to
whose home in Spain she had voluntarily returned from Carthage
upon her husband’s recent death in a drunken brawl. This she had
done, even although by doing so she was exposing herself to a
renewal of the state of slavery in which she had been before her
departure. But the ties of mutual gratitude that united Elissa and
Cleandra were so great that there could scarcely now be considered
to exist ought save friendship between them.
After this incident the repast proceeded in peace. It was scarcely
concluded when two messengers rushed in, one crying out that the
Romans on the land side were advancing across the isthmus and
threatening the gate, the other that the Roman fleet was also
advancing and the sailors attempting to warp their ships to the base
of the cliff on the seaward side of the city so as to land the marines.
Elissa speedily arose, seized her shield and a sheaf of darts, and
repaired first to the battlements on the seaward side of the palace.
There she saw that the enemy were in the greatest confusion. The
ships were so numerous that they were getting in each other’s way.
There was a great deal of clamour, but owing to the vigorous
defence that was being made, Lælius was not likely for some time to
come to be able to land his men in any numbers upon the sloping
rocks. For the missiles being hurled upon the assailants from the
walls, falling upon the confused ships and boats, were causing the
greatest disorder. Some Carthaginian ships, moreover, which were
lying under the shelter of the walls, were advancing gallantly to a
counter attack, and although their numbers were few, they being only
eighteen, they were able to create an excellent diversion.
Accompanied by her body-guard, the young Regent next hurried
down to the battlements near the main gate of the city. Thence she
beheld the splendid and awe-inspiring sight of the whole of the
Roman army with ensigns flying and eagles displayed, drawn up in
line at some distance behind the bridge which crossed the waters of
the lagoon where it flowed out into the gulf.
The men of this noble army, whose arms and polished shields
were glittering with dazzling brilliancy in the sun, were standing
motionless.
Far in advance of the main body, however, a considerable
detached column of heavy-armed troops, consisting of Hastati,
Principes, and Triarii, in their three lines, were crossing the bridge,
maniple by maniple, and deploying the maniples into line, alternately
to the right and left in succession, as they arrived upon the city side
of the bridge over the narrow channel that traversed the isthmus.
Without a moment’s hesitation, Elissa gave the order from the top of
the ramparts where she was standing to Armes, the tribune
commanding the force of two thousand citizens within the gates, to
engage this attacking column of Romans. With promptitude this
order was obeyed; and sallying forth with gallantry, the troops under
Armes rushed upon the foe. Those who had crossed the bridge
were, with much slaughter, driven backwards, and thrust, either into
the lagoon to the one side, or into the inrunning waters of the gulf on
the other, while the centre of the Romans, falling back upon those
who were still crossing the bridge in rear, created considerable
confusion, and thus the centre also suffered much loss. The whole
body of Romans then fell back gradually towards their own main
body, the Carthaginians crossing the bridge, deploying in turn into
line, and pursuing them.
From her vantage point upon the battlements over the gateway,
Elissa could plainly see the error into which Armes was falling, for
she perceived that the Romans were gradually pushing up more and
more supports from their main body. She therefore sent instant
instructions to Armes to fall back again to the city gates. But her
messenger arrived too late, for before he had reached the
contending forces the largely reinforced Romans were advancing
once more, and, after a terrible hand-to-hand conflict, driving the
Carthaginians back again over the bridge. Armes was now slain; and
although Allucius, the lover of Idalia, made most heroic efforts to rally
the citizens, they were at length driven back headlong up to and
through the city gates, Allucius himself being sorely wounded. The
Romans would have entered the gates with the fugitives, but those
upon the wall commenced casting down a rain of missiles upon
them, causing much loss. Scipio, moreover, who was watching the
contest from a hill called the Hill of Mercury, caused the trumpets to
sound the retreat, for the number of men engaged was far too few,
and had they got through the gate they would have been eaten up
inside.
So the Romans fell back leisurely after a terrible carnage.
 While the remnants of the Carthaginians were rallying within the
walls, Scipio, without giving them time for rest, instantly despatched
a large number of men with scaling ladders to assault that part of the
walls which was situated near the principal gate. He himself followed
to superintend. Racing across the open, carrying the long ladders,
the Romans speedily reared them in a hundred places at once. But
the ladders were scarcely long enough to reach the top; moreover,
Elissa was ever present in person to animate and encourage the
defenders. In many cases the ladders broke with the weight of the
many armed men upon them, who were thus cast headlong; in other
cases, the men at the top became giddy, and fell off, carrying others
with them, while those who actually reached the top of the
battlements were hurled backwards upon their comrades.
Scipio himself, covered by three men armed with linked oblong
shields, to protect him from the vast number of missiles being hurled,
visited every part of the line in turn to encourage his followers; but it
was, he saw, of no use. Elissa, from the top of the ramparts, for her
part soon recognised him. Standing exposed upon the wall, she
cried out to him scornfully by name, saying that she, although only a
woman, had but one shield to his three, and that, nevertheless, she
defied him to single combat. And then she cast several javelines,
accompanying each dart with bitter and mocking remarks; but they
were all warded off by the shields of his three protectors. A second
time was Scipio now compelled to sound a retreat, and this time his
men fell back in confusion. Scipio, however, noticed that now the
time had come for the ebb of the tide from the lagoon, and further,
that a strong north wind was causing the waters to run out very
swiftly.
Therefore, to engage the attention of the triumphant
Carthaginians, he now sent a fresh body of a thousand troops, with
more scaling ladders, to the assault at the same place as before,
while he himself with another large body of men, after a lateral
movement to his left, plunged into the lagoon, crying out to his troops
that Neptune was, as he had foretold, coming to his assistance by
draining off its waters.
The water was not at first more than waist deep, and soon only
knee deep. Therefore, quite unobserved by the combatants near the
gate, he contrived to cross in safety and to mount the walls
unopposed. Then, rushing along the walls with one party, he soon
drove most of the defenders off the ramparts. Another party he sent
to attack the defenders of the gate from the inside. At the same time,
the Romans on the outside, hacking away at the gate with axes, cut
it through, and thus was it captured from within and without at once.
In the meantime, the Romans with the scaling ladders, who had
attacked from the dry land, also got over the walls as the defenders
fell back before Scipio’s party.
The loss on the Carthaginian side was now terrible, as the
Romans, forcing their way into the town by the gate and ramparts
alike, advanced, killing every living creature they met, whether man,
woman, child, or even domestic animals. This was done to strike
terror into the heart of the people, and was an old Roman custom
upon such occasions. Scipio, meanwhile, with a band of warriors
continued to advance along the ramparts, and soon met in hand-to-
hand combat Elissa with her guard. He cried to her to yield, but her
only reply was a dart, which transfixed his shield, for he had now but
one. The terrible hand-to-hand struggle continued on the walls, the
assailants and defenders alike seizing each other by the waist and
casting each other over.
At length, just as Scipio thought he was about to capture Elissa
and her few remaining followers, she gave an order to her men, who,
all turning swiftly, ran until they reached the gate in the wall of the
palace, which they entered, the gate being closed and the
drawbridge raised in the face of the victorious Scipio, who was thus
baulked, for the moment at all events, of his prey. It would, indeed,
have been a triumph for Elissa could she have but continued the
struggle until nightfall. For then she and those with her might have
escaped by a secret path they knew of down the rocks. But it was
not to be! Scarcely had she gained the shelter of the garden when a
storming party of truculent seamen, headed by Caius Lælius himself,
with whom was also Marcus Primus, burst over the walls on the
seaward side. And now another terrible struggle took place—this
time in the garden—the flowers being all trampled down, and the
garden walks and statues being soon covered with blood.
 At length, old Gisco and nearly all her guard being killed, Elissa
herself now quite exhausted, with a javeline transfixed in her
shoulder, resolved to die, sword in hand. She rushed upon Caius
Lælius, calling upon him loudly by name to slay her and so save her
from dishonour. But, her foot slipping in a pool of blood upon some
marble slabs near the fountain, she fell. Caius Lælius himself seized
her, and easily disarming her, made her his prisoner, thus protecting
her from further injury. And then Caius took the palace and all within
it without more bloodshed. For none but women were left alive
inside.
In the meanwhile, Mago and all his remaining men in the citadel
and upon the hill of Æsculapius had surrendered, and after this the
order was given to plunder the town.
Thus did the city of New Carthage fall into the hands of the
Romans under Scipio. He, the gates of the garden being thrown
open to him from within, arrived upon the scene before Elissa had
been removed within the palace walls, and terrible, indeed, was the
scene of carnage that met his view in the once peaceful garden. For,
animated by Elissa’s personal presence, the palace guard and
Elissa’s own body-guard had fought around her with the heroism of
despair. Thus, there were quite as many corpses or wounded men of
the Romans as of the Carthaginians lying about in all directions.
Some even were lying dead or dying, half in and half out of the fish-
pond, the waters of which were crimson with blood, while the gold-
fish, sickened by the gore, were swimming round and round in little
circles, belly uppermost.
In other places the bodies of dead men, some of whom yet
grasped each other by the throat, were half-buried in masses of
geranium or carnation plants, the crimson of whose petals formed
but a variety of colour with the crimson and purple hues of the still
warm life-blood with which the green leaves were all drenched and
befouled. Others, again, in falling, had clasped a standard rose-
bush, and, pulling it down with them, now lay with their pale faces
turned skywards, buried in a mass of sweet-scented roses pressing
against their ghastly cheeks.
Although her left shoulder was pierced and mangled, Elissa’s
wound was not apparently very dangerous. She had retained perfect
consciousness while Caius Lælius extracted the weapon, which he
did by cutting off the haft and drawing the head through; but from the
agony caused by this operation she had swooned and fallen back
insensible only a moment before Scipio arrived upon the scene of
the bloody conflict; and she was now lying as one dead.
 CHAPTER VI.
CŒCILIA’S DEGRADATION.

Scipio burst into the palace garden flushed with the joy of victory,
but when he saw his beloved Elissa lying at his feet, he forgot
everything, save that there lay, apparently lifeless, the body of the
woman whom he loved. He stood for a moment gazing, then angrily
turned upon Lælius.
“What is this, Caius? Hast thou slain her? Thou hast surely not
dared to slay Elissa? But nay, my friend,” he continued, his anger
quickly turning to grief, “I know that thou didst love her even as I did.
Forgive me for thus wronging thee. Give me thy hand, my comrade.”
Then throwing himself upon the ground by her side, Scipio cried:
“Oh, Elissa, my beloved Elissa, art thou dead? for if thou art, then
will I not survive thee! Gone is the glory of my victory! thrice
accursed be the hand that hath struck thee down!”
Gently he raised her in his arms, and, aided by Caius Lælius,
reverently they removed her golden helmet and the corselet of steel
inlaid with gold, beneath which she was clad in but a silken vest of
Tyrian purple, which, being all drenched with blood, they were forced
partly to remove in order to staunch the still flowing gore.
Commanding his followers to fall back to a distance, Scipio
remained upon his knees supporting her, with her beautiful face lying
upon his shoulder; while Caius Lælius brought some water in his
helmet from the waters of the upspringing fountain, which were
fresh, and unstained with blood.
While she was being supported thus, and the two men were
ministering to her, bathing her face and binding up her wound, Elissa
recovered her senses with a sigh.
For a few seconds she did not realise the situation, and remained
motionless, and then the whole sad truth burst upon her. With a bitter
smile she spoke.
“And so it hath then come to pass, oh, Scipio! and thou hast
conquered me and killed my faithful troops, and I am now thy slave. I
have not forgotten! I was but now, even as thou art thyself, a warrior,
then why hast thou removed my harness and exposed my person to
the crowd, and why dost thou embrace me thus, even on the
battlefield itself? Surely ’tis unmanly of thee. Oh, I do hate thee,
Scipio! Release me, I beg of thee, and insult me not in public.”
With a look of repulsion on her beautiful pale face, she turned from
him, and would have withdrawn herself from his embrace, but was
too weak.
“Nay, nay, dear Elissa, mistrust me not,” rejoined Scipio, with the
air not of a conqueror, but of a very suppliant. “Thou dost wrong me.
’Twas but to save thy life that Caius and I alone, both thy friends,
have thus removed thine armour; and even now the joy of seeing
thee living far outweighs the grief caused by the bitterness of thy
words.”
“And so ye are my friends, are ye? Pretty friends, in sooth, to war
upon a woman and murder all my people!” answered Elissa, arguing,
like a woman, unreasonably, and forgetting that all the bloodshed
could have been spared and no lives lost had she but accepted the
offered terms of amnesty.
“Is that, too, a friend?” she asked, pointing with her unwounded
arm to a Roman warrior who, sorely smitten, was lying near, in whom
she recognised Marcus Primus. “Art thou my friend, oh Marcus?
Thou who hast eaten the bread of our hospitality here, but who as a
return did by treachery escape, and lead back an army to slay those
who succoured thee when thou wast wounded and in distress. And
is thy paramour, the Princess Cœcilia, likewise my friend? Oh! I see
it all now, thy pretended suicide arranged with her, and that ’twas she
who taught thee the secret of the lowering of the waters of the
lagoon. If this be friendship, a curse I say upon all such friends! and
may the dreadful and undying curse of all the almighty gods fall upon
both thee and thine accomplice.”
“Nay, curse me not, and I so near death, Elissa,” the young man
replied feebly; and the tears came to his eyes, partly from pain at
witnessing the bitter distress of this noble young woman, partly from
excessive weakness. “I do most deeply grieve for thy sorrow, believe
me, and I have but fought for my country as thou hast so nobly done
for thine. I pray thee, then, remove thine awful curse from the head
of a dying man, or I may not die in peace. Remove that curse, I pray
thee once more, then may we meet as brethren in a country where is
no war, when it shall be thine own time to cross the Styx.”
“I pray the great god Melcareth that that time be now near at hand,
oh, Marcus. In sooth, I feel anew so weak that we may perhaps
cross the Styx together; and since ’twould be strange and sad to
commence a new existence together as enemies, I will even revoke
my curse upon thee, yet not my curse from the head of Cœcilia.”
“Who hath never done thee any wrong, and is most loyal,” replied
the dying Marcus Primus. “I thank thee much, Elissa,” he added, with
a gasp. And then, with this noble lie upon his lips, uttered merely to
save the woman who had loved and befriended him, he gave a long,
sad sigh, and fell back dead.
“Scipio,” quoth Elissa, now very faintly, for she had lost much
blood, “I think I likewise am dying, and ’tis not meet that I should die
thus in the arms of an enemy of my country; therefore, if thou hast
any nobility of soul, thou wilt release me and send for Cleandra, one
of my women. Know this, I do not, nay, I cannot hate thee as I ought.
I might even have loved thee had things been otherwise, for thou art
most wondrous kind; but if thou dost love me, then let me not, for my
country’s sake, for my lover Maharbal’s sake, for mine own honour’s
sake, die thus in thine arms; but yet I thank thee and Lælius
likewise.”
Her last words were scarcely audible.
Scipio, himself nearly as pale as Elissa, pressed one reverent kiss
upon her lips, and murmured:
“I obey thy behest, Elissa.” Then he laid her gently down, and,
leaving Lælius with her, dashed within the palace for the first time,
wandering vaguely about, and calling for the woman named
Cleandra, who was soon brought out to him from among the
captives.
Leading her to Elissa, he gave his fair foe into Cleandra’s charge.
Elissa, now speechless with pain and weakness, yet still sensible,
gave him one look of gratitude, and then closed her eyes. And thus,
with instructions that she should be borne gently into her own
apartments, Scipio left her to see to his troops and to the thousands
of prisoners. The whole scene had not taken more than some ten
minutes.
There was plenty for Scipio to do, for now were all his generals
and captains attending upon him from all parts of the town to ask for
instructions on every subject. Among other points to be decided two
men were brought before him, each a claimant for the mural crown in
gold, promised to the first man who had escaladed the wall.
One of them was Quintus Trebellius, a centurion of the fourth
legion; the other was Sextus Digitius, a seaman; and a hot contest
was on foot between the soldiers of the land forces, and the seamen
and marines of the fleet, who espoused their rival claims with great
warmth.
Although Scipio appointed three commissioners to decide the
case, the contest between the soldiers and the sailors became so
hot that Caius Lælius soon pointed out to his friend and leader that
unless the matter were decided so as to please both parties, a
conflict would probably break out.
Thereupon Scipio showed his tact. Calling both Trebellius and
Digitius before him, he complimented each of them warmly, said he
was convinced that they had both mounted the wall at the same
time, and granted them both mural crowns for valour. To his friend
Lælius he also awarded a mural crown, and gave him besides thirty
head of oxen. Many other rewards he gave to those who had
distinguished themselves. In this way he preserved peace in his
camp, and all were satisfied and pleased with their general.
There was another incident which occurred on the following day,
which did much to enhance young Scipio’s reputation with his troops,
and his popularity with the Iberians, hitherto the allies of Carthage.
From the period when, after the morning repast, Elissa had sallied
forth to repel the stormers, the lovely young girl Idalia had been
missing from the palace. In the confusion of the assault and
subsequent events, none of the frightened women in the palace had
observed her absence, but, once the storm completed and the
Romans masters of the place, the women, who were now prisoners,
noticed that she was no longer among their number.
When on the following morning Scipio was superintending the
division of the enormous plunder among the legions, a small knot of
soldiers were seen approaching him, leading a young girl, who was
thickly veiled from head to foot. Their leader, coming forward to
Scipio, addressed him as follows:
“Oh, Scipio, well is it known throughout the army that thou dost
give great rewards and mete out justice to others, and yet, save the
reward of honour, nought hast thou retained for thine own self. Now
we, some of thy followers, seeing that thou art a young man, and
known from thy youth to love the fair, have discovered a gift which
we would offer unto thee in the shape of a young virgin, who is fit for
a king. For we have thought that such a gift would be acceptable
unto thee. We took the girl yesterday, and she hath been religiously
respected and carefully veiled, lest any of the tribunes or prefects,
seeing her, should have become enamoured of her beauty and taken
her away from us, who would save her for thee.”
The young general’s curiosity was at once excited. Smiling, he
said:
“I thank ye, my men, for your kind thought of your general; but
come, let us see this paragon of beauty. Unveil her.”
When the thick covering which alone concealed the face and form
of the maiden was removed, Scipio and all the officers near him
were simply astounded at the excessive loveliness of the charming
Idalia, who, her eyes suffused with tears and her face and bosom
with burning blushes, stood revealed, trembling before him.
Scipio was moved to pity for her wretched condition.
“By Hymen and Venus! thou hast spoken the truth, my men, and I
do greatly thank ye for this beautiful present. For never save in one
woman alone,”—he was thinking of Elissa—“have I seen aught so
lovely in the human form. My men, since ye have made me the gift, I
shall retain it to do as I choose with, and ye shall be all suitably
rewarded. And were I other than the general commanding the forces,
there is no present which could have been so acceptable. But seeing
that I am the general, it becomes me to use a little self-denial in this
matter. Therefore, lest from gazing too long upon such charms I
should begin to think that I am but a private person who can do as
he chooseth in such a matter, give me that veil.”
Taking the heavy veil he went up to the trembling girl, and
reassuring her kindly, covered her shoulders and limbs with it. At the
same time he gave her a fraternal kiss on the cheek, bidding her not
to fear, for he would be as a brother to her. But Idalia, broken down
with all the suffering and shame that she had undergone, and moved
by Scipio’s unexpected kindness, threw herself down and, clasping
his knees, would have kissed his feet. This he would by no means
allow, but raising her gently, inquired into her condition and the
circumstances attending her capture.
Then the soldiers told him that on the previous day, when the
order had been given for a space to slay every living thing that they
met, but not to begin to plunder until further orders, they had pursued
some fugitives into the porch of a doorway and killed them. Glancing
within a room beyond, they had seen a wounded Iberian chieftain,
and were about to kill him also, but that this maiden had flung her
body full length upon the Iberian, and clung to him so tightly that they
had been unable to slay him without wounding or perhaps slaying
her also. Then had their leader, the same who now had addressed
Scipio, reminded the men that the order was to kill all whom they
should meet in the streets, but that there was no order to slay those
in the houses, and as the young man himself also offered, in the
Latin tongue, a large ransom for his life, they had spared them both.
“In that ye have done well,” said Scipio; “and thy reward shall be
the greater,” continued he to the leader, “for that thou didst exactly
obey and follow out mine orders to the letter. For mine order was
indeed but to slay all living things ye met in the street; there was no
order to slay those in the houses. Now tell the Quæstors, whose duty
it is to take the money for such as are ransomed, where this young
man lies, and when they have rewarded you as I shall direct, ye can
depart, leaving the maiden here.”
So the soldiers all received large sums of money, and their leader
in addition had a magnificent golden ring presented to him, and they
departed rejoicing.
Scipio took Idalia with him to the palace, where Elissa was
delighted to see her once more. Scipio, then sending for Allucius,
prince of the Celtiberians, whose life had been twice saved by his
beautiful lover, first by dragging him when wounded into a house,
and then by covering his body with her own, caused him to be
brought before him in a litter. The ransom for his life was paid by the
father and mother of the maiden, the former being an Iberian noble
and the latter a Carthaginian lady.
When they were all assembled together before him, Scipio handed
over the ransom that had been paid for his life to Allucius as a
wedding portion, and ordered the father and mother to have the
wedding celebrated at once between him and the lovely Idalia,
without even waiting for his recovery from his wound.
The fame of this action soon spread throughout all Spain and
inclined the Iberians greatly to Scipio; but whether he would have
acted thus had it not been for his own great love for Elissa, no man
can tell.
The next few days were passed by the young Roman general in
making arrangements about his prisoners, of whom he disposed in
various ways, generally acting with great leniency to the Iberians,
and pressing all the surviving soldiers of other nationalities into his
own navy, thus largely augmenting his fleet. Of such men and
women as were made slaves he made a suitable disposition,
rewarding his generals and tribunes with the best of each. And thus
Cleandra was presented to Caius Lælius and the other women in the
palace were disposed of according to rank and beauty to the higher
nobles in the army. Of Elissa there was no word said, but it was
understood as a matter of course that she belonged to Scipio
himself. Yet was she treated with all honour. As Lælius remained in
the palace with Scipio, she still had her friend Cleandra to minister to
her; and Scipio himself, much as he longed to see her face again,
refrained entirely from intruding upon her privacy.
One woman there was however in the palace for whom neither the
general nor the admiral felt any goodwill, and this was the Princess
Cœcilia. Young Marcus Primus being dead, there was now none to
speak for her, and both Scipio and Lælius resented the knowledge of
the fact that never could the battlements have been so easily
surmounted or the city captured by the passing of the lagoon had it
not been for the treachery of that woman towards her niece Elissa.
Therefore, at the instance of Lælius, his original proposition, made
in jest at the camp of Tarraco, was carried out. It was resolved that
she should be married to the chief boatswain of the flag-ship. This
man’s name was Valerius, and he was a most truculent-looking
ruffian, of great size. He was much renowned for his bloodthirstiness
in action, but was a good sailor, and extremely feared by all in
authority under him.
To him then was the Princess Cœcilia offered as his wife by his
chief, Caius Lælius. He was given to understand that a lady of such
high rank was offered to him as a reward for his bravery in the
storming of the town. When, moreover, he was promised a
considerable dowry of her own money, as well as her person, he was
both flattered and delighted. He could not speak any language save
Latin, and of that tongue his intended bride did not understand a
word. For the diversion of the nobles in the palace, the marriage
was, despite the pitiable lamentations of the unwilling bride,
celebrated one day with much festivity and license, for much wine
was purposely given to the seamen at the feast that the traitress
might be made to feel her punishment the more. And when night fell
the now drunken boatswain carried off his bride, who had been
forced to attire herself with great splendour, from the palace, where
she had lived for so many years, to a mean fisherman’s cottage by
the port. She had been given to Valerius for the purpose
intentionally, that she might be able to reflect therein at leisure upon
the vicissitudes of life, of which her treachery to her niece had been
the direct cause, and of her own repeated acts of folly that had led to
the treachery. Elissa, who was aware of what was about to take
place, had, although the princess had begged her in their sole
interview to intercede on her behalf, refused absolutely, with the
utmost scorn and loathing to do so. She had, moreover, reproached
her bitterly with being the cause of all the bloodshed and of the loss
of the town and of the enslavement of them all. In conclusion, she
informed Cœcilia that, should she open her lips to mention her name
to Scipio, it would not be to ask for a reconsideration of the matter of
her marriage, but only to beg that he would inflict some far more
terrible punishment.
This was the last time that Elissa and Cœcilia ever met, and from
this time forth the princess disappears entirely from this history, for
her subsequent fate is unknown. One thing only is certain, that when
Caius Lælius sometime later sailed for Italy, the boatswain did not
take his wife with him. So it is probable that he had either drowned
her in the gulf, wrung her neck, or sold her into slavery.
 CHAPTER VII.
A RENUNCIATION.

A few days after the marriage of the boatswain to the unworthy

Princess Cœcilia, Elissa was able to rise from her couch and attire
herself with Cleandra’s aid. Very miserable and down-hearted was
she when, looking forth from that same window whence some years
before she had seen the fleet of the treacherous Carthaginian
Adherbal, she could now see nought but warships flying the Roman
standard. Looking towards the battlements, she saw now, instead of
Carthaginians, only Roman soldiers pacing up and down in their
coats of mail, or resting upon their long pikes and looking out over
the walls. Upon gazing from another window first towards the citadel
and then to the hill of Æsculapius, she saw flying from both, instead
of the white horse on the purple ground, the Roman eagle proudly
displayed.
She groaned aloud and beat her breast, then covering her eyes,
burst into a flood of weeping.
“Oh, Cleandra!” she cried, “it is then indeed a reality, a sad reality!
During my great sickness I have thought almost that ’twas but a bad
dream. But those Roman ensigns, those Roman soldiers
everywhere, are, alas! too convincing. Oh, why are the gods so
cruel? Why was I ever born to experience such bitter and great
humiliation? Oh, hast thou no poison concealed with which I may
end my miserable existence forthwith, rather than live another day to
witness my country’s shame and endure mine own dishonour? Give
me but a dagger or a sword that I may slay myself, for live I cannot! I
long for instant death.”
“Nonsense, dear Elissa,” said Cleandra. “To talk of death at thine
age is but folly. Thou must live, if only in the hopes that the day may
come when thou shalt see fortune’s wheel spin back the other way
again. Thou must live if only for the sake of thy country, to whom
thou mayst bring some succour living, but to whom thou wilt be
assuredly most useless dead. Besides, I have no poison to give