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ONE OF TEN BILLION EARTHS

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi

ONE OF TEN
BILLION
EARTHS
How We Learn about Our Planet’s Past
and Future from Distant Exoplanets

Karel Schrijver

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi

3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Karel Schrijver 2018
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2018
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017962705
ISBN 978-0-19-879989-4
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198799894.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi

Preface

This book is a journey to planets near and far, to explore their

habitability, their past and their future, and in particular it is about
the Earth-like planets and, above all, Earth itself. This is not only a
trek through the Solar System and some of the exoplanet systems,
but also an expedition through what astronomers have learned
about them and how they learned it all.
For millennia humans have forged fairly complex societies,
with cities full of specialized citizens, from farmers to sailors, from
architects to soldiers. As far as our understanding of the heav-
ens was concerned, however, we did not progress much beyond
looking at the stars and wondering what they were, including the
few wandering stars that were later identified as planets, while still
often considering the sky thronged with divine beings and filled
with heralds of things to come. Knowledge about the Universe
increased very slowly, beginning to accelerate in the late-medieval
Renaissance, the “rebirth” of inquisitive, critical thinking. But it
was not until around 1920 that we began to understand what a star
really is and how it can shine for so long and so brightly, because
for that we needed to develop, among other things, the science of
nuclear physics.
Disciplines of science initially move slowly, then can accelerate
to an astonishing pace as two things happen. First, we see that as
the network of observable or understood phenomena grows—
through the development of instruments, methodologies, theo-
ries, and in recent decades computers—more connections can be
made to create additional new insights. The bigger that network
is, the faster it can add new links of understanding. Second, a
rapidly advancing field attracts new generations of curious sci-
entists with fresh ideas and perspectives, as well as funding to
support them.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi

vi Preface

Thus it came to be that within a few decades from the discovery

of radioactivity at the very end of the nineteenth century we
mostly understood the lives and deaths of all the stars in all their
various forms. Another such leap occurred around the transition
into the twenty-first century. It was not until 1995, with the
use of newly devised, sensitive instruments, that the very first
solid evidence was found of a distant planetary system like our
own. Over the following twenty years, we came to know that
planets outside the Solar System, known as exoplanets, are more
common than the stars themselves that they orbit.
The story of the Solar System and that of other planetary
systems illustrates how the science of astrophysics works and why
the world around us looks the way it does. This story rests on facts
of nature—as scientific stories should—but a long list of facts
alone does not make for a good story. So, these facts are brought to
life by how they were discovered and by what they teach us about
the Universe. I hope this exploration will reveal to you as it did to
me some of the beauty and diversity of the Universe in which we
live, the unfolding story of astrophysical approaches, and the way
our imagination pushes back the frontier of knowledge about our
planetary system and the billions of others that surround us.
Astrophysics, like all physics, is about interpreting what
we observe in the context of other things, whether they are
occasional similarities or are rules so frequently encountered and
tested that they are viewed as “laws”: gravity, electromagnetism,
relativity, quantum mechanics, thermodynamics, etc. The story
of our Solar System and of other planetary systems is about
understanding phenomena based on the combination of all
things relevant to that understanding. It is, obviously, hard to
know what is relevant before it is understood, and it is impossible
(and boring) to provide all the facts without any context. I have
had to choose what to present when, and in what context. But
I did want to preserve some of the excitement of the hunt for
understanding that all astronomers share. I hope to have found a
comprehensible balance.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi

Preface vii

The technical details and quotes found in the book are sup-
ported by a “further reading” section for each chapter at the end
of the book. Many of the references in these sections are published
in the professional literature, written by and for astrophysicists.
Often access is restricted to those with library subscriptions or
granted only after payment. However, many modern-day authors
submit copies of their work to preprint servers where they can
be accessed for free, although generally in a form that predates
the final editing. The one most commonly used in astrophysics is
https://arxiv.org; where available, the reading list entry includes
the link to the arχ iv entry. The astrophysical literature can be
searched most readily with the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data
System (http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu), which enables a look
through the papers that it references and papers that cite it. As
added benefit, it provides one-click access to any papers that were
submitted to the arχ iv preprint server.
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi

Contents

1. From One to Astronomical 1

Galaxies, stars, planets, and more • The first cool-star exoplanet,
in Florence • Transformation and the principles of uniformity
and mediocrity • Planet detectives • Familiar with unfamiliar
worlds? • Faraway suns • Advancing astrophysics • Tools of
science • Anonymous renown • Competitors in a team
effort • Narrowing in on the Goldilocks zone
2. One Step Short of Life 41
In a planetary system far, far away . . . • “Don’t you ever wonder
where everybody is?” • Looking for life • The Drake and Rare
Earth equations • The communication challenge • Is
disequilibrium a signature of life? • Where to start?
3. Exploring the Solar System 64
Where did it all end up? • How far to the Sun? •
A manifest of mass • The composition of major and minor
planets • Expeditions to the neighbors • Synchronizing the
Moon • Voyagers, explorers, rovers, and probes • Sounding
Earth • The stories of impacts • The tales of comets • Water in
the Solar System • Spinning and orbiting • Patterns in orbits
within the Solar System • The active Sun • Characteristics of
our Solar System
4. Exoplanet Systems and Their Stars 126
The diversity of worlds • Recognizing biases and the patterns
in exosystems • Detecting exoplanets • A most unlikely place •
A most unlikely place, again • Observing transits • Attributes of
exoplanets and exoplanetary systems • Multiple suns • Patterns
in orbits of exosystems • Characterizing planetary systems
in general • Surprises, composure, the sales pitch, and
enthusiasm
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi

x Contents

5. The Birth of Stars and Planets 167

The dawn of the beginning • Bold ideas • The makings
of planets and stars • Nuclear power and the ingredients
of apple pie • Veiled nurseries • Population studies and
polychromatic imaging • Team science • Genesis of a
star and its entourage • Some not-quite stars among the
genuine ones • Assembling elements • Distance
markers • Born together, different lives • Ancient
worlds • Processes of formation • Orbit migration,
the snow line, and time
6. Drifting Through a Planetary System 219
Intuition in science • The changing orbits of
planets • The problem with Mars • Resonant clocks and
planetary orbits • Testing the scenarios and Earth’s water
content • Instabilities and bombardments • Characteristics
of planetary systems
7. Lone Rovers 251
A nearby supernova? • Signatures of a primeval
explosion • Ancient meteorites • Discoveries from
the Lunatic Asylum • The disintegration of the
nursery • The effects of stellar neighbors • Exoplanets
floating between the stars • Thrown out of the
system • What is it like on a nomad planet?
8. Aged Stars and Disrupted Exosystems 282
The tool of light • The contamination of white
dwarfs • The composition of shredded planets • How
can exoplanet remains fall into a white dwarf? • A preview
of the future • The rings of white dwarfs
9. The Worlds of Exoplanets 303
The environment on exoplanets • Visualizing the
landscape • The assortment of worlds • Constraining
exoplanet interiors • Internal structure and history of
formation • The diversity of worlds, revisited
10. Habitability of Planets and Moons 343
First stop: Titan • Ancient life! Future life? • Second
stop: Venus • Third stop: Mars • Magnetism and lost
oceans • Fourth stop: GJ581d, unconfirmed • The challenge
of exoplanet climatology
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi

Contents xi

11. The Long View of Planetary Systems 372

Populations of exosystems • The life cycle of a planetary
system • How will it all end?
12. Living on a Pale Blue Dot 387
Interdisciplinary discipline • Habitability, photosynthesis, and
volcanism • Bringing it home • Tipping points • Snowball
Earth • Same Earth, different Earth • The climate of
life • How does our Solar System compare? • Earth: common
and exceptional • The prolonged transience of our yin-yang
home

Further Reading 413

Acknowledgments 445
List of Illustrations 447
Web Resources 450
Index 451
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 24/4/2018, SPi
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 1 Earth and Moon from a million miles away (see Figure 1.2 on
page 7)

Plate 2 Artist’s impression of an icy exoplanet near a cool dwarf star

(see Figure 1.4 on page 18)
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 3 Earthrise over the Smyth’s Sea region on the near side of the
Moon (see Figure 3.1 on page 65)

Plate 4 Visualization of TRAPPIST-1 (see Figure 4.4 on page 137)

 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 5 Sun, Jupiter, Earth, and Ceres to scale (see Figure 3.3 on
page 75)
3
4

Plate 6 Doppler effect during an exoplanet transit of a rotating star (see

Figure 4.6 on page 158)
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 7 Moons of the Solar System (see Figure 3.4 on page 77)

Plate 8 Solar System planets to scale (see Figure 5.9 on page 212)
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 9 Apollo 17 Lunar Roving Vehicle at Shorty Crater (see Figure 3.7
on page 86)

Plate 10 Comet McNaught (see Figure 3.12 on page 108)

OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 11 Galaxies Messier 51A and B (see Figure 5.1 on page 171)
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 12 Forming star HH 24 inside the Orion B molecular cloud com-

plex (see Figure 5.2 on page 182)

Plate 13 Open cluster Pismis 24 (see Figure 5.3 on page 183)

 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 14 Stellar disk with gaps around HL Tauri (see Figure 5.4 on
page 187)

Plate 15 Evolution of the Sun (see Figure 5.5 on page 196)

 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 16 Planetary nebula NGC 2440 (see Figure 5.6 on page 197)

Plate 17 Supernova remnant Cassiopeia A (see Figure 5.7 on page 200)

 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 18 Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (see Figure 5.8 on page 204)

Plate 19 Chondrules in a fragment of the Chelyabinsk meteorite (see

Figure 7.1 on page 257)
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 20 A segment of the Eagle Nebula (M16) (see Figure 7.3 on

page 265)

Plate 21 Gravitational lensing (see Figure 7.4 on page 273)

 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 22 Surfaces in the Solar System: Itokawa, Moon, Venus (see Figure
9.1 on page 306)

Plate 23 Aurora seen from space (see Figure 10.5 on page 362)
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 24 Surfaces in the Solar System: Mars, Titan, Earth (see Figure 9.2
on page 307)

Plate 25 A volcanic eruption on Jupiter’s moon Io (see Figure 12.2 on

page 394)
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 26 Saturn’s moon Titan (see Figure 10.1 on page 350)

Plate 27 Sojourner and Mars Pathfinder on Mars (see Figure 10.2 on

page 355)
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 28 The Sun in visible light (see Figure 10.3 on page 358)

Plate 29 The Sun in extreme ultraviolet light (see Figure 10.4 on

page 359)
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 18/4/2018, SPi

Plate 30 Colliding galaxies (see Figure 11.1 on page 384)

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were regular carpenters—privileged men. There was no time for a
raw hand to learn anything. Every man had to do that which he knew
how to do, and in entering the yard Mr. Gardiner had directed me to
do whatever the carpenters told me to do. This was placing me at
the beck and call of about seventy-five men. I was to regard all these
as my masters. Their word was to be my law. My situation was a
trying one. I was called a dozen ways in the space of a single
minute. I needed a dozen pairs of hands. Three or four voices would
strike my ear at the same moment. It was “Fred, come help me to
cant this timber here,”—“Fred, come carry this timber
yonder,”—“Fred, bring that roller here,”—“Fred, go get a fresh can of
water,”—“Fred, come help saw off the end of this timber,”—“Fred, go
quick and get the crow-bar,”—“Fred, hold on the end of this
fall,”—“Fred, go to the blacksmith’s shop and get a new
punch,”—“Halloo, Fred! run and bring me a cold-chisel,”—“I say,
Fred, bear a hand, and get up a fire under the steam-box as quick as
lightning,”—“Hullo, nigger! come turn this grindstone,”—“Come,
come; move, move! and bowse this timber forward,”—“I say, darkey,
blast your eyes! why don’t you heat up some pitch?”—“Halloo!
halloo! halloo! (three voices at the same time)”—“Come here; go
there; hold on where you are. D——n you, if you move I’ll knock your
brains out!” Such, my dear reader, is a glance at the school which
was mine during the first eight months of my stay at Gardiner’s ship-
yard. At the end of eight months Master Hugh refused longer to allow
me to remain with Gardiner. The circumstances which led to this
refusal was the committing of an outrage upon me, by the white
apprentices of the ship-yard. The fight was a desperate one, and I
came out of it shockingly mangled. I was cut and bruised in sundry
places, and my left eye was nearly knocked out of its socket. The
facts which led to this brutal outrage upon me, illustrate a phase of
slavery which was destined to become an important element in the
overthrow of the slave system, and I may therefore state them with
some minuteness. That phase was this—the conflict of slavery with
the interests of white mechanics and laborers. In the country this
conflict was not so apparent; but in cities, such as Baltimore,
Richmond, New Orleans, Mobile, etc., it was seen pretty clearly. The
slaveholders, with a craftiness peculiar to themselves, by
encouraging the enmity of the poor laboring white man against the
blacks, succeeded in making the said white man almost as much a
slave as the black slave himself. The difference between the white
slave and the black slave was this: the latter belonged to one
slaveholder, and the former belonged to the slaveholders collectively.
The white slave had taken from him by indirection what the black
slave had taken from him directly and without ceremony. Both were
plundered, and by the same plunderers. The slave was robbed by
his master of all his earnings, above what was required for his bare
physical necessities, and the white laboring man was robbed by the
slave system, of the just results of his labor, because he was flung
into competition with a class of laborers who worked without wages.
The slaveholders blinded them to this competition by keeping alive
their prejudice against the slaves as men—not against them as
slaves. They appealed to their pride, often denouncing emancipation
as tending to place the white working man on an equality with
negroes, and by this means they succeeded in drawing off the minds
of the poor whites from the real fact, that by the rich slave-master,
they were already regarded as but a single remove from equality
with the slave. The impression was cunningly made that slavery was
the only power that could prevent the laboring white man from falling
to the level of the slave’s poverty and degradation. To make this
enmity deep and broad between the slave and the poor white man,
the latter was allowed to abuse and whip the former without
hindrance. But, as I have said, this state of affairs prevailed mostly in
the country. In the city of Baltimore there were not unfrequent
murmurs that educating slaves to be mechanics might, in the end,
give slave-masters power to dispose altogether with the services of
the poor white man. But with characteristic dread of offending the
slaveholders, these poor white mechanics in Mr. Gardiner’s ship-
yard, instead of applying the natural, honest remedy for the
apprehended evil, and objecting at once to work there by the side of
slaves, made a cowardly attack upon the free colored mechanics,
saying they were eating the bread which should be eaten by
American freemen, and swearing that they would not work with
them. The feeling was really against having their labor brought into
competition with that of the colored freeman, and aimed to prevent
him from serving himself, in the evening of life, with the trade with
which he had served his master, during the more vigorous portion of
his days. Had they succeeded in driving the black freemen out of the
ship-yard, they would have determined also upon the removal of the
black slaves. The feeling was very bitter toward all colored people in
Baltimore about this time (1836), and they—free and slave—suffered
all manner of insult and wrong.
Until a very little while before I went there white and black
carpenters worked side by side in the ship-yards of Mr. Gardiner, Mr.
Duncan, Mr. Walter Price, and Mr. Robb. Nobody seemed to see any
impropriety in it. Some of the blacks were first rate workmen and
were given jobs requiring the highest skill. All at once, however, the
white carpenters knocked off and swore that they would no longer
work on the same stage with negroes. Taking advantage of the
heavy contract resting upon Mr. Gardiner to have the vessels for
Mexico ready to launch in July, and of the difficulty of getting other
hands at that season of the year, they swore they would not strike
another blow for him unless he would discharge his free colored
workmen. Now, although this movement did not extend to me in
form, it did reach me in fact. The spirit which it awakened was one of
malice and bitterness toward colored people generally, and I
suffered with the rest, and suffered severely. My fellow-apprentices
very soon began to feel it to be degrading to work with me. They
began to put on high looks and to talk contemptuously and
maliciously of “the niggers,” saying that they would take the
“country,” that they “ought to be killed.” Encouraged by workmen
who, knowing me to be a slave, made no issue with Mr. Gardiner
about my being there, these young men did their utmost to make it
impossible for me to stay. They seldom called me to do anything
without coupling the call with a curse, and Edward North, the biggest
in everything, rascality included, ventured to strike me, whereupon I
picked him up and threw him into the dock. Whenever any of them
struck me I struck back again, regardless of consequences. I could
manage any of them singly, and so long as I could keep them from
combining I got on very well. In the conflict which ended my stay at
Mr. Gardiner’s I was beset by four of them at once—Ned North, Ned
Hays, Bill Stewart, and Tom Humphreys. Two of them were as large
as myself, and they came near killing me, in broad daylight. One
came in front, armed with a brick; there was one at each side and
one behind, and they closed up all around me. I was struck on all
sides; and while I was attending to those in front I received a blow on
my head from behind, dealt with a heavy hand-spike. I was
completely stunned by the blow, and fell heavily on the ground
among the timbers. Taking advantage of my fall they rushed upon
me and began to pound me with their fists. I let them lay on for a
while after I came to myself, with a view of gaining strength. They did
me little damage so far; but finally getting tired of that sport I gave a
sudden surge, and despite their weight I rose to my hands and
knees. Just as I did this one of their number planted a blow with his
boot in my left eye, which for a time seemed to have burst my eye-
ball. When they saw my eye completely closed, my face covered
with blood, and I staggering under the stunning blows they had given
me, they left me. As soon as I gathered strength I picked up the
hand-spike and madly enough attempted to pursue them; but here
the carpenters interfered and compelled me to give up my pursuit. It
was impossible to stand against so many.
Dear reader, you can hardly believe the statement, but it is true,
and therefore I write it down; no fewer than fifty white men stood by
and saw this brutal and shameful outrage committed, and not a man
of them all interposed a single word of mercy. There were four
against one, and that one’s face was beaten and battered most
horribly, and no one said, “that is enough;” but some cried out, “Kill
him! kill him! kill the d——n nigger! knock his brains out! he struck a
white person!” I mention this inhuman outcry to show the character
of the men and the spirit of the times at Gardiner’s ship-yard; and,
indeed, in Baltimore generally, in 1836. As I look back to this period,
I am almost amazed that I was not murdered outright, so murderous
was the spirit which prevailed there. On two other occasions while
there I came near losing my life, on one of which I was driving bolts
in the hold through the keelson with Hays. In its course the bolt bent.
Hays cursed me, and said that it was my blow which bent the bolt. I
denied this, and charged it upon him. In a fit of rage he seized an
adze and darted toward me. I met him with a maul and parried his
blow, or I should have lost my life.
 After the united attack of North, Stewart, Hays, and Humphreys,
finding that the carpenters were as bitter toward me as the
apprentices, and that the latter were probably set on by the former, I
found my only chance for life was in flight. I succeeded in getting
away without an additional blow. To strike a white man was death by
lynch law, in Gardiner’s ship-yard; nor was there much of any other
law toward the colored people at that time in any other part of
Maryland.
After making my escape from the ship-yard I went straight home
and related my story to Master Hugh; and to his credit I say it, that
his conduct, though he was not a religious man, was every way more
humane than that of his brother Thomas, when I went to him in a
somewhat similar plight, from the hands of his “Brother Edward
Covey.” Master Hugh listened attentively to my narration of the
circumstances leading to the ruffianly assault, and gave many
evidences of his strong indignation at what was done. He was a
rough but manly-hearted fellow, and at this time his best nature
showed itself.
The heart of my once kind mistress Sophia was again melted in
pity towards me. My puffed-out eye and my scarred and blood-
covered face moved the dear lady to tears. She kindly drew a chair
by me, and with friendly and consoling words, she took water and
washed the blood from my face. No mother’s hand could have been
more tender than hers. She bound up my head and covered my
wounded eye with a lean piece of fresh beef. It was almost
compensation for all I suffered that it occasioned the manifestation
once more of the originally characteristic kindness of my mistress.
Her affectionate heart was not yet dead, though much hardened by
time and circumstances.
As for Master Hugh he was furious, and gave expression to his
feelings in the forms of speech usual in that locality. He poured
curses on the whole of the ship-yard company, and swore that he
would have satisfaction. His indignation was really strong and
healthy; but unfortunately it resulted from the thought that his rights
of property, in my person, had not been respected, more than from
any sense of the outrage perpetrated upon me as a man. I had
reason to think this from the fact that he could, himself, beat and
mangle when it suited him to do so.
Bent on having satisfaction, as he said, just as soon as I got a
little the better of my bruises Master Hugh took me to Esquire
Watson’s office on Bond street, Fell’s Point, with a view to procuring
the arrest of those who had assaulted me. He related the outrage to
the magistrate as I had related it to him, and seemed to expect that a
warrant would at once be issued for the arrest of the lawless ruffians.
Mr. Watson heard all he had to say, then coolly inquired, “Mr. Auld,
who saw this assault of which you speak?” “It was done, sir, in the
presence of a ship-yard full of hands.” “Sir,” said Mr. Watson, “I am
sorry, but I cannot move in this matter, except upon the oath of white
witnesses.” “But here’s the boy; look at his head and face,” said the
excited Master Hugh; “they show what has been done.” But Watson
insisted that he was not authorized to do anything, unless white
witnesses of the transaction would come forward and testify to what
had taken place. He could issue no warrant on my word, against
white persons, and if I had been killed in the presence of a thousand
blacks, their testimony combined would have been insufficient to
condemn a single murderer. Master Hugh was compelled to say, for
once, that this state of things was too bad, and he left the office of
the magistrate disgusted.
Of course it was impossible to get any white man to testify
against my assailants. The carpenters saw what was done; but the
actors were but the agents of their malice, and did only what the
carpenters sanctioned. They had cried with one accord, “Kill the
nigger! kill the nigger!” Even those who may have pitied me, if any
such were among them, lacked the moral courage to volunteer their
evidence. The slightest show of sympathy or justice toward a person
of color was denounced as abolitionism; and the name of abolitionist
subjected its bearer to frightful liabilities. “D——n abolitionists,” and
“kill the niggers,” were the watch-words of the foul-mouthed ruffians
of those days. Nothing was done, and probably there would not have
been had I been killed in the affray. The laws and the morals of the
Christian city of Baltimore afforded no protection to the sable
denizens of that city.
 Master Hugh, on finding he could get no redress for the cruel
wrong, withdrew me from the employment of Mr. Gardiner and took
me into his own family, Mrs. Auld kindly taking care of me and
dressing my wounds until they were healed and I was ready to go to
work again.
While I was on the Eastern Shore, Master Hugh had met with
reverses which overthrew his business; and he had given up ship-
building in his own yard, on the City Block, and was now acting as
foreman of Mr. Walter Price. The best he could do for me was to take
me into Mr. Price’s yard, and afford me the facilities there for
completing the trade which I began to learn at Gardiner’s. Here I
rapidly became expert in the use of calker’s tools, and in the course
of a single year, I was able to command the highest wages paid to
journeymen calkers in Baltimore.
The reader will observe that I was now of some pecuniary value
to my master. During the busy season I was bringing six and seven
dollars per week. I have sometimes brought him as much as nine
dollars a week, for the wages were a dollar and a half per day.
After learning to calk, I sought my own employment, made my
own contracts, and collected my own earnings—giving Master Hugh
no trouble in any part of the transactions to which I was a party.
Here, then, were better days for the Eastern Shore slave. I was
free from the vexatious assaults of the apprentices at Mr. Gardiner’s,
and free from the perils of plantation life, and once more in favorable
condition to increase my little stock of education, which had been at
a dead stand since my removal from Baltimore. I had on the Eastern
Shore been only a teacher, when in company with other slaves, but
now there were colored persons here who could instruct me. Many
of the young calkers could read, write, and cipher. Some of them had
high notions about mental improvement, and the free ones on Fell’s
Point organized what they called the “East Baltimore Mental
Improvement Society.” To this society, notwithstanding it was
intended that only free persons should attach themselves, I was
admitted, and was several times assigned a prominent part in its
debates. I owe much to the society of these young men.
 The reader already knows enough of the ill effects of good
treatment on a slave to anticipate what was now the case in my
improved condition. It was not long before I began to show signs of
disquiet with slavery, and to look around for means to get out of it by
the shortest route. I was living among freemen, and was in all
respects equal to them by nature and attainments. Why should I be a
slave? There was no reason why I should be the thrall of any man.
Besides, I was now getting, as I have said, a dollar and fifty cents
per day. I contracted for it, worked for it, collected it; it was paid to
me, and it was rightfully my own; and yet upon every returning
Saturday night, this money—my own hard earnings, every cent of it
—was demanded of me and taken from me by Master Hugh. He did
not earn it; he had no hand in earning it; why, then, should he have
it? I owed him nothing. He had given me no schooling, and I had
received from him only my food and raiment; and for these my
services were supposed to pay from the first. The right to take my
earnings was the right of the robber. He had the power to compel me
to give him the fruits of my labor, and this power was his only right in
the case. I became more and more dissatisfied with this state of
things, and in so becoming I only gave proof of the same human
nature which every reader of this chapter in my life—slaveholder, or
non-slaveholder—is conscious of possessing.
To make a contented slave, you must make a thoughtless one. It
is necessary to darken his moral and mental vision, and, as far as
possible, to annihilate his power of reason. He must be able to
detect no inconsistencies in slavery. The man who takes his
earnings must be able to convince him that he has a perfect right to
do so. It must not depend upon mere force: the slave must know no
higher law than his master’s will. The whole relationship must not
only demonstrate to his mind its necessity, but its absolute
rightfulness. If there be one crevice through which a single drop can
fall, it will certainly rust off the slave’s chain.
 CHAPTER XXI.
ESCAPE FROM SLAVERY.

Closing incidents in my “Life as a Slave”—Discontent—Suspicions—Master’s

generosity—Difficulties in the way of escape—Plan to obtain money—
Allowed to hire my time—A gleam of hope—Attend camp-meeting—Anger
of Master Hugh—The result—Plans of escape—Day for departure fixed—
Harassing doubts and fears—Painful thoughts of separation from friends.

MY condition during the year of my escape (1838) was

comparatively a free and easy one, so far, at least, as the wants of
the physical man were concerned; but the reader will bear in mind
that my troubles from the beginning had been less physical than
mental, and he will thus be prepared to find that slave life was
adding nothing to its charms for me as I grew older, and became
more and more acquainted with it. The practice from week to week
of openly robbing me of all my earnings, kept the nature and
character of slavery constantly before me. I could be robbed by
indirection, but this was too open and barefaced to be endured. I
could see no reason why I should, at the end of each week, pour the
reward of my honest toil into the purse of my master. My obligation to
do this vexed me, and the manner in which Master Hugh received
my wages vexed me yet more. Carefully counting the money, and
rolling it out dollar by dollar, he would look me in the face as if he
would search my heart as well as my pocket, and reproachfully ask
me, “Is that all?”—implying that I had perhaps kept back part of my
wages; or, if not so, the demand was made possibly to make me feel
that after all, I was an “unprofitable servant.” Draining me of the last
cent of my hard earnings, he would, however, occasionally, when I
brought home an extra large sum, dole out to me a sixpence or a
shilling, with a view, perhaps, of kindling up my gratitude. But it had
the opposite effect; it was an admission of my right to the whole sum.
The fact that he gave me any part of my wages, was proof that he
suspected I had a right to the whole of them; and I always felt
uncomfortable after having received anything in this way, lest his
giving me a few cents might possibly ease his conscience, and make
him feel himself to be a pretty honorable robber after all.
Held to a strict account, and kept under a close watch,—the old
suspicion of my running away not having been entirely removed,—to
accomplish my escape seemed a very difficult thing. The railroad
from Baltimore to Philadelphia was under regulations so stringent
that even free colored travelers were almost excluded. They must
have free papers; they must be measured and carefully examined
before they could enter the cars, and could go only in the day time;
even when so examined. The steamboats were under regulations
equally stringent. And still more, and worse than all, all the great
turnpikes leading northward were beset with kidnappers; a class of
men who watched the newspapers for advertisements for runaway
slaves, thus making their living by the accursed reward of slave-
hunting.
My discontent grew upon me, and I was on a constant lookout
for means to get away. With money I could easily have managed the
matter, and from this consideration I hit upon the plan of soliciting the
privilege of hiring my time. It was quite common in Baltimore to allow
slaves this privilege, and was the practice also in New Orleans. A
slave who was considered trustworthy could, by paying his master a
definite sum regularly, at the end of each week, dispose of his time
as he liked. It so happened that I was not in very good odor, and I
was far from being a trustworthy slave. Nevertheless, I watched my
opportunity when Master Thomas came to Baltimore (for I was still
his property, Hugh only acting as his agent) in the spring of 1838, to
purchase his spring supply of goods, and applied to him directly for
the much-coveted privilege of hiring my time. This request Master
Thomas unhesitatingly refused to grant; and he charged me, with
some sternness, with inventing this stratagem to make my escape.
He told me I could go nowhere but he would catch me; and, in the
event of my running away, I might be assured he should spare no
pains in his efforts to recapture me. He recounted, with a good deal
of eloquence, the many kind offices he had done me, and exhorted
me to be contented and obedient. “Lay out no plans for the future,”
said he; “if you behave yourself properly, I will take care of you.”
Now, kind and considerate as this offer was, it failed to soothe me
into repose. In spite of all Master Thomas had said, and in spite of
my own efforts to the contrary, the injustice and wickedness of
slavery was always uppermost in my thoughts, strengthening my
purpose to make my escape at the earliest moment possible.
About two months after applying to Master Thomas for the
privilege of hiring my time, I applied to Master Hugh for the same
liberty, supposing him to be unacquainted with the fact that I had
made a similar application to Master Thomas, and had been refused.
My boldness in making this request fairly astounded him at first. He
gazed at me in amazement. But I had many good reasons for
pressing the matter, and, after listening to them awhile, he did not
absolutely refuse, but told me he would think of it. There was hope
for me in this. Once master of my own time, I felt sure that I could
make over and above my obligation to him, a dollar or two every
week. Some slaves had made enough in this way to purchase their
freedom. It was a sharp spur to their industry; and some of the most
enterprising colored men in Baltimore hired themselves in that way.
After mature reflection, as I suppose it was, Master Hugh
granted me the privilege in question, on the following terms: I was to
be allowed all my time; to make all bargains for work, and to collect
my own wages; and in return for this liberty, I was required or obliged
to pay him three dollars at the end of each week, and to board and
clothe myself, and buy my own calking tools. A failure in any of these
particulars would put an end to the privilege. This was a hard
bargain. The wear and tear of clothing, the losing and breaking of
tools, and the expense of board made it necessary for me to earn at
least six dollars per week to keep even with the world. All who are
acquainted with calking know how uncertain and irregular that
employment is. It can be done to advantage only in dry weather, for it
is useless to put wet oakum into a ship’s seam. Rain or shine,
however, work or no work, at the end of each week the money must
be forthcoming.
Master Hugh seemed much pleased with this arrangement for a
time; and well he might be, for it was decidedly in his favor. It
relieved him of all anxiety concerning me. His money was sure. He
had armed my love of liberty with a lash and a driver far more
efficient than any I had before known; and while he derived all the
benefits of slaveholding by the arrangement, without its evils, I
endured all the evils of being a slave, and yet suffered all the care
and anxiety of a responsible freeman. “Nevertheless,” thought I, “it is
a valuable privilege—another step in my career toward freedom.” It
was something even to be permitted to stagger under the
disadvantages of liberty, and I was determined to hold on to the
newly gained footing by all proper industry. I was ready to work by
night as by day, and being in the possession of excellent health, I
was not only able to meet my current expenses, but also to lay by a
small sum at the end of each week. All went on thus from the month
of May till August; then, for reasons which will become apparent as I
proceed, my much-valued liberty was wrested from me.
During the week previous to this calamitous event, I had made
arrangements with a few young friends to accompany them on
Saturday night to a camp-meeting, to be held about twelve miles
from Baltimore. On the evening of our intended start for the camp-
ground, something occurred in the ship-yard where I was at work
which detained me unusually late, and compelled me either to
disappoint my friends, or to neglect carrying my weekly dues to
Master Hugh. Knowing that I had the money and could hand it to him
on another day, I decided to go to camp-meeting, and to pay him the
three dollars for the past week on my return. Once on the camp-
ground, I was induced to remain one day longer than I had intended
when I left home. But as soon as I returned I went directly to his
home on Fell street to hand him his (my) money. Unhappily the fatal
mistake had been made. I found him exceedingly angry. He
exhibited all the signs of apprehension and wrath which a
slaveholder might be surmised to exhibit on the supposed escape of
a favorite slave. “You rascal! I have a great mind to give you a sound
whipping. How dare you go out of the city without first asking and
obtaining my permission?” “Sir,” I said, “I hired my time and paid you
the price you asked for it. I did not know that it was any part of the
bargain that I should ask you when or where I should go.” “You did
not know, you rascal! You are bound to show yourself here every
Saturday night.” After reflecting a few moments, he became
somewhat cooled down; but evidently greatly troubled, he said:
“Now, you scoundrel, you have done for yourself; you shall hire your
time no longer. The next thing I shall hear of will be your running
away. Bring home your tools at once. I’ll teach you how to go off in
this way.”
Thus ended my partial freedom. I could hire my time no longer;
and I obeyed my master’s orders at once. The little taste of liberty
which I had had—although as it will be seen, that taste was far from
being unalloyed, by no means enhanced my contentment with
slavery. Punished by Master Hugh, it was now my turn to punish him.
“Since,” thought I, “you will make a slave of me, I will await your
order in all things.” So, instead of going to look for work on Monday
morning, as I had formerly done, I remained at home during the
entire week, without the performance of a single stroke of work.
Saturday night came, and he called upon me as usual for my wages.
I, of course, told him I had done no work, and had no wages. Here
we were at the point of coming to blows. His wrath had been
accumulating during the whole week; for he evidently saw that I was
making no effort to get work, but was most aggravatingly awaiting his
orders in all things. As I look back to this behavior of mine, I scarcely
know what possessed me, thus to trifle with one who had such
unlimited power to bless or blast me. Master Hugh raved, and swore
he would “get hold of me,” but wisely for him, and happily for me, his
wrath employed only those harmless, impalpable missiles which roll
from a limber tongue. In my desperation I had fully made up my mind
to measure strength with him, in case he should attempt to execute
his threats. I am glad there was no occasion for this, for resistance to
him could not have ended so happily for me as it did in the case of
Covey. Master Hugh was not a man to be safely resisted by a slave;
and I freely own that in my conduct toward him, in this instance,
there was more folly than wisdom. He closed his reproofs by telling
me that hereafter I need give myself no uneasiness about getting
work; he “would himself see to getting work for me, and enough of it
at that.” This threat, I confess, had some terror in it, and on thinking
the matter over during the Sunday, I resolved not only to save him
the trouble of getting me work, but that on the third day of September
I would attempt to make my escape. His refusal to allow me to hire
my time therefore hastened the period of my flight. I had three weeks
in which to prepare for my journey.
Once resolved, I felt a certain degree of repose, and on Monday
morning, instead of waiting for Master Hugh to seek employment for
me, I was up by break of day, and off to the ship-yard of Mr. Butler,
on the City Block, near the drawbridge. I was a favorite with Mr.
Butler, and, young as I was, I had served as his foreman, on the
float-stage, at calking. Of course I easily obtained work, and at the
end of the week, which, by the way, was exceedingly fine, I brought
Master Hugh nine dollars. The effect of this mark of returning good
sense on my part, was excellent. He was very much pleased; he
took the money, commended me, and told me I might have done the
same thing the week before. It is a blessed thing that the tyrant may
not always know the thoughts and purposes of his victim. Master
Hugh little knew my plans. The going to camp-meeting without
asking his permission, the insolent answers to his reproaches, the
sulky deportment of the week after being deprived of the privilege of
hiring my time, had awakened the suspicion that I might be
cherishing disloyal purposes. My object, therefore, in working
steadily was to remove suspicion; and in this I succeeded admirably.
He probably thought I was never better satisfied with my condition
than at the very time I was planning my escape. The second week
passed, and I again carried him my full week’s wages—nine dollars;
and so well pleased was he that he gave me twenty-five cents! and
bade me “make good use of it.” I told him I would do so, for one of
the uses to which I intended to put it was to pay my fare on the
“underground railroad.”
Things without went on as usual; but I was passing through the
same internal excitement and anxiety which I had experienced two
years and a half before. The failure in that instance was not
calculated to increase my confidence in the success of this, my
second attempt; and I knew that a second failure could not leave me
where my first did. I must either get to the far North or be sent to the
far South. Besides the exercise of mind from this state of facts, I had
the painful sensation of being about to separate from a circle of
honest and warm-hearted friends. The thought of such a separation,
where the hope of ever meeting again was excluded, and where
there could be no correspondence, was very painful. It is my opinion
that thousands more would have escaped from slavery but for the
strong affection which bound them to their families, relatives, and
friends. The daughter was hindered by the love she bore her mother,
and the father by the love he bore his wife and children, and so on to
the end of the chapter. I had no relations in Baltimore, and I saw no
probability of ever living in the neighborhood of sisters and brothers;
but the thought of leaving my friends was the strongest obstacle to
my running away. The last two days of the week, Friday and
Saturday, were spent mostly in collecting my things together for my
journey. Having worked four days that week for my master, I handed
him six dollars on Saturday night. I seldom spent my Sundays at
home, and for fear that something might be discovered in my
conduct, I kept up my custom and absented myself all day. On
Monday, the third day of September, 1838, in accordance with my
resolution, I bade farewell to the city of Baltimore, and to that slavery
which had been my abhorrence from childhood.
His Present Home in Washington.
SECOND PART
 CHAPTER I.
ESCAPE FROM SLAVERY.

Reasons for not having revealed the manner of escape—Nothing of romance

in the method—Danger—Free Papers—Unjust tax—Protection papers
—“Free trade and sailors’ rights”—American eagle—Railroad train—
Unobserving conductor—Capt. McGowan—Honest German—Fears—
Safe arrival in Philadelphia—Ditto in New York.

IN the first narrative of my experience in slavery, written nearly forty

years ago, and in various writings since, I have given the public what
I considered very good reasons for withholding the manner of my
escape. In substance these reasons were, first, that such publication
at any time during the existence of slavery might be used by the
master against the slave, and prevent the future escape of any who
might adopt the same means that I did. The second reason was, if
possible, still more binding to silence—for publication of details
would certainly have put in peril the persons and property of those
who assisted. Murder itself was not more sternly and certainly
punished in the State of Maryland, than that of aiding and abetting
the escape of a slave. Many colored men, for no other crime than
that of giving aid to a fugitive slave, have, like Charles T. Torrey,
perished in prison. The abolition of slavery in my native State and
throughout the country, and the lapse of time, render the caution
hitherto observed no longer necessary. But even since the abolition
of slavery, I have sometimes thought it well enough to baffle curiosity
by saying that while slavery existed there were good reasons for not
telling the manner of my escape, and since slavery had ceased to
exist there was no reason for telling it. I shall now, however, cease to
avail myself of this formula, and, as far as I can, endeavor to satisfy
this very natural curiosity. I should perhaps have yielded to that
feeling sooner, had there been anything very heroic or thrilling in the
incidents connected with my escape, for I am sorry to say I have
nothing of that sort to tell; and yet the courage that could risk
betrayal and the bravery which was ready to encounter death if need
be, in pursuit of freedom, were essential features in the undertaking.
My success was due to address rather than courage; to good luck
rather than bravery. My means of escape were provided for me by
the very men who were making laws to hold and bind me more
securely in slavery. It was the custom in the State of Maryland to
require of the free colored people to have what were called free
papers. This instrument they were required to renew very often, and
by charging a fee for this writing, considerable sums from time to
time were collected by the State. In these papers the name, age,
color, height, and form of the free man were described, together with
any scars or other marks upon his person, which could assist in his
identification. This device of slaveholding ingenuity, like other
devices of wickedness, in some measure defeated itself—since
more than one man could be found to answer the same general
description. Hence many slaves could escape by personating the
owner of one set of papers; and this was often done as follows: A
slave nearly or sufficiently answering the description set forth in the
papers, would borrow or hire them till he could by their means
escape to a free State, and then, by mail or otherwise, return them to
the owner. The operation was a hazardous one for the lender as well
as the borrower. A failure on the part of the fugitive to send back the
papers would imperil his benefactor, and the discovery of the papers
in possession of the wrong man would imperil both the fugitive and
his friend. It was therefore an act of supreme trust on the part of a
freeman of color thus to put in jeopardy his own liberty that another
might be free. It was, however, not unfrequently bravely done, and
was seldom discovered. I was not so fortunate as to sufficiently
resemble any of my free acquaintances as to answer the description
of their papers. But I had one friend—a sailor—who owned a sailor’s
protection, which answered somewhat the purpose of free papers—
describing his person, and certifying to the fact that he was a free
American sailor. The instrument had at its head the American eagle,
which gave it the appearance at once of an authorized document.
This protection did not, when in my hands, describe its bearer very
accurately. Indeed, it called for a man much darker than myself, and
close examination of it would have caused my arrest at the start. In
order to avoid this fatal scrutiny on the part of the railroad official, I