System Dynamics for Engineering

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System Dynamics for
Engineering Students
Concepts and Applications

Second Edition

Nicolae Lobontiu
University of Alaska Anchorage
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Dedication

To all readers coming across this book,

with friendly consideration.
Foreword to the First Edition

This text is a modern treatment of system dynamics and its relation to traditional me-
chanical engineering problems as well as modern microscale devices and machines.
It provides an excellent course of study for students who want to grasp the funda-
mentals of dynamic systems, and it covers a significant amount of material also
taught in engineering modeling, systems dynamics, and vibrations, all combined
in a dense form. The book is designed as a text for juniors and seniors in aerospace,
mechanical, electrical, biomedical, and civil engineering. It is useful for understand-
ing the design and development of micro- and macroscale structures, electric and
fluidic systems with an introduction to transduction, and numerous simulations us-
ing MATLAB and SIMULINK.
The creation of machines is essentially what much of engineering is all about.
Critical to almost all machines imaginable is a transient response, which is funda-
mental to their functionality and needs to be our primary concern in their design.
This might be in the form of changing voltage levels in a sensor, the deflection of
a spring supported mass, or the flow of fluid through a device. The phenomena
that govern dynamics are not simply its mechanical components but often involve
the dynamics of transducers as well, which are often electromechanical or fluidic
based. This text not only discusses traditional electromagnetic type actuators but
also ventures into electrostatics, which are the dominant form of actuators in micro-
electromechanical systems.
This book presents an opportunity for introducing dynamic systems to scientists
and engineers who are concerned with the engineering of machines both at the mi-
cro- and macroscopic scale. Mechanism and movement are considered from the
types of springs and joints that are critical to micromachined, lithographic-based de-
vices to traditional models of macroscale electrical, fluidic, and electromechanical
systems. The examples discussed and the problems at the end of each chapter
have applicability at both scales. In essence this is a more modern treatment of
dynamical systems, presenting views of modeling and substructures more consistent
with the variety of problems that many engineers will face in the future. Any univer-
sity with a substantive interest in microscale engineering would do well to consider a
course that covers the material herein. Finally, this text lays the foundation and
framework for the development of controllers applied to these dynamical systems.

Professor Ephrahim Garcia

Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York

xv
Preface

Engineering system dynamics is a discipline that focuses on deriving mathematical

models based on simplified physical representations of actual systems, such as
mechanical, electrical, fluid, or thermal, and on solving the mathematical models
(most often consisting of differential equations). The resulting solution (which
reflects the system response or behavior) is utilized in design or analysis before pro-
ducing and testing the actual system. Because dynamic systems are characterized by
similar mathematical models, a unitary approach can be used to characterize individ-
ual systems pertaining to different fields as well as to consider the interaction of
systems from multiple fields as in coupled-field problems.
This book was designed to be utilized as a one-semester system dynamics text for
upper-level undergraduate students with emphasis on mechanical, aerospace, or elec-
trical engineering. Comprising important components from these areas, the material
should also serve cross-listed courses (mechanicaleelectrical) at a similar study
level. In addition to the printed chapters, the book contains an equal number of
chapter extensions that have been assembled into a companion website section;
and this makes it useful as an introductory text for more advanced courses, such as
vibrations, controls, instrumentation, or mechatronics. The book can also be useful
in graduate coursework or in individual study as reference material. The material con-
tained in this book most probably exceeds the time allotted for a one-semester course
lecture, and therefore topical selection becomes necessary, based on particular
instruction emphasis and teaching preferences.
While the book maintains its focus on the classical approach to system dynamics,
a new feature of this text is the introduction of examples from compliant mechanisms
and micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS). As demonstrated in
the book, and for the relatively simple examples that have been selected here, this in-
clusion can really be treated within the regular system dynamics lumped-parameter
(pointlike) modeling; therefore, the students not so familiar with these topics should
face any major comprehension difficulties. Another central point of this book is pro-
posing a chapter on coupled-field (or multiple-field) systems, whereby interactions
between the mechanical, electrical, fluid, and thermal fields occur and generate
means for actuation or sensing applications, such as in thermomechanical, electro-
thermomechanical, electromechanical, electromagnetomechanical, or piezoelectric
applications.
Another key objective was to assemble a text that is structured, balanced, cohe-
sive, and providing a fluent and logical sequence of topics along the following lines:
1. It starts from simple components (the elements), proceeds to the objects’
assembly (the individual system), and arrives at the system interaction level
(coupled-field systems).

xvii
xviii Preface

2. It uses modeling and solution techniques that are familiar from other disciplines,
such as physics or ordinary differential equations, and subsequently introduces
new modeling and solution procedures.
3. It provides a rather even coverage (space) to each book chapter.
4. While various chapter structures are possible in a system dynamics text, this book
proposes a sequence that was intended to be systematic and consistent with the
logical structure and progression of the presented material.
As such, the book begins with an introductory Chapter 1, which offers an over-
view of the main aspects of a system dynamics course for engineering students. The
next four chaptersdChapters 2e5dare dedicated to mechanical (Chapters 2 and 3),
electrical (Chapter 4), and fluid and thermal (Chapter 5) system modeling. They
contain basic information on components, systems, and the principal physical and
mathematical tools enabling to model a dynamic system and determine its solution.
Dynamic systems modeling is performed both by means of Lagrange’s equations
and of methods designed for a particular system, such as Newton’s second law of
motion for mechanical system or Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems. These
chapters also define and illustrate analogies between the different systems.
Once the main engineering dynamic systems have been studied, Chapter 6 pre-
sents the Laplace transform technique, a mathematical tool that allows simplifying
the differential equation solution process for any of the individual systems. This
chapter is directly connected to the next segment of the book, containing Chapters
7e9. Chapter 7 introduces the transfer function approach, which facilitates
modeling a dynamic system directly in the Laplace domain, by expressing the output
as the product between the transfer function and the input. The complex impedance,
which is actually a transfer function connecting the Laplace-transformed input and
output of a specific system element, is also introduced and thoroughly treated in this
chapter. Chapter 8 studies the state space modeling and solution approach, which is
also related to the Laplace transform of Chapter 6 and the transfer function of
Chapter 7. Chapter 9 discusses modeling system dynamics in the frequency domain
by means of the sinusoidal (harmonic) transfer function. Chapter 10 analyzes
coupled-field (or multiple-field) dynamic systems, which are combinations of
mechanical, electrical, magnetic, piezoelectric, fluid, or thermal systems. In this
chapter, dynamic models are formulated and solved by means of the procedures
studied in previous chapters.
Because of the partial and natural overlap between system dynamics and
controls, the majority of textbooks on either of these two areas contain coverage
of material from the adjoining domain. Consistent with this approach, Chapters
11e13 cover basic concepts of feedback controls, as follows: Chapter 11 discusses
components and block diagrams for feedback control system modeling; Chapter 12
covers the stability of control systems; Chapter 13 presents notions of feedback
controls in the time and frequency domains.
The book also includes six appendixes: Appendix A is a refresher on complex
numbers, Appendix B is a review of matrix algebra, Appendix C gives a summary
 Preface xix

of solutions to linear homogeneous ordinary differential equations with constant

coefficients, Appendix D is an introduction to SimulinkdMATLAB’s graphical
application, which allows diagram/graphical solutions of system dynamics prob-
lems, Appendix E contains basic MATLAB commands that have been used
throughout this text, and Appendix F comprises a summary of equations for calcu-
lating deformations, strains, and stresses of deformable mechanical components
such as bars and beams.
The book introduces several topics that are new to engineering system dynamics,
as highlighted here:
Chapter 2, Mechanical Elements
• Lumped-parameter inertia properties of basic compliant (flexible) members.
Chapter 3, Mechanical Systems
• Lumped-parameter dynamic modeling of simple compliant mechanical
microsystems.
• Mass detection in MEMS by the resonance shift method.
Chapter 4, Electrical Systems
• Capacitive sensing and actuation in MEMS.
Chapter 5, Fluid and Thermal Systems
• Natural response of fluid systems.
• Analogies between electrical, fluid, and thermal systems.
Chapters 3e5
• Notion of degrees of freedom (DOFs) for defining the system configuration of
dynamic systems.
• Application of the energy method to calculate the natural frequencies of
single- and multiple-DOF conservative systems.
• Utilization of the vectorematrix method to calculate the eigenvalues either
analytically or using MATLAB.
• Application of Lagrange’s equations to derive the mathematical models of the
free and forced response.
• Model derivation and solution of dynamic system nonlinear mathematical
models.
Chapter 6, Laplace Transform
• Laplace transformation of vectorematrix differential equations.
• Use of the convolution theorem to solve integral and integraledifferential
equations.
• Time-domain system identification.
Chapter 7, Transfer Function Approach
• Extension of the single-input, single-output transfer function approach to
multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) systems by means of the transfer
function matrix.
• Application of the transfer function approach to solve the forced and the free
responses with nonzero initial conditions.
xx Preface

• Systematic introduction and comprehensive application of the complex

impedance approach to electrical, mechanical, and fluid and thermal
systems.
• Stability analysis of dynamic systems by means of the transfer function.
Chapter 8, State Space Approach
• Application of the state space approach to solve the forced and free responses
with nonzero initial conditions.
Chapter 9, Frequency Response Approach
• Simplified (asymptote) Bode plots.
• Actuation, sensing, transmission, and reduction/isolation of mechanical
vibrations.
• Steady-state response of cascading unloading systems.
• Mechanical and electrical filters.
Chapter 10, Coupled-Field Systems
• Formulation of the coupled-field (multiple-field) problem.
• Principles and applications of sensing and actuation.
• Strain gauge and Wheatstone bridge circuits for measuring mechanical
deformation.
• Thermomechanical and electrothermomechanical coupling, including
nonlinear problems.
• Applications of electromagnetomechanical system dynamics.
• Principles and applications of piezoelectric coupling with mechanical
deformable systems.
Chapter 11, Block Diagrams and Feedback Control System Modeling
• Multiple examples of physical systems that operate as components in feed-
back control systems.
• Systematic formulation of lead-, lag-, and lag-lead compensators in the
frequency domain.
Chapter 12, Stability of Feedback Control Systems
• Stability of MIMO control systems by the transfer function matrix method.
Chapter 13, Time- and Frequency-Domain Controls of Feedback Systems
• Time-domain modeling of MIMO feedback control systems.
Within this printed book’s space limitations, attention has been directed at gener-
ating a balanced coverage of minimally necessary theory presentation, many solved
examples, and end-of-chapter problems. Whenever possible, examples are solved
analytically, using hand calculation, so that any mathematical software can be
used in conjunction with any model developed here. The book is not constructed
on MATLAB, but it uses this software to determine numerical solutions and to solve
symbolically mathematical models too involved to be obtained by hand. It would be
difficult to overlook the built-in capabilities of MATLAB’s tool boxes (really pro-
grams within the main program, such as the ones designed for symbolic calculation
or controls), which many times use one-line commands to solve complex system dy-
namics problems and which have been used in this text. Equally appealing solutions
 Preface xxi

to system dynamics problems are the ones provided by Simulink, the graphical user
interface program built atop MATLAB, and applications are included in almost all
the chapters of solved and proposed exercises that can be approached by Simulink.
Through a companion website, the book comprises more ancillary support ma-
terial, including companion book chapters with extensions to the printed book
(with more advanced topics, details of the printed book material, and additional
solved examples, this section could be of interest and assistance to both the
instructor and the motivated student).
Whenever possible, alternative solution methods have been provided in the text
to enable using the algorithm that best suits various individual approaches to the
same problem.
The ancillary material also comprises an instructor’s manual, an image bank of
figures from the book, MATLAB code for the book’s solved examples, and Power-
Point lecture slides. After publication and as a result of specific requirements or sug-
gestions expressed by instructors who adopted the text and feedback from students,
additional problems resulting from this interaction will be provided on the website,
as well as corrections of the unwanted but possible errors.
To make distinction between variables, small-cap symbols are used for the time
domain (such as f for force, m for moment, or v for voltage), whereas capital symbols
denote Laplace transforms (such as F for force, M for moment, or V for voltage).
With regard to matrix notation, the probably old-fashioned symbols { } for vectors
and [ ] for matrices are used here, which can be replicated easily on the board.
Several solved examples and end-of-chapter problems in this book resulted from
exercises that I have used and tested in class over the years while teaching system
dynamics, and I am grateful to all the students who contributed to enhancing the
scope and quality of the original variants. I am indebted to the anonymous academic
reviewers who critically analyzed this text. They have made valid suggestions for
improvement, which were well taken and applied to this current second edition.
I am very thankful to Steven Merken, Senior Acquisition Editor at Elsevier
Engineering & Computing Textbooks, whose commitment to this project and quality
support has been instrumental in realizing this second edition. I am also grateful to
Nate McFadden, Senior Development Editor at Elsevier Engineering & Computing
Textbooks, and Mohanapriyan Rajendran, Production Project Manager, for kind and
efficient assistance, as well as for timely converting this project from its draft form to
its refined print state.
In closing, I would like to acknowledge and thank the unwavering support of my
wife, Simona, who painstakingly reviewed, checked, and edited the manuscript for
the second edition. She definitely made this project possible. As always, my
thoughts and profound gratitude for everything they gave me go to my daughters
Diana and Ioana and to my parents Ana and Nicolae.
Resources That Accompany
This Book

System dynamics instructors and students will find additional resources at textbooks.
elsevier.com

AVAILABLE TO ALL
Additional Online Content linked to specific sections of the book, extra content
includes advanced topics, additional worked examples, and more.
Downloadable MATLAB Code for the book’s solved examples.

FOR INSTRUCTORS ONLY

Instructor’s Manual The book itself contains a comprehensive set of end-of-chapter
problems. Worked-out solutions to the problems are available online to instructors
who adopt this book.
Image Bank that provides adopting instructors with various electronic versions of the
figures from this book that may be used in lecture slides and class presentations.
Power Point Lecture Slides Use the available set of lecture slides in your own course
as provided, or edit and reorganize them to meet your individual course needs.
Instructors should contact their Elsevier textbook sales representative at textbooks@
elsevier.com to obtain a password to access the instructor-only resources.

xxiii
 CHAPTER

Introduction
1
This chapter discusses the notion of modeling or simulation of dynamic engineering
systems as a process that involves physical modeling of an actual (real) system,
mathematical modeling of the resulting physical representation (which generates
differential equations), and solution of the mathematical model, followed by inter-
pretation of the result (response). Modeling in this text uses lumped (or pointlike)
parameters and is placed in the context of either analysis or design. The dynamic
system mathematical model is studied in connection to its input and output signals,
such that single-input, single-output (SISO) and multiple-input, multiple-output
(MIMO) systems can be formed. Linear systems are categorized depending on the
order of the governing differential equations as zero-, first-, second-, or higher-
order systems. In addition to the applications usually encountered in system
dynamics texts, examples of compliant (or flexible) mechanisms that are incorpo-
rated in micro- or nanoelectromechanical systems (MEMS or NEMS) are included
here. The nature of presentation is mainly descriptive in this chapter, as it attempts to
introduce a few of the concepts that are covered in more detail in subsequent
chapters.

1.1 ENGINEERING SYSTEM DYNAMICS

Engineering system dynamics is a discipline that studies the dynamic behavior of
various systems, such as mechanical, electrical, fluid, and thermal, either as isolated
entities or in their interaction, when they are coupled-field (or multiple-field) sys-
tems. One trait specific to this discipline is that systems belonging to different phys-
ical fields are described by similar mathematical models (expressed most often as
differential equations); therefore, the same mathematical apparatus can be utilized
to analyze or design different-field systems. This similitude also enables migration
between systems in the form of analogies, as well as application of a unitary
approach to coupled-field problems.
System dynamics relies on previously studied subject matter, such as differential
equations, matrix algebra, and physics, and the dynamics of systems (mechanical,
electrical, and fluid or thermal), which it integrates in probably the first
engineering-oriented material in the undergraduate course work. Engineering sys-
tem dynamics is concerned with physically and mathematically modeling dynamic
systems, which means deriving the mathematical models that govern the behavior

System Dynamics for Engineering Students. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804559-6.00001-4 1

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

(response) of these systems, as well as solving these mathematical models and

obtaining the system response. In addition to known modeling procedures, such
as Newton’s second law of motion for mechanical systems or Kirchhoff’s laws for
electrical systems, the student will learn or reinforce new techniques, such as
Lagrange’s equations, direct and inverse Laplace transforms, the transfer function,
the state-space approach, and frequency-domain analysis.
This course teaches the use of simplified physical models for real-world engi-
neering applications to design or analyze a dynamic system. Once an approximate,
yet sufficiently accurate, mathematical model has been derived, one can employ
MATLAB, a software program possessing numerous built-in functions, to solve sys-
tem dynamics mathematical models. Simulink, a graphical user interface computing
environment that is built atop MATLAB and that allows using blocks and signals to
perform various mathematical operations, can also be used to model, solve, and plot
the time response of engineering system dynamics problems. At the end of this
course, the student should feel more confident in approaching an engineering design
project from the model-based standpoint, rather than the empirical one; this
approach should enable selecting the key physical parameters of an actual system,
combining them into a relevant mathematical model and finding the solution (either
time response or frequency response).
Complementing the classical examples encountered in previous courses (such as
the rigid body, the spring, and the damper in mechanical systems), new examples are
offered in this course of compliant (flexible) mechanisms and MEMS or NEMS.
These devices can be modeled using the approach used for regular systems, which
is the lumped-parameter procedure (according to which system parameters are
pointlike).
In addition to being designed as an introduction to actual engineering course
work, and as a subject matter that studies various systems through a common prism,
engineering system dynamics is also valuable to subsequent courses in the engineer-
ing curricula, such as vibrations, controls, instrumentation, or mechatronics.

1.2 MODELING ENGINEERING SYSTEM DYNAMICS

The modeling process of engineering system dynamics starts by identifying the
fundamental properties of an actual system and its parameters. The minimum set
of variables necessary to fully define the system configuration is formed of the de-
grees of freedom (DOF). Key to this selection is simplifying assumptions that enable
retaining the essential features of the system. This process is usually aided by a sche-
matic representation or diagram, which pictorially identifies the parameters and the
variables, such as the free-body diagram that corresponds to the dynamics of a point-
like body in mechanical systems with forces and moments shown, and which plays
the role of a physical model for the actual system.
It is then necessary to utilize an appropriate modeling procedure or method that
will result in the mathematical model of the system. Generally, a mathematical
 1.2 Modeling Engineering System Dynamics 3

Actual Physical Mathematical System

system model model response

Simplifying Mathematical Solving

assumptions procedure algorithm

FIGURE 1.1
Flow in the Dynamic System Modeling Process.

model describing the dynamic behavior of an engineering system consists of a dif-

ferential equation (or a system of differential equations) combining parameters with
known functions, unknown functions, and their derivatives. For relatively simple
systems, the mathematical model consists of a set of linear ordinary differential
equations (ODE), whereas more complex systems may be described by nonlinear
or/and partial differential equations. The next step involves solving the mathematical
model through adequate mathematical algorithms, analytical or numerical. When
the solution is analytically available, it is formed of equations depending on system
parameters and time (or frequency) and that reflect the system response or behavior.
Figure 1.1 gives a graphical depiction of this process that connects an actual
dynamic system under the action of external forcing to its response. There are
also situations when interrogation of the system response results in information
that is fed back to the actual system at the start of the chain, so it allows for correc-
tions to be applied; this is a topic pertaining to feedback-control systems, which is
briefly covered in Chapters 11e13 of this text.

1.2.1 Modeling Variants

Various steps can be adopted in transitioning from the actual system to a simplified
physical model, then from a physical model to a mathematical one, as sketched in
Figure 1.1. Several physical models can be developed, starting from an actual sys-
tem, depending on the severity (or laxity) of the simplifying assumptions applied.
Once a physical model has been selected, several modalities are available to math-
ematically describe that physical model. The application of different algorithms to
one mathematical model should produce the same result or solution, as the system
response is unique.
In the case of a car that runs on even terrain, the car vertical motion has a direct
impact on its passengers. A basic physical model is shown schematically in
Figure 1.2, which indicates the car mass is lumped at its center of gravity (CG)
and the front and rear suspensions are modeled as springs. Because the interest
here lies only in the car vertical motion, and the terrain is assumed even (perfectly
flat), it is safe to consider, as a rough approximation resulting in a first-iteration
physical model, that the impact points between the wheels and the road surface
4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

Car motion
l1 l2

Original position
x θ
CG

m, J
k2
Front suspension k1 Car body
Rear suspension

Road surface
FIGURE 1.2
Simplified Physical Model of a Car That Moves Over Even Terrain.

are fixed points. Under these simplifying assumptions, the parameters that define the
car’s properties are its mass, its mechanical moment of inertia about an axis passing
through the CG and perpendicular to the drawing plane, and the spring stiffness of
the two suspensions. What is the minimum number of variables fully describing the
state (or configuration) of this simplified system at any moment in time? If we attach
the system motion to the CG, it follows that the vertical motion of the CG (measured
by the variable y) and the rotation (pitch) of the rigid rod (which symbolizes the car
body) about a horizontal axis and measured by an angle q are sufficient to specify the
position of the car body at any time moment. Of course, we have used another
simplifying assumption that the rotations and vertical displacements are relatively
small, and therefore the motions of the suspensions at their joining points with
the car body (modeled here as a rigid rod) are purely vertical.
As a consequence, the system parameters are the car mass m and its moment of
inertia J, the suspension spring constants (stiffnesses) k1 and k2, as well as the dis-
tances l1 and l2, which position the CG of the car. Generally, all these parameters
have known values. The variables (unknowns or DOF) are y, the vertical motion of
the CG, and q, the rotation of the body car about its CG. The next step is deriving
the mathematical model corresponding to the identified physical model, and this
phase can be achieved using a specific modeling technique, such as Newton’s sec-
ond law of motion, the energy method, Lagrange’s equations, or the state-space
representation for this mechanical systemdall these modeling techniques are dis-
cussed in subsequent chapters. The result consists of two linear ODE containing
the system parameters m, J, k1, k2, l1, l2, and the unknowns y, q, together with their
time derivatives. Solving for y and q in terms of initial conditions (for this system,
these are the initial displacements when t ¼ 0, namely y(0), q(0), and the initial
_
velocities yð0Þ; _
qð0Þ) provides explicitly the functions y(t) and q(t), and this consti-
tutes the system’s response. The system behavior can be studied by plotting y and q
as functions of t.
 1.2 Modeling Engineering System Dynamics 5

l1 l2

y θ
CG
ks2 cs2 y
m, J 2
y1 ks1 cs1 m2
m1 kt ct
kt u2
ct
u1

FIGURE 1.3
Simplified Physical Model of a Car Moving Over Uneven Terrain, With the Degrees of
Freedom of the Suspensions Shown.

More complexity can be added to the simple car physical model of Figure 1.2, for
instance, by considering that the wheels are separate from the mechanical suspen-
sion through the tire elasticity and damping. The assumption of an uneven terrain
surface can also be introduced. Figure 1.3 depicts the physical model of the car
when all these system properties are taken into accountdplease note that the masses
of wheels, tires, and suspensions are included and combined together (they are
denoted by m1 and m2 in Figure 1.3), and when the two wheels are considered iden-
tical. It can now be seen that two more DOF are added to the existing ones, so that
the system becomes a four-DOF system (they are y, q, y1, and y2), whereas the input
is formed by the two displacements applied to the front and rear tires, u1 and u2.
Dynamic modeling is involved in two apparently opposite directions: the analysis
and the design (or synthesis) of a specific system. Analysis starts from a given system
whose parameters are known. The dynamic analysis objective is to establish the
response of a system through its mathematical model. Conversely, the design needs
to find an actual dynamic system capable of producing a specified performance or
response. In analysis we start from a real-world, well-defined system, which we
attempt to characterize through a mathematical model, whereas in design (synthesis)
we embark with a set of requirements and use a model to obtain the skeleton of an
actual system. Figure 1.4 gives a graphical representation of the two processes.

Actual Mathematical System

system model response

(a)

Specified Mathematical Designed

system response model system

(b)
FIGURE 1.4
Processes Utilizing Dynamic Models: (a) Analysis; (b) Design (Synthesis).
6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

1.2.2 Dynamical Systems Lumped-Parameter Modeling and

Solution
It is convenient from the modeling viewpoint to consider that the parameters
defining the dynamic behavior of a system are located at well-specified spatial sta-
tions, so they can be considered pointlike. Lumping parameters result in dynamic
system models consisting of ODE. The mass of a rigid body, for instance, is consid-
ered to be concentrated at the center of mass (gravity) of that body, so that the center
of mass becomes representative for the whole body, which simplifies the modeling
task substantially, without diminishing the modeling accuracy. Similar lumping con-
siderations can be applied to springs or dampers in the mechanical realm, and also in
the electrical domain, where resistances, capacitances, and inductances are consid-
ered lumped-parameter system properties.
Also, in some cases, the lumped-parameter modeling can be used for compo-
nents that have inherently distributed properties. Take the example of a cantilever,
such as the one sketched in Figure 1.5(a). Both its inertia and elastic properties
are distributed, as they are functions of the position x along the length of the canti-
lever. Chapter 2 shows how to transform the actual distributed-parameter model into
an equivalent lumped-parameter model, as in Figure 1.5(b). That approach provides
the tip mass meq and stiffness kt (the subscript denotes translation) that are equivalent
to the dynamic response of the original cantilever.

y y
meq

x
kt

(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.5
Cantilever Beam: (a) Actual, Distributed-Parameter Inertia and Stiffness; (b) Equivalent,
Lumped-Parameter Inertia and Stiffness.

Caution should be exercised when studying complex flexible systems, where the
lumping of parameters can yield results that are sensibly different from the expected
and actual results, as measured experimentally or simulated by more advanced (nu-
merical) techniques, such as the finite element method. However, for the relatively
simple compliant device configurations analyzed in subsequent chapters, lumped-
parameter modeling yields results with relatively small errors.

Modeling Methods
Several procedures or methods are available for deriving the mathematical model of
a specified lumped-parameter physical model. Some of them are specific to a certain
 1.3 Elements, System, Input, and Output 7

system (such as the Newton’s second law of motion, which is applied to mechanical
systems or the Kirchhoff’s laws, which are used in electrical systems). Others can be
utilized more across the board for all dynamic systems, such as the energy method,
the Lagrange’s equations, the transfer function method, and the state-space
approach. These methods are detailed in subsequent chapters.

Solution Methods
Once the mathematical model of a dynamic system has been derived, and consists of
one or more differential equations (linear or nonlinear), the solution can be obtained
mainly using two methods. One method is the direct integration of the differential
equations, and the other method uses the direct and inverse Laplace transforms.
The big advantage of the Laplace method, as will be shown in Chapter 6, consists
in the fact that the original, time-defined differential equations are transformed into
algebraic equations, whose solution can be found by simpler means. The Laplace-
domain solutions are subsequently converted back into the time-domain solutions
by means of the inverse Laplace transform. The transfer function and the state-
space methods are also employed to determine the time response in Chapters 7 and
8, respectively.

System Response
The majority of the systems studied in this text are linear and are modeled with
constant-coefficient ODE as initial-value problems. The solution to a linear ODE
that describes the system behavior is the sum of two parts: one is the complementary
(or homogeneous) solution (which is the solution when no input or excitation is
applied to the system), and the other is the particular solution (which is one solution
of the equation when a specific forcing or input acts on the system). The complemen-
tary solution is representative of the free response, and usually vanishes after a
period of time with dissipation present, so it is indicative of the transient response.
The particular solution, on the other hand, persists in the overall solution, and there-
fore defines the forced or steady-state response of the system to a specific input.

1.3 ELEMENTS, SYSTEM, INPUT, AND OUTPUT

A system in general (and an engineering one in particular in this text) is a combina-
tion of various elements (or components), which together form an entity that can be
studied in its entirety. Take for instance a resistor, an inductor, a capacitor, and a
voltage source, as shown in Figure 1.6(a); they are individual electrical elements
that can be combined in the series connection of Figure 1.6(b) to form an electrical
system. Similarly, mechanical elements such as inertia (mass), stiffness, damping,
and forcing can be combined in various ways to generate mechanical systems. There
are also fluid systems, thermal systems, and systems that combine elements from at
least two different fields (or domains) to generate coupled-field (or multiple-field)
systems, such as electromechanical or thermoelectromechanical, to mention just
two possibilities.
8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

+ + i
R L C v v L
– –
C
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.6
(a) Individual Electrical Elements; (b) Electrical System Formed of These Components.

y1 y2
k1
k2
m1 m2
f2
c f1

FIGURE 1.7
MIMO Mechanical System With Linear Motion.

The response of a dynamical system is generated by external causes, such as

forcing or initial conditions. It is customary to name the cause that generates the
change in the system as input, whereas the resulting response is known as output.
A system can have one input and one output, in which case it is a SISO system or
it can have several inputs or several outputs, consequently known as MIMO system.
A SISO example is the single-mesh series-connection electrical circuit of
Figure 1.6(b). For this example the input is the voltage v, whereas the output is
the current i. A MIMO mechanical system is sketched in Figure 1.7, where there
are two inputs, the forces f1 and f2, and two outputs, the displacements y1 and y2.
The car models just analyzed are also MIMO systems, as they all have more than
one input or output.
The input signals (or forcing functions) that are applied to dynamic systems can
be deterministic or random in nature. This text is concerned with deterministic input
signals only, which are known, analytic functions of time. Elementary input signals
include the step, ramp, parabolic, sine (cosine), pulse, and impulse functions;
Figure 1.8 plots these functions in terms of time.

1.4 COMPLIANT MECHANISMS AND

MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS
In addition to examples that are somewhat classical for dynamics of engineering
systems, this text discusses several applications from the fields of compliant mech-
anisms and MEMS or NEMS. This book demonstrates that, under regular circum-
stances, simple applications from compliant mechanisms and MEMS can be
 1.4 Compliant Mechanisms and Microelectromechanical Systems 9

u u u
0, t < 0
A u=
0, t < 0 0, t < 0 A ⋅ t 2, t ≥ 0
u= u=
A, t ≥ 0 A ⋅ t, t ≥ 0

t t t
(a) (b) (c)

u u u
0, t < 0
A ∞ u=
A A A ⋅ sin ( ω ⋅ t ) , t ≥ 0
τ , 0≤ t ≤ τ lim
u= τ u = τ→0 τ A
0, t < 0, t > τ 0, t < 0, t > τ

τ t 0←τ t t

(d) (e) (f)

FIGURE 1.8
A Few Input Functions: (a) Step; (b) Ramp; (c) Parabolic; (d) Pulse; (e) Impulse;
(f) Sinusoidal.

reduced to lumped-parameter (most often) linear systems that are similar to other
well-established system dynamics examples.
Compliant (flexible) mechanisms are devices that use the elastic deformation of
slender, springlike portions, instead of classical rotation or sliding pairs to create,
transmit, or sense mechanical motion. The example of Figure 1.9 illustrates the rela-
tionship between a classical translation (sliding) joint with regular springs and the
corresponding compliant joint formed of flexure hinges (slender portions that
bend and enable motion transmission). The compliant device of Figure 1.9(a) is

Fixed support

Flexure hinges
y
k k
Body Motion direction m
k k
Flexure hinges

Fixed support
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.9
Realizing Translation: (a) Compliant Mechanism With Flexure Hinges; (b) Equivalent
Lumped-Parameter Model.
10 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

Compliant frame Flexure hinge

Rotation joint
Amplified output

Input Input

Amplified output

Piezoelectric actuator
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.10
Flexure-Based Planar Compliant Mechanism for Motion Amplification: (a) Photograph of
Actual Device; (b) Schematic Representation With Pointlike Rotation Joints.

constrained to move horizontally because the four identical flexure hinges bend
identically (in pairs of two), whenever a mechanical excitation is applied along
the motion direction. The lumped-parameter counterpart is drawn in
Figure 1.9(b), where the four identical flexure hinges have been substituted by
four identical translation springs, each of stiffness k.
Another compliant mechanism example is the one of Figure 1.10(a), which pic-
tures a piezoelectrically actuated, displacement-amplification device. Figure 1.10(b)
is the schematic representation of the actual mechanism, where the flexure hinges
are replaced by classical pointlike rotation joints. The schematic shows that the input
from the two piezoelectric (PZT) actuators is amplified twice by means of two lever
stages. The mechanism is clamped to and offset above the base centrally, as indi-
cated in Figure 1.10(a), and is free to deform and move in a plane parallel to the
base plane.
As monolithic (single-piece) devices, compliant mechanisms present several ad-
vantages over their classical counterparts, such as lack of assembly, no moving parts,
and therefore no losses due to friction between adjacent parts, no need for mainte-
nance, and simplicity of fabrication (although at costs that are higher generally
compared to classical manufacturing procedures). Their main drawback is that the
range of motion is reduced because of the constraints posed by limited deformations
of their compliant joints. Compliant mechanisms are encountered in both macro-
scale applications (with dimensions larger than millimeters) and micro- or nanoscale
ones (when the device dimensions are in the micrometer or nanometer range
(1 mm ¼ 106 m, 1 nm ¼ 109 m)), particularly in microelectromechanical systems.
In many situations, compliant mechanisms are built as single-piece (monolithic) de-
vices with techniques such as wire electro-discharge machining (wire EDM),
through water jet machining or by microfabrication techniques (for MEMS), such
as surface or bulk micromachining.
 1.4 Compliant Mechanisms and Microelectromechanical Systems 11

Anchor Flexure hinges Output motion

Electrostatic sensing
Thermal actuation

Input motion

Fixed armature

Anchor Output motion

FIGURE 1.11
Top View of Compliant MEMS With Thermal Actuation and Electrostatic Sensing of
Motion.

MEMS applications, such as sensors, actuators, pumps, motors, accelerometers,

gyroscopes, electrical or mechanical filters, electronic or optical switches, GPS
devices (to mention just a few), are encountered in the automotive, defense, medical,
biology, computing, and communications domains. Figure 1.11 is the microphoto-
graph of a flexure-hinge thermal microactuator, whose motion is sensed electrostat-
ically by several pairs of capacitors. The entire device floats over a substrate on
which it is attached by four anchors (two are shown in the figure).
Another MEMS application is sketched in Figure 1.12(a) and 1.12(b). It repre-
sents a torsional micromirror, which can be used in several applications such as dy-
namic redirectioning of incoming optical signals. Attraction/repulsion forces, which
can be produced electrostatically or magnetically, act on the side of and underneath
the central plate (the mirror) and generate partial rotation of the plate about the axis
that passes through the two end elastic hinges. The hinges deform in torsion, hence

Fixed support

Torsion hinge kr
Fixed plate

A
Mobile plate Mobile plate Jt

kr
Force

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.12
Torsional Micromirror: (a) Top View; (b) Side View (From A); (c) Equivalent Lumped-
Parameter Model.
12 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

the name torsional mirror. Figure 1.12(c) shows the equivalent lumped-parameter
model of the actual torsional mirror. Several other MEMS devices are analyzed in
subsequent chapters as mechanical, electrical, or coupled-field systems.

1.5 SYSTEM ORDER

As mentioned previously, the simplest linear dynamic system is described by a
constant-coefficient linear ODE. The order of the differential equation(s) gives the
order of the system, as is shown next. For a SISO system, the relationship between
the input u(t) and the output y(t) is described by a differential equation of the type
X
n
d i yðtÞ
ai $ ¼ b $ uðtÞ (1.1)
i¼0
dti

where ai (i ¼ 0 to n) and b are constant factors, and the input function u(t) can also
include derivatives. The maximum derivation order of the output function y(t) in a
system of the nth order is n, such that a second-order system, for instance, is defined
by a maximum-order input derivative of 2, and so on.

1.5.1 Zero-Order Systems

A zero-order system is defined by the equation
a0 $ yðtÞ ¼ b $ uðtÞ or yðtÞ ¼ K $ uðtÞ (1.2)
where K ¼ b/a0 is the constant gain or static sensitivity.
The static sensitivity constant reflects the storage nature of a zero-order system,
and this is illustrated in the following example. A force f is applied slowly (quasis-
tatically) to a massless body that is elastically supported by two identical springs, as
illustrated in Figure 1.13. The static equilibrium requires f ¼ fe, the elastic force be-
ing produced by two springs as fe ¼ 2k$y. As a consequence, the following equation
results:
1
y¼ $f (1.3)
2k
where the static sensitivity is K ¼ 1/(2k), and the input is f ¼ u.

y
k

f
k
Massless body
FIGURE 1.13
Massless Body With Springs.
 1.5 System Order 13

1.5.2 First-Order Systems

First-order systems are described by a differential equation:
dyðtÞ dyðtÞ
a1 $ þ a0 $ yðtÞ ¼ b $ uðtÞ or s $ þ yðtÞ ¼ K $ uðtÞ (1.4)
dt dt
where s is the time constant, and it is defined as s ¼ a1/a0. It can be seen that a first-
order system is described by two constants: the static sensitivity K and the time
constant sdthis latter one displays the dissipative side of a first-order system.
The thermal system sketched in Figure 1.14 is a first-order system, as shown next.

Thermometer
θ

Bath

θb

FIGURE 1.14
Bath-Thermometer Thermal System.

As detailed in Chapter 5, the heat flow rate stored by the thermometer during
contact is
dqðtÞ
q ¼ m$c$ (1.5)
dt
where c is the specific heat of the thermometer, m is its mass, and q is the thermom-
eter temperature. At the same time, it is known that convective heat transfer between
the bath and thermometer is governed by the equation
q ¼ h $ A $ ½qb  qðtÞ (1.6)
where h is the convection heat transfer (film) coefficient, and A is the thermometer
area in contact with the fluid. Equating the heat flow rates of Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) re-
sults in
m $ c dqðtÞ
$ þ qðtÞ ¼ qb (1.7)
h $ A dt
which indicates that s ¼ m$c/(h$A) and K ¼ 1. The input is the bath temperature qb,
and the output is the thermometer temperature q(t). Figure 1.15 displays a typical
first-order system response for the particular case where s ¼ 10 s and qb ¼ 80 C.
For a first-order system, the response to a step input can be characterized by the
steady-state response, y(N), the rise time (time after which the response gets to 90%
14 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

FIGURE 1.15
Thermometer Temperature as a Function of Time (Typical First-Order System Time
Response).

of the steady-state response, but other definitions are also applicable), and the
settling time (time necessary for the response to stay within 2% of the steady-
state response values); more details on this topic are given in the website Chapter
13, which studies the dynamics of control systems.

1.5.3 Second- and Higher-Order Systems

Second-order systems are defined by the following differential equation:
d2 yðtÞ dyðtÞ
a2 $ þ a1 $ þ a0 $ yðtÞ ¼ b $ uðtÞ (1.8)
dt2 dt
Division of Eq. (1.8) by a2 and rearrangement of the resulting equation yields
d2 yðtÞ dyðtÞ
þ 2x $ un $ þ u2n $ yðtÞ ¼ u2n $ K $ uðtÞ (1.9)
dt2 dt
where the new constants, the natural frequency un, and the damping ratio x, are
defined as
a0 a1 b b a0
¼ u2n ; ¼ 2x $ un ; ¼ $ ¼ K $ u2n (1.10)
a2 a2 a2 a0 a2
Let us prove that the mechanical system of Figure 1.16 operates as a second-
order system.
 1.5 System Order 15

y
k

m
f
c
FIGURE 1.16
Mechanical System With Mass, Spring, and Damper.

As detailed in Chapters 2 and 3, the equation of motion is derived by means of

Newton’s second law of motion as
d2 yðtÞ dyðtÞ d 2 yðtÞ c dyðtÞ k 1
m$ 2
¼ f ðtÞ  c $  k $ yðtÞ or 2
þ $ þ $ yðtÞ ¼ $ f ðtÞ
dt dt dt m dt m m
(1.11)
where f ¼ u; therefore, the three coefficients defining the second-order system are
k c 1
u2n ¼ ; 2x $ un ¼ ; K ¼ (1.12)
m m k
Based on this mechanical system, Figure 1.17 shows the time response of a
typical second-order system for f ¼ 1 N, x ¼ 0.5, un ¼ 100 rad/s, and K ¼ 1. The
main characteristics of the time response of a second-order system to a step input
are the steady-state response, the rise time, the peak time (time required for the

FIGURE 1.17
Mass Displacement as a Function of Time (Typical Second-Order System Time
Response).
16 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

Ra
Rotor armature
+ ia
va vb Jl
– cr
θ, ma
La Stator Load

FIGURE 1.18
Schematic of a DC Motor as an Electromechanical System.

response to reach its maximum value), the peak response (the maximum response),
and the settling time; all these parameters are studied in more detail in Chapter 13 in
the context of controls.
Systems of orders larger than two are also encountered in engineering applica-
tions, as in the following example, which results in a third-order system model.
The electromechanical system of Figure 1.18 consists of a dc (direct-current) motor
and load. The dynamic model of this rotary system consists of equations that
describe the mechanical, electrical, and mechanicaleelectrical (coupled-field)
behavior. Essentially, the electromechanical system sketched in Figure 1.18 is
formed of a mobile part (the rotor armature), which rotates under the action of a
magnetic field produced by the electrical circuit of an armature (the stator). The
electrical circuit is formed of a resistor Ra, an inductor La, and a voltage source
va. As discussed in Chapters 4 and 10, the electrical system’s behavior is governed
by Kirchhoff’s second law, according to which
dia ðtÞ
Ra $ ia ðtÞ þ La $ ¼ va ðtÞ  vb ðtÞ (1.13)
dt
where the subscript a indicates the armature, and vb is the back electromotive force
(voltage).
The mechanical part of the system is formed of the rotary load inertia Jl and a
rotary damper cr; according to Newton’s second law of motion and as detailed in
Chapters 3 and 10, the system is governed by the equation
d2 qðtÞ dqðtÞ
Jl $
2
¼ ma ðtÞ  cr $ (1.14)
dt dt
where ma is the torque developed due to the statorerotor interaction. It is also known
that the following equations couple the mechanical and electrical fields:
8
>
< ma ðtÞ ¼ Km $ ia ðtÞ
dqðtÞ (1.15)
>
: vb ðtÞ ¼ Ke $
dt
 1.6 Coupled-Field (Multiple-Field) Systems 17

with Km and Ke being constants. By combining Eqs. (1.13)e(1.15), the following

third-order differential equation is produced:
  2  
La $ Jl d3 qðtÞ La $ c r R a $ J l d qðtÞ Ra $ c r dqðtÞ
$ þ þ $ þ þ Ke $ ¼ va ðtÞ
Km dt3 Km Km dt2 Km dt
(1.16)
where va(t) is the input, and q(t) is the output. The order of Eq. (1.16) can be reduced
to two by using the substitution u(t) ¼ dq(t)/dt.

1.6 COUPLED-FIELD (MULTIPLE-FIELD) SYSTEMS

The previous example illustrated the interaction between mechanical and electrical
elements and systems that resulted in an electromechanical system. The correspond-
ing mathematical model is formed of equations pertaining to a single domain or field
(either mechanical or electrical) and equations combining elements from both fields.
Such a mathematical model is representative of coupled-field (or multiple-field) sys-
tems. Another example is presented here in a descriptive manner, and more details
on coupled-field systems are given in Chapter 10. Consider the system of
Figure 1.19, which is formed of a PZT block with a strain gauge attached to it.
Each of these two subsystems has its own electrical circuit. PZT materials essen-
tially deform when an external voltage is applied to them due to the inverse
piezoelectric effect. A voltage vi applied between the end points of the bloc sketched
in Figure 1.19 generates an axial deformation, which is proportional to the applied
voltage. Assuming now that the strain gauge (which is a resistor) is affixed longitu-
dinally to the block, the resistor incurs the same axial deformation as the block;

+ Actuation circuit
vi
–

Mechanical deformation Mechanical deformation

+
Strain gauge
vo
PZT linear actuator
–

Sensing circuit
FIGURE 1.19
Coupled-Field System With Mechanical, Electrical, and Piezoelectric Elements. PZT,
piezoelectric.
18 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

therefore, its resistance changes by a quantity proportional to the mechanical defor-

mation. This resistance change can be sensed in the external circuit and measured as
vo. To summarize, an equation is obtained that combines electrical, PZT, and me-
chanical elements; therefore, this system is a coupled-field one.
As illustrated by this example, the PZT block behaves as an actuator when sup-
plied with a voltage generating the mechanical motion. The dc motor is another actu-
ator (or motor) example, where the armature voltage is the source of shaft angular
rotation. More generically, an actuator transforms one form of energy (such as elec-
trical, most often) into mechanical energy.
A PZT block can also produce voltage when subjected to mechanical pressure or
deformation through direct PZT effect. In this case it behaves as a sensor (or gener-
ator) by converting one form of energy (mechanical in this particular situation) into
electrical energy to perform a measurement (quantitative assessment) operation. A
sensor generally aims at measuring the variation of a physical parameter, such as
displacement, velocity, acceleration, pressure, electrical resistance, also named
measurand, by converting that variation into another parameter’s variation, which
can subsequently be processed more easily. The two parameters are usually con-
nected by a linear relationship, which is typical of zero-order systems (see
Eq. 1.2), and where the input is the quantity to be measured, while the output is
the parameter that measures (the converted quantity). The two parameters are related
by the static sensitivity K, as illustrated in Figure 1.20. Being methods of converting
one form of energy into another one, actuation and sensing are known collectively as
transduction (although in many instances transduction substitutes for sensing). More
on transduction is discussed in Chapter 10, and in specialized measurement and
instrumentation texts.
Converted quantity

K
Quantity to be measured
FIGURE 1.20
Sensing Characteristics in a Linear Measurement Process.

1.7 LINEAR AND NONLINEAR DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

Linearity or nonlinearity of a dynamic system is mathematically associated with the
differential equation that defines the behavior of that specific system. A SISO sys-
tem, for instance, is linear when the coefficients ai of Eq. (1.1) do not depend on
 1.7 Linear and Nonlinear Dynamic Systems 19

the unknown function (response) y(t) and when the unknown function and its deriv-
atives in the left-hand side of Eq. (1.1) are first-degree polynomial functions. Sys-
tems where the coefficients ai are not constant (are time variable, for instance)
still preserve their linear character.
Consider a linear system whose output y(t) is formally expressed in terms of the
input u(t) as O(u) ¼ y where O is a linear operator. For an input c$u (c being a con-
stant factor), the resulting output is O(c$u) ¼ c$O(u) ¼ c$y; this property of linear
systems is known as scalability or homogeneity. Linear systems are also additive,
which means that when the input is a sum of multiple inputs, such as u1 þ u2, the
corresponding output becomes O(u1 þ u2) ¼ O(u1) þ O(u2) ¼ y1 þ y2. Combining
scaling and additivity results in O(c1$u1 þ c2$u2) ¼ O(c1$u1) þ O(c2$u2) ¼
c1$O(u1) þ c2$O(u2) ¼ c1$y1 þ c2$y2, where c1 and c2 are constant factors. This
linear superposition feature allows calculating the output of a dynamic system to
a linear combination of multiple inputs, which is c1$u1 þ c2$u2 þ ., by superim-
posing the system outputs to individual inputs, namely c1$y1 þ c2$y2 þ ..
An important consequence of linearity of systems and of their mathematical
models is that of enabling direct and inverse Laplace transformations. For instance,
Laplace transforming the linear Eq. (1.1) results in Y(s) ¼ G(s)$U(s), where Y(s) and
U(s) are the Laplace transforms of the output y(t) and input u(t), while G(s)dthe
transfer functiondplays the role of a gain function. The output y(t) can simply be
found by inverse Laplace transforming Y(s).
In a SISO mechanical system, nonlinearity can be produced by several factors
connected to either mass, stiffness, damping, or motion features. Consider the
body of mass m of Figure 1.21, which is attached by two identical springs of stiffness
k and of undeformed length l.
When the body moved a distance x to the right from the equilibrium position, the
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
elongation of each of the two identical springs is equal to l2 þ y2  l. By applying

k
l
m

l
k

y
FIGURE 1.21
Mass With Two Springs in Deformed Position as a Nonlinear Mechanical System.
Another random document with
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THE bird picture book proved indeed a great joy to May, as Billy had
thought it would, and many were the hours she spent poring over it
during the long winter days when bad weather kept her indoors. She
was quick to learn the names of the pictured birds she did not
already know by sight, and eager to find out all about them. The
Vicar could give her more information than anyone else. All she
learnt from him she repeated to Billy.

After Christmas Billy attended the village school. He was in better

health now, and far less nervous in every way. The distressing
dreams which had haunted his sleep for so many weeks disturbed
him no longer. "'Thou shalt not be afraid of the terror by night,'" he
reminded himself if he awoke in the darkness; whilst morning and
evening he prayed Tom Turpin's prayer, "'Be not Thou far from me, O
Lord,'" and felt it was answered.

It was a dragging winter, and a cold spring. With the lengthening

days came a spell of severe frost which lasted for weeks, when no
work could be done on the land. Mrs. Brown fussed because her
husband was obliged to be idle, but he was not in the least
disturbed.

"It'll be all right, Maria," he assured her cheerfully. "By-and-by spring

will come with a rush."

Such was indeed the case. Within one week there was a great
transformation scene. The wind changed from north-east to south-
west, a gentle rain fell on the frost-dried earth; then the rain ceased,
sunshine came, and the soft stir of awakening life.

There was plenty of work to be done out-of-doors now. William

Brown had the assistance of a couple of old men from the village,
and with them he laboured from dawn till dark. On Saturdays Billy
worked in the garden too. He helped his grandfather prepare the
beds for the small seeds, making the earth as fine as possible, and
learnt the different depths the various seeds had to be sown, and not
to sow them too thickly.
"You'll make a rare good gardener one of these days," his
grandfather told him approvingly; "your heart's in the work, I see."

At last all the seeds were in the ground. The garden at Rowley
Cottage, with its trim, smooth beds, was a picture of neatness. The
gardens in the allotment field were in a like condition. And now there
was a lull in the gardening.

Billy thought the seeds were slow in growing, but his grandfather
assured him that they were doing all right.

"But how can you tell, Grandfer?" the little boy inquired. "You can't
see them."

"No, Billy," William Brown answered; "I can't see them, but I've faith
as to what's going on underground. I've seen too many springtimes
to doubt that."

"And what's going on underground, Grandfer?" asked Billy.

"Why," his grandfather said gravely, "a miracle—the miracle of the

resurrection. It's too wonderful for us to understand. We don't see
the stir of life in the spring, but we see the effect of it in everything—
in the budding trees, the flowers, the fresh green grass. It's God's
life-giving spirit wakening the world from its winter sleep. We must
have patience. We sowed good seeds; bought them from a reliable
firm, and they're all right."

And all right they were. One morning William Brown announced, at
breakfast, that the turnips and parsnips were showing above the
ground. Before going to school Billy had a look at them. What tiny
plants they were! After that, other vegetables, such as carrots, beets,
and onions, were not long in appearing, and, once above ground,
they grew apace.

One afternoon Billy arrived home to tea, carefully carrying a small

pot containing a marrow plant, a gift from the postmaster. After tea,
under the directions of his grandfather, he tilled the marrow plant out.
"Uncle John has given Harold one, too, Grandfer," he said; "so we're
going to see which of us can grow the biggest marrow. The plants
are as alike as two plants can possibly be."

"John Dingle took the prize for marrows at the vegetable show last
year," William Brown remarked.

"Yes, he told me," Billy answered, adding; "He says he should like
one of us boys to win the prize this year. We both mean to try."

Accordingly he gave his plant every care and attention, shielding it

from the too fierce rays of the sun before it had properly rooted, and
watering it regularly. He was delighted with the quickness of its
growth. When it came into flower his grandfather advised him which
flowers to take off and which to let remain. He often called at the
post office to tell John Dingle how well the plant was doing. On one
of these occasions, hearing that May and Harold had gone to the
allotment field, he followed them there.

Harold was weeding in his father's garden when Billy arrived at the
allotment field Billy examined his marrow plant, which seemed in just
the same flourishing condition as his own, and then went in search of
May, who had wandered off to the river. He found her on the river's
bank. She turned a bright, happy face to him as he approached, and,
with her finger on her lip, whispered—

"Hush! There's a dip-chick's nest! I'm watching the baby dip-chicks!"

She pointed to a clump of grasses growing beneath the overhanging

bank opposite. Close by three baby dip-chicks were disporting
themselves in the water, whilst their mother swam around them,
keeping guard.

"Aren't they sweet little things?" whispered May. "Oh, look, there's
their father! What a hurry he's in!"

Sure enough there he was, running along the bank towards his
family. Suddenly he dived off into the river. There was a great flutter
for a moment or two, then father, mother, and baby dip-chicks had all
disappeared under the overhanging bank.

"They saw us," said May regretfully. "Now they'll hide till we're gone."

"Better come away from the water," advised Billy; "you might fall in."

"Oh, I'm ever so careful!" the little girl assured him. "I do love the
river; don't you? And it's so happy to-day! Listen how it laughs and
sings! That's because it's fine weather and the sun shines. Back in
the winter it was different—so dark and deep. Billy, it must be very
wise, mustn't it? for it's come such a long, long way, from up in the
Dartmoor hills. It's going right on to the sea. Mr. Singleton told me.
He comes here sometimes, and we listen to the river together. Oh,
look, look! What's that? There, up in the sky! And what a funny
noise, Billy!"

Billy's eyes followed the direction of the little girl's pointing finger, and
saw an aeroplane coming towards them, high in the sky. It looked
like a great bird in the distance, but he recognised it as an aeroplane
at a glance, for he had frequently seen them pass over London.
Though he knew there was little likelihood of this one being an
enemy, his heart throbbed fast at the sight of it. He explained to May
what it was; then Harold rushed up to them in a great state of
excitement.

"An aeroplane! An aeroplane!" he cried. "The first I've seen! Oh, I

hope father and mother and every one in the village will see it, too!
The men say it's most likely going to Plymouth."

He referred to several allotment holders who had been busy in their

gardens a few minutes before; they were now standing with heads
thrown back watching the strange sight. Nearer and nearer it came,
then passed right over the gardens.

"It's a biplane," said Billy, rather proud of his knowledge. "I've seen
several like it before. How fast it's going! And can't we hear its
engines working plainly! That's the funny noise you spoke of, May.
Buzz-z-z-z!"

May drew a deep sigh. She was watching the aeroplane with
breathless interest, her colour coming and going fitfully. It was
momentarily growing more and more like a bird as it sailed away.
When at last it was lost to view the children left the allotment field
and hurried back to the village. Every one had been out to watch.
The aeroplane was the talk of the place, and indeed of the
neighbourhood, for days.

CHAPTER XI.
GRANNY SURPRISES BILLY.

"I'M come to tea, mother," announced Mrs. Dingle, one hot August
afternoon, as she entered the kitchen at Rowley Cottage, where Mrs.
Brown stood ironing at a table near the open window. "I shan't be in
your way, shall I? Here, you rest a bit, and let me take on your irons."

"No, thank you," Mrs. Brown answered. "You were never a good
hand at ironing starchery, Elizabeth, and I can't bear to see it done
badly. I'm doing Billy's collars—such a lot there are! This hot weather
a collar rarely lasts him more than a day."

"I suppose he makes a lot of extra work for you," remarked Mrs.
Dingle, seating herself and taking off her hat.
"You suppose?" said her mother tartly. "As if you didn't know, when
you've a boy of your own! By the way, I believe May and Harold are
about here somewhere."

"They're in the garden—I've been there. They're helping net the

plum-trees. Billy's a born gardener, his grandfather says."

Mrs. Brown nodded.

"To give him his due, he's been a great help during the fruit-picking,"
she allowed. "All his spare time out of school hours during the
summer he's spent in the garden, and now it's holidays he's there
from morning till night. Did he show you his marrow—the one he is
going to cut for the show?"

"Yes. It's a beauty. Harold has one quite as large, though."

There was a brief silence, then Mrs. Dingle said—

"Mother, have you noticed any alteration in May lately? No? Oh, I
have, and her father too! She's far less dreamy and more interested
in things in general than she used to be. The other day we were
surprised to find she's really beginning to learn to read."

"No!" exclaimed Mrs. Brown incredulously.

"Yes, mother; yes, indeed! It seems it was Billy who taught her her
letters. Don't you remember how much time she spent with him after
his illness?"

"Of course! But I never paid much attention to them—they used to sit
on the settle by the fire, looking at the pictures in some story books
he has and talking in whispers. And he taught her then? Yes? Well, I
never!"

"She can read short words now," Mrs. Dingle said, with a tremble of
joyfulness in her voice. "Fancy! Oh, I think it's marvellous—
marvellous! It's been such a trouble to John and me that our little
maid should be so different from others."

"I always said she was only backward!" cried Mrs. Brown
triumphantly.

Mrs. Dingle nodded.

"Mr. Singleton says if you can interest her in anything she can learn
all about it quicker than most children," she said eagerly; "but if you
can't it's impossible to teach her or to chain her attention. She got
interested in Billy's books because there are such wonderful stories
in them, and that made her want to learn to read. Then Billy began to
teach her—he says it wasn't so very difficult; but I don't think he quite
realises what a great matter it is—that it shows our darling's intellect
is less clouded than we thought. Oh, mother, I don't feel now that I
shall fear for the child any more! Her school-teacher's most hopeful
about her, and I—oh, I'm grateful to God from the bottom of my
heart!"

Mrs. Brown changed her iron for a hotter one, and went on ironing
silently.

"I feel we owe a great deal to Billy," Mrs. Dingle proceeded,

"because he's been so good to May. From the first she took to him.
He's always been patient with her and never laughed at her quaint
ways. Harold's always saying, 'Don't talk so silly, May!'—not that he
means to be unkind, but because he gets impatient with her. Oh, I
see Billy's companionship has been a great thing for May! John sees
it too. And you do, don't you, mother?"

Mrs. Brown nodded.

"I'm not sorry now we had to have him here," she admitted, then
added: "As boys go, he's better than most; and I'll say this for him,
he never answers me back."
"He's a dear boy!" declared Mrs. Dingle. "I often think how his poor
mother must have loved him. Ah, here is May!"

The little girl was looking in at the window.

"The boys want to know if it's nearly teatime," she said.

"Yes," replied her grandmother; "by the time they've been in and
washed their hands tea will be ready."

May disappeared, returning ten minutes later with her grandfather

and the boys. Mrs. Brown had cleared away her ironing things and
was putting the last touches to the tea-table whilst she kept an eye
on her daughter, who was measuring the tea into the tea-pot.

"That will do, Elizabeth," she said.

"All right, mother," Mrs. Dingle answered; "I haven't put one more
spoonful than you told me to."

"Elizabeth's a capital tea-maker," William Brown remarked, smiling;

"she could always put more tea in a spoon without over-filling it than
anyone I ever knew."

At that everyone laughed, even Mrs. Brown. So the meal began

merrily and went on in the same happy way.

The conversation was mostly about the flower, fruit, and vegetable
show which was to be held in the Vicarage grounds that day week.
There was to be a prize for the prettiest bunch of wild flowers, for
which May intended to compete. Billy said he would help her gather
the flowers, but she shook her head.

"No one must help me," she said, "or it wouldn't be fair."

"Our marrows will grow a lot more in a week," remarked Billy. "I do
hope one of us will get the prize, Harold."

"You mean you hope you will get it," laughed Harold.
"I meant what I said," Billy replied. "Grandfer says your marrow is a
better shape than mine," he continued, "and that will be taken into
consideration. I went around and looked at all the marrows in the
allotment gardens yesterday, and there wasn't one to beat yours,
though I did see one that came near doing it."

"Yes, I know," Harold answered; "it belongs to a man called Gibbs."

"Is that the Gibbs who was had up for poaching last winter?" inquired
Mrs. Brown. "Yes. I should have thought he was too idle to have a
garden."

"He doesn't keep it in good condition," Harold explained; "it's

generally full of weeds; but, somehow, he's managed to grow good
marrows this year, and he's mighty proud of them."

Shortly after tea Mrs. Dingle went home, accompanied by her

children and Billy.

William Brown was expecting a business letter from Exeter, and, as

there was no second postal delivery at Ashleigh during the day, and
feeling sure the letter would be at the post office, he had asked Billy
to fetch it. The Exeter letter was there, and one, bearing a London
postmark, also addressed to "Mr. William Brown." Billy took the two
letters straight back to Rowley Cottage, and gave them to his
grandfather in the garden.

William Brown read the letter he had expected first, then opened the
other, and glanced through it quickly. It seemed to be of a startling
nature, for he turned very red and uttered an exclamation of
amazement. Then he read the letter a second time, very slowly and
carefully, his face exceedingly grave. After that he thought a while.

"Why, Billy," he said at length, "you never told me your mother had
an uncle in Scotland."

"I didn't know she had," Billy answered; "that is, I remember her
telling me she had an uncle, but she'd lost sight of him and didn't
know if he was living or dead. I think she said he was a sea captain."

"Exactly. This letter is from the master of the Institution where you
stopped in London. He'd had a letter from a Captain Foster, who
says he's your mother's uncle. Captain Foster, who has left the sea
and is now living in Glasgow, has only lately learnt of your mother's
sad death, and he and his wife, who are a childless couple, are
willing to give you a home and do the best they can for you. It's a
good offer, Billy, but—well, I don't want to part with you, my boy."

"And I don't want to leave you, Grandfer!" cried Billy. "I—I—oh, it's
not to be thought of, is it?"

"I don't know," William Brown said doubtfully; "maybe this Captain
Foster can do more for you than I can. Dear me, this is most
upsetting! I think I'd better go in and tell Maria, and hear what she
has to say."

Left alone, the little boy perched himself on the edge of a wheel-
barrow to consider the situation. Would he, indeed, be called upon to
leave the home he had learnt to love? The thought that he might be
wrung his heart.

"If it rests with Granny I shall have to go," he told himself sadly; "she
will be only too glad to get rid of me—she never wanted me here."

His eyes filled with tears as he looked around the garden. How he
loved it! What happy days he had spent here with Grandfer and May!
He had been looking forward to many more such happy days, but
now, perhaps, he would be sent far away. Suddenly he jumped off
the wheel-barrow, and hurried towards the house. He would not be
kept in suspense; he would find out what was to become of him at
once.

Arrived at the back door Billy stopped, his heart sinking despairingly.
From the kitchen came the sound of Mrs. Brown's voice, loud and
indignant.
"Oh, dear, she's in a temper," thought the little boy. "Perhaps I'd
better keep out of her sight."

But he was so anxious that he could not help lingering to listen. Then
he had a most wonderful surprise.

"Nonsense!" he heard Mrs. Brown exclaim, "Perfect nonsense! What

can he do for Billy more than we can? There's nothing for you to be
so upset about that I can see! Write to the man yourself and tell him
'No!' You've the first claim on the boy, for you're his grandfather.
There's no reason why we should give him up to any relation of his
mother's now."

Billy's heart gave a bound of joy. Then Granny was against sending
him away! It was amazing, but true. He rushed into the kitchen, his
eyes a-sparkle, his face aglow with delight. Mrs. Brown appealed to
him immediately.

"You don't want to leave us, child, do you?" she asked.

"No!" Billy cried; "No, no, no! I—I, oh, the thought of it was dreadful!"

"It was," William Brown agreed. "I was only putting it to you, Maria,
that this Captain Foster might be able to do more for Billy than I can,
and—"

"And I tell you I don't believe it!" interrupted his wife. "Billy's cut out
for a gardener, and he's in his right place. I daresay this Captain
Foster would want to send him to sea. You write and tell him we can't
give the boy up."

"Oh, Granny!" cried Billy. He made a rush at Mrs. Brown, and,

clasping her around the neck, kissed her. "I thought you'd be pleased
to be rid of me," he said, "but you really want me to stay. Oh, I am
glad—I am glad!"

Mrs. Brown gave a rather embarrassed laugh. She made no answer,

but her face softened, and her eyes were a little dim as she returned
the little boy's kiss.

"Now I know what to do," William Brown remarked, adding: "We shall
all sleep the better for having decided this matter to-night."

CHAPTER XII.
CONCLUSION.

WILLIAM BROWN wrote to Captain Foster that same night, and the
first thing after breakfast the following morning Billy hastened to the
village and posted the letter. Then he went into the post office, where
he found Mr. and Mrs. Dingle in earnest conversation, both looking
unusually grave.

"Oh, Billy," the latter began, "poor Harold's in trouble. He went to look
at his marrow before breakfast and found it gone."

"Do you mean it has been stolen?" gasped Billy, aghast.

"Yes," she assented, "stolen! Oh, it's really too bad! We've told the
policeman what's happened, but it's most improbable he'll be able to
find the thief. The marrow must have been taken during the night."

"Yes," agreed John Dingle, "for it was all right last evening—I saw it
myself after dusk."

"Oh, poor Harold!" cried Billy. "Where is he?" he asked.

"Out with May somewhere," replied Mrs. Dingle. "He's dreadfully
upset about this. But what brings you to the village so early, my
dear?"

Billy explained. When he had finished his tale Mrs. Dingle looked at
her husband meaningly, and said—

"There! Now what did I say, John? Didn't I tell you mother was
growing fond of Billy?"

"Yes, you certainly did," he answered, "and this proves you were
right. You're glad to remain at Rowley Cottage, Billy?"

"Oh, Uncle John, I don't know what I should have felt if Granny had
said I must go! Of course I knew Grandfer wouldn't want me to go,
but I was so afraid Granny would. You can't imagine how glad I was
to hear she didn't like the idea of my going! She was quite upset
about it. I am so glad, so glad!"

After a little further conversation Billy left to return home. He had not
gone far from the village when he heard, someone shouting, and,
looking back, saw Harold running after him. He stopped immediately.

"Father said I should overtake you it I ran," Harold said, as he came

up. "May and I came home just after you'd left—we'd been to the
allotment field again, looking everywhere for my marrow, but of
course we couldn't find a trace of it. You've heard what's happened?"

Billy nodded.

"I'm so sorry," he said simply, his voice full of sympathy; "it's a great
shame!"

"I'd give a great deal to know for certain who's had it!" Harold cried
fiercely. "I suspect that fellow Gibbs, and I believe father does too,
though he doesn't like to say so. Gibbs believes his marrow will be
the best exhibited at the show now, but he'll be mistaken! He doesn't
know about yours, and we must take care he doesn't!"
"If mine gets the prize we'll divide the money," said Billy. "Five
shillings it'll be, won't it?"

"Yes, but—oh, do you really mean it?"

"Of course I do! Half-a-crown each will be worth having, won't it?"

"Worth having? I should think so! But—but it wouldn't be fair to you if

I took half your prize money."

"Oh, yes, it would be, because I should wish it."

The boys were walking on side by side now. There was a brief
silence, then Harold suddenly exclaimed—

"You're a real brick, Billy. I've always been nasty to you about your
gardening tools, and begrudged your having them—you must have
seen it, yet you lent me your hand-fork when I broke mine, and—oh,
it's been too mean of me! I'm sure if someone had stolen your
marrow and I thought I was going to get the prize I shouldn't offer to
divide it with you—at least, I don't think I should—"

"Oh, I expect you would!" Billy broke in. "Anyway, if I win the prize we
go shares, mind! That's agreed."

The fields on the slope of the hill behind Rowley Cottage were now
golden with corn as tall as the boys themselves, and ripening fast
under the kisses of the hot August sun. The boys raced down the
narrow foot-track behind each other, through the orchard, and into
the garden. There they found William Brown whistling light-heartedly
as he weeded his asparagus bed. He heard of the loss Harold had
had with much concern.

"I can't tell you how sorry I am, Harold," he said; "it's a great
disappointment for you. We must watch that Billy's marrow doesn't
go in the same way."

"Yes," agreed both boys eagerly, "that we must!"

But Billy's marrow was undisturbed. It continued to grow and ripen till
the morning of the show, when Grandfer cut it and the boys
conveyed it between them to the large tent which had been erected
on the Vicarage lawn, under which most of the exhibits of flowers,
fruit, and vegetables were already on the stalls.

Billy's marrow was put on a stall with a lot of others. The boys had
the satisfaction of seeing, at a glance, that it was the best marrow
there, for shape, colour, and size. An ill-kept, sullen-looking man who
was standing near saw this, too. He shot a scowling look from one
boy to the other, and moved away.

"That's Gibbs!" Harold whispered to Billy excitedly. "He's brought his

marrow, but it's smaller than yours. I thought it was, but I couldn't be
sure till I saw them together. Doesn't he look sold—and guilty?"

"Hush!" admonished Billy, "Someone may hear you. If we're right in

what we think we can't prove it, you know."

Gibbs had slunk out of the tent and disappeared. He did not return
when the exhibits were being judged, nor did he come near the show
again. Apparently his whole interest in it had gone.

The show opened at two o'clock. It was well attended, nearly every
one in the parish being present. Mrs. Brown, who seldom left home,
was there under the escort of her husband and Billy. She was in high
good humour, for Billy's marrow had won the prize; and when she
came to the stall on which the wild flowers were being exhibited,
there, in the centre, was a beautiful bouquet bearing a card on which
was written: "First Prize—May Dingle." She felt, as she said, quite
proud to be connected with two prize-winners.

The prizes were distributed by the Vicar. Next day all the vegetable
exhibits, by agreement of the exhibitors, were packed carefully and
sent off as a gift to the Fleet, whilst the flowers were returned to their
owners. May gave her bouquet to her grandmother, and for several
days it graced the round table in the middle of the parlour at Rowley
Cottage.
Corn harvest was now commencing. Billy took great interest in
Farmer Turpin's "reaper and binder," which he thought the most
marvellous piece of machinery there could possibly be. One day it
arrived to cut the corn in the fields near Rowley Cottage, and he
spent hours in watching it as it worked, gathering the corn into a
sheaf and cutting the stalks and tying them, then throwing the sheaf
out on the ground, and going through the same programme
continuously as it went on. Billy followed it till he was tired, then sat
down on a big stone near the gateway leading into the road, and
watched it from there.

So closely did it chain his attention that he failed to notice a khaki-

clad figure coming towards him, and started up in joyful surprise
when a well-remembered voice cried—

"Well met!"

The next instant he was shaking hands with Tom Turpin, back on
leave from France again.

"Is there room for two on that stone?" asked the young soldier, and,
Billy assenting eagerly, they sat down together. "I arrived home the
day before yesterday," he continued, his blue eyes looking lovingly
across the valley to Mount Farm on the opposite hill. "I can tell you
it's good to be home, my boy! How beautiful everything is! 'The
pastures are clothed with flocks; the valleys also are covered with
corn; they shout for joy, they also sing.' This is a blessed land, Billy.
Where I have come from there will be no harvest—all is desolation
and ruin. Here there is plenty, and oh, the peacefulness of it all!"

There was a note of sadness in Tom's voice, whilst his eyes had a
wistful expression in them. For a minute his face was clouded, then it
cleared, and he went on—

"Father's behind, talking to your grandfather, but he'll join me

presently. Meanwhile, tell me about yourself. I've heard of the great
marrow you grew. I wish I'd been home in time to see it. I've just
come from your grandfather's garden. It's a picture worth looking at.
Your grandfather always grew good vegetables, but this year they're
just splendid."

"I helped plant some of them," said Billy proudly.

"So I've heard," smiled Tom Turpin; "your grandfather says you've
done a lot of real hard work."

"Thanks to your tools!" exclaimed Billy. "I couldn't have done half so
much without them. I've taken great care of them, Mr. Turpin; they
are as bright as bright!"

Tom Turpin looked pleased.

"You seem remarkably 'fit,' Billy," he said; "you're rather different now
from the timid little chap I remember. You've grown a couple of
inches, I should say, and your face is almost as brown as mine. You
look happy, too."

"I am happy," Billy said earnestly. "When mother was killed I never
thought I should be happy again; but, oh, I am! And things which
used to frighten me don't frighten me any longer now. I pray your
prayer, 'Be not Thou far from me, O Lord,' and that helps me to be
brave—you understand."

"I do understand, my boy."

"I love being here," Billy continued; "I love the hills, and the river, and
the woods, and, most of all, I love Grandfer's garden. It was so
wonderful in the spring to see everything coming to life. You see I
was never in the country, in the spring, before this year. I suppose
that's why I thought it so wonderful. Everything—the river, the
woods, the grasses in the fields, seemed to be whispering—always
saying the same!"

"What was that?" Tom Turpin asked. "Is it a secret?"

"Oh, no!" Billy answered. "I'll tell you. I told little May, and she said
she could hear it, too. It was 'The gift of God is eternal life through
Jesus Christ, our Lord.' Just that, over and over again."

THE END.

LONDON: PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED.

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