Human Skelebon

human skeleton
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Human skeleton, the internal skeleton that serves as a framework for the body.
This framework consists of many individual bones and cartilages. There also are
bands of fibrous connective tissue—the ligaments and the tendons—
in intimate relationship with the parts of the skeleton. This article is concerned
primarily with the gross structure and the function of the skeleton of the
normal human adult.
The human skeleton, like that of other vertebrates, consists of two principal
subdivisions, each with origins distinct from the others and each presenting certain
individual features. These are (1) the axial, comprising the vertebral column—the
spine—and much of the skull, and (2) the appendicular, to which the pelvic (hip) and
pectoral (shoulder) girdles and the bones and cartilages of the limbs belong.
Discussed in this article as part of the axial skeleton is a third subdivision,
the visceral, comprising the lower jaw, some elements of the upper jaw, and the
branchial arches, including the hyoid bone.
When one considers the relation of these subdivisions of the skeleton to the soft parts
of the human body—such as the nervous system, the digestive system, the respiratory
system, the cardiovascular system, and the voluntary muscles of the muscle system—
it is clear that the functions of the skeleton are of three different types: support,
protection, and motion. Of these functions, support is the most primitive and the
oldest; likewise, the axial part of the skeleton was the first to evolve. The vertebral
column, corresponding to the notochord in lower organisms, is the main support of
the trunk.
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The central nervous system lies largely within the axial skeleton, the brain being well
protected by the cranium and the spinal cord by the vertebral column, by means of
the bony neural arches (the arches of bone that encircle the spinal cord) and the
intervening ligaments.
A distinctive characteristic of humans as compared with other mammals is

erect posture. The human body is to some extent like a walking tower that moves on
pillars, represented by the legs. Tremendous advantages have been gained from this
erect posture, the chief among which has been the freeing of the arms for a great
variety of uses. Nevertheless, erect posture has created a number of mechanical
problems—in particular, weight bearing. These problems have had to be met
by adaptations of the skeletal system.
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human skeleton
A diagram of the human skeleton showing bone and cartilage.
Protection of the heart, lungs, and other organs and structures in the chest creates a
problem somewhat different from that of the central nervous system. These organs,
the function of which involves motion, expansion, and contraction, must have a
flexible and elastic protective covering. Such a covering is provided by the bony
thoracic basket, or rib cage, which forms the skeleton of the wall of the chest,
or thorax. The connection of the ribs to the breastbone—the sternum—is in all cases a
secondary one, brought about by the relatively pliable rib (costal) cartilages. The
small joints between the ribs and the vertebrae permit a gliding motion of the ribs on
the vertebrae during breathing and other activities. The motion is limited by the
ligamentous attachments between ribs and vertebrae.
The third general function of the skeleton is that of motion. The great majority of the
skeletal muscles are firmly anchored to the skeleton, usually to at least two bones and
in some cases to many bones. Thus, the motions of the body and its parts, all the way
from the lunge of the football player to the delicate manipulations of a handicraft
artist or of the use of complicated instruments by a scientist, are made possible by
separate and individual engineering arrangements between muscle and bone.
In this article the parts of the skeleton are described in terms of their sharing in these
functions. The disorders and injuries that can affect the human skeleton are
described in the article bone disease.
Axial and visceral skeleton

The cranium
human skull
(Left) Lateral and (right) frontal views of the human skull.
inferior view of the human skull

The cranium—the part of the skull that encloses the brain—is sometimes called the
braincase, but its intimate relation to the sense organs for sight, sound, smell, and
taste and to other structures makes such a designation somewhat misleading.
Development of cranial bones
The cranium is formed of bones of two different types of developmental origin—
the cartilaginous, or substitution, bones, which replace cartilages preformed in the
general shape of the bone; and membrane bones, which are laid down within layers
of connective tissue. For the most part, the substitution bones form the floor of the
cranium, while membrane bones form the sides and roof.
The range in the capacity of the cranial cavity is wide but is not directly proportional
to the size of the skull, because there are variations also in the thickness of the bones
and in the size of the air pockets, or sinuses. The cranial cavity has a rough, uneven
floor, but its landmarks and details of structure generally are consistent from one
skull to another.
The cranium forms all the upper portion of the skull, with the bones of the face
situated beneath its forward part. It consists of a relatively few large bones,
the frontal bone, the sphenoid bone, two temporal bones, two parietal bones, and
the occipital bone. The frontal bone underlies the forehead region and extends back
to the coronal suture, an arching line that separates the frontal bone from the two
parietal bones, on the sides of the cranium. In front, the frontal bone forms
a joint with the two small bones of the bridge of the nose and with the zygomatic
bone (which forms part of the cheekbone; see below The facial bones and their
complex functions), the sphenoid, and the maxillary bones. Between the nasal and
zygomatic bones, the horizontal portion of the frontal bone extends back to form a
part of the roof of the eye socket, or orbit; it thus serves an important protective
function for the eye and its accessory structures.
Each parietal bone has a generally four-sided outline. Together they form a large
portion of the side walls of the cranium. Each adjoins the frontal, the sphenoid, the
temporal, and the occipital bones and its fellow of the opposite side. They are almost
exclusively cranial bones, having less relation to other structures than the other
bones that help to form the cranium.
Interior of the cranium

The interior of the cranium shows a multitude of details, reflecting the shapes of the
softer structures that are in contact with the bones.
The internal surface of the vault is relatively uncomplicated. In the midline front to
back, along the sagittal suture, the seam between the two parietal bones, is a shallow
depression—the groove for the superior longitudinal venous sinus, a large channel
for venous blood. A number of depressions on either side of it mark the sites of the
pacchionian bodies, structures that permit the venous system to
absorb cerebrospinal fluid. The large thin-walled venous sinuses all lie within the
cranial cavity. While they are thus protected by the cranium, in many places they are
so close beneath the bones that a fracture or a penetrating wound may tear the sinus
wall and lead to bleeding. The blood frequently is trapped beneath the outermost and
toughest brain covering, the dura mater, in a mass called a subdural hematoma.
Conspicuous markings on the internal surface of the projection of the sphenoid,

called the greater wing, and on the internal surfaces of the parietal and temporal
bones are formed by the middle meningeal artery and its branches, which supply
blood to the brain coverings. Injury to these vessels may lead to extradural
hematoma, a mass of blood between the dura mater and the bone.
In contrast to the vault and sides of the cranium, the base presents an extremely
complicated aspect. It is divided into three major depressions, or fossae, in a
descending stair-step arrangement from front to back. The fossae are divided strictly
according to the borders of the bones of the cranium but are related to major
portions of the brain. The anterior cranial fossa serves as the bed in which rest the
frontal lobes of the cerebrum, the large forward part of the brain. The middle cranial
fossa, sharply divided into two lateral halves by a central eminence of bone, contains
the temporal lobes of the cerebrum. The posterior cranial fossa serves as a bed for the
hemispheres of the cerebellum (a mass of brain tissue behind the brain stem and
beneath the rear portion of the cerebrum) and for the front and middle portion of
the brain stem. Major portions of the brain are thus partially enfolded by the bones
of the cranial wall.
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There are openings in the three fossae for the passage of nerves and blood vessels,
and the markings on the internal surface of the bones are from the attachments of
the brain coverings—the meninges—and venous sinuses and other blood vessels.
The anterior cranial fossa shows a crestlike projection in the midline, the crista galli
(“crest of the cock”). This is a place of firm attachment for the falx cerebri, a
subdivision of dura mater that separates the right and left cerebral hemispheres. On
either side of the crest is the cribriform (pierced with small holes) plate of
the ethmoid bone, a midline bone important as a part both of the cranium and of the
nose. Through the perforations of the plate run many divisions of the olfactory, or
first cranial, nerve, coming from the mucous membrane of the nose. At the sides of
the plate are the orbital plates of the frontal bone, which form the roofs of the eye
sockets. Their inner surfaces are relatively smooth but have a number of sharp
irregularities more obvious to the touch than to the sight. These irregularities mark
attachments of dura mater to bone.
The rear part of the anterior cranial fossa is formed by those portions of the sphenoid
bone called its body and lesser wings. Projections from the lesser wings, the anterior
clinoid (bedlike) processes, extend back to a point beside each optic foramen, an
opening through which important optic nerves, or tracts, enter into the protection of
the cranial cavity after a relatively short course within the eye socket.
The central eminence of the middle cranial fossa is specialized as a saddlelike seat for
the pituitary gland. The posterior portion of this seat, or sella turcica (“Turk’s
saddle”), is actually wall-like and is called the dorsum sellae. The pituitary gland is
thus situated in almost the centre of the cranial cavity. It is covered also by the brain
coverings and has no connection with the exterior of the cranium except by blood
vessels.
The deep lateral portions of the middle cranial fossa contain the temporal lobes of
the cerebrum. In the forward part of the fossa are two openings: the superior
orbital fissure, opening into the eye cavity; and the foramen rotundum, for the
passage of the maxillary nerve, which serves the upper jaw and adjacent structures.
Farther back are the conspicuous foramen ovale, an opening for the mandibular
nerve to the lower jaw, and the foramen spinosum, for the middle meningeal artery,
which brings blood to the dura mater.
Also in the middle fossa, near the apex of that part of the temporal bone called the
petrous (stonelike) temporal bone, is the jagged opening called the foramen lacerum.
The lower part of the foramen lacerum is blocked by fibrocartilage, but through its
upper part passes the internal carotid artery, surrounded by a network of autonomic
nerves, as it makes its way to the interior of the cranial cavity.
The delicate structures of the internal ear are not entrusted to the cranial cavity as
such but lie within the petrous portion of the temporal bone in a bony labyrinth, into
which the thin-walled membranous labyrinth, with its areas of sensory cells, is more
or less accurately fitted but with an adequate space for protective fluid, the
perilymph, between bone and membrane.
The posterior cranial fossa is above the vertebral column and the muscles of the back
of the neck. The foramen magnum, the opening through which the brain and
the spinal cord make connection, is in the lowest part of the fossa. Between its
forward margin and the base of the dorsum sellae is a broad, smooth, bony surface
called the clivus (Latin for “hill”). The bridgelike pons and the pyramid-like medulla
oblongata of the brain stem lie upon the clivus and are separated from the bone only
by their coverings. Near the foramen magnum are ridges for attachment of folds of
the dura mater.
In the sides of the posterior cranial fossa are two transverse grooves, each of which,
in part of its course, is separated by extremely thin bone from the mastoid air cells in
back of the ear. Through other openings, the jugular foramina, pass the large blood
channels called the sigmoid sinuses and also the 9th (glossopharyngeal), 10th
(vagus), and 11th (spinal accessory) cranial nerves as they leave the cranial cavity.
The vessels, as well as the cranial nerves, are subject to injury at the openings into or
from the cranial cavity and in special areas, such as close to the mastoid air cells. In
the latter location, mastoiditis may lead to enough breakdown of bone to allow
disease-bearing organisms to reach the other structures within the cranial cavity.
The hyoid: example of the anchoring function
human hyoid bone
The primary function of the hyoid bone is to serve as an anchoring structure for
the tongue. The bone is situated at the root of the tongue in the front of the neck and
between the lower jaw and the largest cartilage of the larynx, or voice box. It has
no articulation with other bones and thus has a purely anchoring function.
The hyoid consists of a body, a pair of larger horns, called the greater cornua, and a
pair of smaller horns, called the lesser cornua. The bone is more or less in the shape
of a U, with the body forming the central part, or base, of the letter. In the act of
swallowing, the hyoid bone, tongue, and larynx all move upward rapidly.
The greater cornua are the limbs of the U. Their outer ends generally are overlapped
by the large sternocleidomastoid muscles. The lesser cornua are small projections
from the places called, somewhat arbitrarily, the junctions of the body and the
greater cornua. The hyoid bone has certain muscles of the tongue attached to it.
The hyoglossus muscles originate on each side from the whole length of the greater
cornua and also from the body of the hyoid. They are inserted into the posterior half
or more of the sides of the tongue. The hyoid bone anchors them when they contract
to depress the tongue and widen the oral cavity. The two geniohyoid muscles
originate close to the point at which the two halves of the lower jaw meet; the fibres
of the muscles extend downward and backward, close to the central line, to be
inserted into the body of the hyoid bone. Contraction of the muscles pulls the hyoid
bone upward and forward.
Inserting into the middle part of the lower border of the hyoid bone are the
sternohyoids, long muscles arising from the breastbone and collarbone and running
upward and toward each other in the neck.
Other muscles attached to the hyoid bone are the two mylohyoid muscles, which
form a sort of diaphragm for the floor of the mouth; the thyrohyoid, arising from the
thyroid cartilage, the largest cartilage of the larynx; and the omohyoid, which
originates from the upper margin of the shoulder blade and from a ligament, the
suprascapular ligament.
The position of the hyoid bone with relation to the muscles attached to it has been
likened to that of a ship steadied as it rides when anchored “fore and aft.” Through
the muscle attachments, the hyoid plays an important role in mastication,
in swallowing, and in voice production.
At the beginning of a swallowing motion, the geniohyoid and mylohyoid muscles
elevate the bone and the floor of the mouth simultaneously. These muscles are
assisted by the stylohyoid and digastric muscles. The tongue is pressed upward
against the palate, and the food is forced backward.
The facial bones and their complex functions
The upper jaws
The larger part of the skeleton of the face is formed by the maxillae. Though they are
called the upper jaws, the extent and functions of the maxillae include much more
than serving as complements to the lower jaw, or mandible. They form the middle
and lower portion of the eye socket. They have the opening for the nose between
them, beneath the lower borders of the small nasal bones. A sharp projection, the
anterior nasal spine, is formed by them at the centre of the lower margin of the
opening for the nose, the nasal aperture.
The infraorbital foramen, an opening into the floor of the eye socket, is the forward
end of a canal through which passes the infraorbital branch of the maxillary nerve,
the second division of the fifth cranial nerve. It lies slightly below the lower margin of
the socket.
The alveolar margin, containing the alveoli, or sockets, in which all the upper teeth
are set, forms the lower part of each maxilla, while a lateral projection from each
forms the zygomatic process, forming a joint with the zygomatic, or malar, bone
(cheekbone).
The lower jaw
human mandible
Human mandible (lower jawbone).
The left and right halves of the lower jaw, or mandible, begin originally as two
distinct bones, but in the second year of life the two bones fuse at the midline to form
one. The horizontal central part on each side is the body of the mandible. The upper
portion of the body is the alveolar margin, corresponding to the alveolar margins of
the maxillae. The projecting chin, at the lower part of the body in the midline, is said
to be a distinctive characteristic of the human skull. On either side of the chin is the
mental foramen, an opening for the mental branch of the mandibular nerve, the third
division of the fifth cranial nerve.
The ascending parts of the mandible at the side are called rami (branches). The joints
by means of which the lower jaw is able to make all its varied movements are
between a rounded knob, or condyle, at the upper back corner of each ramus and a
depression, called a glenoid fossa, in each temporal bone. Another, rather sharp
projection at the top of each ramus and in front, called a coronoid process, does not
form part of a joint. Attached to it is the temporalis muscle, which serves with other
muscles in shutting the jaws. On the inner side of the ramus of either side is a large,
obliquely placed opening into a channel, the mandibular canal, for nerves, arteries,
and veins.
The zygomatic arch, forming the cheekbone, consists of portions of three bones: the
maxilla, in front; the zygomatic bone, centrally in the arch; and a projection from the
temporal bone to form the rear part. The zygomatic arch actually serves as a firm
bony origin for the powerful masseter muscle, which descends from it to insert on the
outer side of the mandible. The masseter muscle shares with the temporalis muscle
and lateral and medial pterygoid muscles the function of elevating the mandible in
order to bring the lower against the upper teeth, thus achieving bite.
The spine
The assumption of erect posture during the development of the human species has
led to a need for adaptation and changes in the human skeletal system. The very form
of the human vertebral column is due to such adaptations and changes.
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The vertebral column

human vertebral column
The vertebral column is not actually a column but rather a sort of spiral spring in the
form of the letter S. The newborn child has a relatively straight backbone. The
development of the curvatures occurs as the supporting functions of the vertebral
column in humans—i.e., holding up the trunk, keeping the head erect, serving as an
anchor for the extremities—are developed.
The S-curvature enables the vertebral column to absorb the shocks of walking on
hard surfaces; a straight column would conduct the jarring shocks directly from the
pelvic girdle to the head. The curvature meets the problem of the weight of the
viscera. In an erect animal with a straight column, the column would be pulled
forward by the viscera. Additional space for the viscera is provided by the concavities
of the thoracic and pelvic regions.
Weight distribution of the entire body is also effected by the S-curvature. The upper
sector to a large extent carries the head; the central sector carries the thoracic
viscera, the organs and structures in the chest; and the lower sector carries the
abdominal viscera. If the column were straight, the weight load would increase from
the head downward and be relatively great at the base. Lastly, the S-curvature
protects the vertebral column from breakage. The doubly bent spring arrangement is
far less vulnerable to fracture than would be a straight column.
The protective function of the skeleton is perhaps most conspicuous in relation to

the central nervous system, although it is equally important for the heart and lungs
and some other organs. A high degree of protection for the nervous system is made
possible by the relatively small amount of motion and expansion needed by the
component parts of this system and by certain physiological adaptations relating to
circulation, to the cerebrospinal fluid, and to the meninges, the coverings of the brain
and spinal cord. The brain itself is snugly enclosed within the boxlike cranium.
Sharing in the protection afforded by the cranium is the pituitary gland, or
hypophysis.
The spinal cord

For the spinal cord, with its tracts of nerve fibres traveling to and from the brain, the
placement in relation to the spinal column is somewhat like that of a candle in a
lantern. Normally, there is considerable space between the nervous and the bony
tissue, space occupied by the meninges, by the cerebrospinal fluid, and by a certain
amount of fat and connective tissue. In front are the heavy centrums, or bodies, of
the vertebrae and the intervertebral disks—the tough, resilient pads between the
vertebral bodies—while in back and on the sides the cord is enclosed and protected
by the portion of each vertebra called the neural arch. Between the neural arches are
sheets of elastic connective tissue, the interlaminar ligaments, or ligamenta flava.
Here some protective function has to be sacrificed for the sake of motion, because a
forward bending of part of the column leads to separation between the laminae and
between the spines of the neural arches of adjoining vertebrae. It is through the
ligamenta flava of the lower lumbar region (the small of the back) that the needle
enters the subarachnoid space in the procedure of lumbar puncture (spinal tap).
Besides its role in support and protection, the vertebral column is important in the
anchoring of muscles. Many of the muscles attached to it are so arranged, in fact, as
to move either the column itself or various segments of it. Some are
relatively superficial, and others are deep-lying. The large and important erector
spinae, as the name implies, holds the spine erect. It begins on the sacrum (the large
triangular bone at the base of the spinal column) and passes upward, forming a mass
of muscle on either side of the spines of the lumbar vertebrae. It then divides into
three columns, ascending over the back of the chest. Although slips (narrow strips) of
the muscle are inserted into the vertebrae and ribs, it does not terminate thus; fresh
slips arise from these same bones and continue on up into the neck until one of the
divisions, known as the longissimus capitis, finally reaches the skull.
Small muscles run between the transverse processes (projections from the sides of
the neural rings) of adjacent vertebrae, between the vertebral spines (projections
from the centres of the rings), and from transverse process to spine, giving great
mobility to the segmented bony column.
The anchoring function of the spinal column is of great importance for the muscles
that arise on the trunk, in whole or part from the column or from ligaments attached
to it, and that are inserted on the bones of the arms and legs. Of these muscles, the
most important for the arms are the latissimus dorsi (drawing the arm backward and
downward and rotating it inward), the trapezius (rotating the shoulder blade), the
rhomboideus, and the levator scapulae (raising and lowering the shoulder blade); for
the legs, the psoas (loin) muscles.
The rib cage
human rib cage
The rib cage, or thoracic basket, consists of the 12 thoracic (chest) vertebrae, the 24
ribs, and the breastbone, or sternum. The ribs are curved, compressed bars of bone,
with each succeeding rib, from the first, or uppermost, becoming more open in
curvature. The place of greatest change in curvature of a rib, called its angle, is found
several inches from the head of the rib, the end that forms a joint with the vertebrae.
The first seven ribs are attached to the breastbone by cartilages called costal
cartilages; these ribs are called true ribs. Of the remaining five ribs, which are called
false, the first three have their costal cartilages connected to the cartilage above
them. The last two, the floating ribs, have their cartilages ending in the muscle in the
abdominal wall.
Through the action of a number of muscles, the rib cage, which is semirigid but
expansile, increases its size. The pressure of the air in the lungs thus is reduced below
that of the outside air, which moves into the lungs quickly to restore equilibrium.
These events constitute inspiration (breathing in). Expiration (breathing out) is a
result of relaxation of the respiratory muscles and of the elastic recoil of the lungs
and of the fibrous ligaments and tendons attached to the skeleton of the thorax. A
major respiratory muscle is the diaphragm, which separates the chest and abdomen
and has an extensive origin from the rib cage and the vertebral column.
The configuration of the lower five ribs gives freedom for the expansion of the lower
part of the rib cage and for the movements of the diaphragm.
The appendicular skeleton
Pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle
The upper and lower extremities of humans offer many interesting points of
comparison and of contrast. They and their individual components are homologous—
i.e., of a common origin and patterned on the same basic plan. A long evolutionary
history and profound changes in the function of these two pairs of extremities have
led, however, to considerable differences between them.
cartilage
Micrograph showing fibrocartilage (centre) surrounded by areas of hyaline cartilage (upper left and right)
that are being converted to bone.(more)
The girdles are those portions of the extremities that are in closest relation to the axis
of the body and that serve to connect the free extremity (the arm or the leg) with that
axis, either directly, by way of the skeleton, or indirectly, by muscular attachments.
The connection of the pelvic girdle to the body axis, or vertebral column, is by means
of the sacroiliac joint. On the contiguous surfaces of the ilium (the rear and upper
part of the hip bone) and of the sacrum (the part of the vertebral column directly
connected with the hip bone) are thin plates of cartilage. The bones are closely fitted
together in this way, and there are irregular masses of softer fibrocartilage in places
joining the articular cartilages; at the upper and posterior parts of the joint there are
fibrous attachments between the bones. In the joint cavity there is a small amount of
synovial fluid. Strong ligaments, known as anterior and posterior sacroiliac and
interosseous ligaments, bind the pelvic girdle to the vertebral column. These fibrous
attachments are the chief factors limiting motion of the joint, but the condition, or
tone, of the muscles in this region is important in preventing or correcting the
sacroiliac problems that are of common occurrence.
human hip and pelvis

Anterior view of the hip and pelvis, showing attachment of ligaments to the femur, ilium, ischium, and
pubis.(more)
The pelvic girdle consists originally of three bones, which become fused in early
adulthood and each of which contributes a part of the acetabulum, the deep cavity
into which the head of the thighbone, or femur, is fitted. The flaring upper part of the
girdle is the ilium; the lower anterior part, meeting with its fellow at the midline, is
the pubis; and the lower posterior part is the ischium. Each ischial bone has a
prominence, or tuberosity, and it is upon these tuberosities that the body rests when
seated.
bones of the shoulder
Anterior view of the bones of the right shoulder, showing the clavicle (collarbone), scapula (shoulder
blade), and humerus (upper arm bone).(more)
The components of the girdle of the upper extremity, the pectoral girdle, are
the shoulder blade, or scapula, and the collarbone, or clavicle. The head of
the humerus, the long bone of the upper arm, fits into the glenoid cavity, a
depression in the scapula. The pectoral girdle is not connected with the vertebral
column by ligamentous attachments, nor is there any joint between it and any part of
the axis of the body. The connection is by means of muscles only, including
the trapezius, rhomboids, and levator scapulae, while the serratus anterior connects
the scapula to the rib cage. The range of motion of the pectoral girdle and in
particular of the scapula is enormously greater than that of the pelvic girdle.
Another contrast, in terms of function, is seen in the shallowness of the glenoid fossa,
as contrasted with the depth of the acetabulum. It is true that the receptacle for the
head of the humerus is deepened to some degree by a lip of fibrocartilage known as
the glenoid labrum, which, like the corresponding structure for the acetabulum, aids
in grasping the head of the long bone. The range of motion of the free upper
extremity is, however, far greater than that of the lower extremity. With this greater
facility of motion goes a greater risk of dislocation. For this reason, of all joints of the
body, the shoulder is most often the site of dislocation.
Long bones of arms and legs

The humerus and the femur are corresponding bones of the arms and legs,
respectively. While their parts are similar in general, their structure has been
adapted to differing functions. The head of the humerus is almost hemispherical,
while that of the femur forms about two-thirds of a sphere. There is a
strong ligament passing from the head of the femur to further strengthen and ensure
its position in the acetabulum.
human femur
Anterior view of the right femur (thighbone).
The anatomical neck of the humerus is only a slight constriction, while the neck of
the femur is a very distinct portion, running from the head to meet the shaft at an
angle of about 125°. Actually, the femoral neck is developmentally and functionally a
part of the shaft. The entire weight of the body is directed through the femoral heads
along their necks and to the shaft. The structure of the bone within the head and
neck and the upper part of the shaft of the femur would do credit to an engineer who
had worked out the weight-bearing problems involved in the maintenance of upright
posture.
bones of the human forearm
(Left) The radius and the ulna, bones of the forearm; (right) the fibula and the tibia, bones of the lower leg.
(more)
The forearm and the lower leg have two long bones each. In the forearm are
the radius—on the thumb side of the forearm—and the ulna; in the lower leg are
the tibia (the shinbone) and the fibula. The radius corresponds to the tibia and the
ulna to the fibula. The knee joint not only is the largest joint in the body but also is
perhaps the most complicated one. The bones involved in it, however, are only the
femur and the tibia, although the smaller bone of the leg, the fibula, is carried along
in the movements of flexion, extension, and slight rotation that this joint permits.
The very thin fibula is at one time in fetal development far thicker relative to the tibia
than it is in the adult skeleton.
At the elbow, the ulna forms with the humerus a true hinge joint, in which the
actions are flexion and extension. In this joint a large projection of the ulna, the
olecranon, fits into the well-defined olecranon fossa, a depression of the humerus.
bones of the human forearm shown in supination
The radius and ulna (bones of the forearm), shown in supination (the arm rotated outward so that the palm
of the hand faces forward).(more)
The radius is shorter than the ulna. Its most distinctive feature is the thick disk-
shaped head, which has a smoothly concave superior surface to articulate with the
head, or capitulum, of the humerus. The head of the radius is held against the notch
in the side of the ulna by means of a strong annular, or ring-shaped, ligament.
Although thus attached to the ulna, the head of the radius is free to rotate. As the
head rotates, the shaft and outer end of the radius are swung in an arc. In the
position of the arm called supination, the radius and ulna are parallel, the palm of
the hand faces forward, and the thumb is away from the body. In the position
called pronation, the radius and ulna are crossed, the palm faces to the rear, and the
thumb is next to the body. There are no actions of the leg comparable to the
supination and pronation of the arm.
Hands and feet

bones of the human hand
Bones of the hand, showing the carpal bones (wrist bones), metacarpal bones (bones of the hand proper),
and phalanges (finger bones).(more)
The skeleton of the wrist, or carpus, consists of eight small carpal bones, which are
arranged in two rows of four each. The skeleton of the ankle, or tarsus, has seven
bones, but, because of the angle of the foot to the leg and the weight-bearing
function, they are arranged in a more complicated way. The bone of the heel, directed
downward and backward, is the calcaneus, while the “keystone” of the tarsus is the
talus, the superior surface of which articulates with the tibia.
bones of the human foot

Bones of the foot, showing the calcaneus (heel bone), talus and other tarsal bones (ankle bones), metatarsal
bones (bones of the foot proper), and phalanges (toe bones).(more)
In the skeleton of the arms and legs, the outer portion is specialized and consists of
elongated portions made up of chains, or linear series, of small bones. In an
evolutionary sense, these outer portions appear to have had a complex history and,
within the human mammalian ancestry, to have passed first through a stage when all
four would have been “feet,” serving as the weight-bearing ends of extremities, as in
quadrupeds in general. Second, all four appear to have become adapted for arboreal
life, as in the lower primates, the “four-handed folk.” Third, and finally, the
assumption of an upright posture has brought the distal portions of the hind, now
lower, extremities back into the role of feet, while those of the front, now upper,
extremities have developed remarkable manipulative powers and are called hands. At
what place in the primates a foot becomes a hand is difficult to say, and one might in
fact be justified in speaking of hands in raccoons, squirrels, and some other
nonprimates.
In humans the metatarsal bones, those of the foot proper, are larger than the
corresponding bones of the hands, the metacarpal bones.
The tarsals and metatarsals form the arches of the foot, which give it strength and
enable it to act as a lever. The shape of each bone and its relations to its fellows are
such as to adapt it for this function.
The phalanges—the toe bones—of the foot have bases relatively large compared with
the corresponding bones in the hand, while the shafts are much thinner. The middle
and outer phalanges in the foot are short in comparison with those of the fingers. The
phalanges of the big toe have special features.
The hand is an instrument for fine and varied movements. In these, the thumb with
its skeleton, the first metacarpal bone and the two phalanges, is extremely important.
Its free movements include—besides flexion, extension, abduction (ability to draw
away from the first finger), and adduction (ability to move forward of the fingers),
which are exercised in varying degrees by the big toe also—a unique action, that of
opposition, by which the thumb can be brought across, or opposed to, the palm and
to the tips of the slightly flexed fingers. This motion forms the basis for the handling
of tools, weapons, and instruments.
Warren Andrew
body mass index
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body mass index

medicine
Also known as: BMI
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Body mass index (BMI), an estimate of total body fat. The BMI is defined as
weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in metres: weight/height2 =
BMI. This number, which is central to determining whether an individual is clinically
defined as obese, parallels fatness but is not a direct measure of body fat. BMI is less
sensitive than using a skinfold caliper or other method to measure body fat
indirectly.
Interpretation of BMI numbers is based on weight status groupings, such

as underweight, healthy weight, overweight, and obese, that are adjusted for age and
sex. For all adults over age 20, BMI numbers correlate to the same weight
status designations. For example, a BMI for adult women and men between 18.5 and
24.9 is considered healthy. A BMI lower than 18.5 is considered underweight,
whereas a BMI between 25.0 and 29.9 equates with overweight and 30.0 and above
with obesity. Definitions of overweight and obesity are more difficult to quantify for
children, whose BMI changes with age.
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The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Adam
Augustyn.
human microbiome
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 Introduction
 Discovery of the human microbiome
 Microbial diversity
 The role of the human microbiota
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human microbiome
Written by
Kara Rogers
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Escherichia coli; human microbiome

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microorganism
Human microbiome, the full array of microorganisms (the microbiota) that live
on and in humans and, more specifically, the collection of microbial genomes that
contribute to the broader genetic portrait, or metagenome, of a human. The genomes
that constitute the human microbiome represent a remarkably diverse array of
microorganisms that includes bacteria, archaea (primitive single-celled
organisms), fungi, and even some protozoans and nonliving viruses. Bacteria are by
far the most numerous members of the human microbiome: the bacterial population
alone is estimated at between 75 trillion and 200 trillion individual organisms, while
the entire human body consists of about 50 trillion to 100 trillion somatic
(body) cells. The sheer microbial abundance suggests that the human body is in fact a
“supraorganism,” a collection of human and microbial cells and genes and thus a
blend of human and microbial traits.
Discovery of the human microbiome
Streptococcus mutans; human microbiome

Streptococcus mutans is a part of the normal bacterial community of the human mouth. However, it also
contributes to tooth decay.(more)
The first scientific evidence that microorganisms are part of the normal human
system emerged in the mid-1880s, when Austrian pediatrician Theodor Escherich
observed a type of bacteria (later named Escherichia coli) in the intestinal flora of
healthy children and children affected by diarrheal disease. In the years that
followed, scientists described a number of other microorganisms isolated from the
human body, including in 1898 the species Veillonella parvula, a bacterial member
of the oral, digestive, urinary, and upper respiratory flora, and in 1900 bifidobacteria,
members of the intestinal flora. Throughout the 20th century a number of other
microorganisms were isolated from the nasal passages, oral cavities, skin,
gastrointestinal tract, and urogenital tract and characterized as part of the human
microbiota. Although this group of organisms has been conceptualized in various
ways since its discovery, the concept of the human microbiome, and thus the
intensive study of it, was developed primarily in the first decade of the 21st century.
Britannica Quiz
Knowledge of the human microbiome expanded appreciably after 2007, the year
the Human Microbiome Project (HMP)—a five-year-long international effort to
characterize the microbial communities found in the human body and to identify
each microorganism’s role in health and disease—was launched. The project
capitalized on the decreasing cost of whole genome sequencing technology, which
allows organisms to be identified from samples without the need for culturing them
in the laboratory; the technology also facilitates the process of
comparing DNA sequences of microorganisms isolated from different parts of the
human body and from different people. In the first three years of the project,
scientists discovered new members of the human microbiota and characterized
nearly 200 different bacterial member species.
Microbial diversity
Enterococcus faecalis; human microbiome

The bacterium Enterococcus faecalis, found in the human gut, is a member of the diverse community of
microbial species that constitute the human microbiome.(more)
By some estimates, the human microbiota may consist of a total of 900 or 1,000
different species of microorganisms, making for an extraordinarily diverse collection
of microbial genomes. This diversity manifests in differences in
microbial composition not only from one human to the next but also between
matching body parts, such as the right and left hands, of the same individual. For
example, as one study has shown, a typical palm surface of the hand can harbour
more than 150 different bacterial species, only 17 percent of which are common to
both hands of the same person and only 13 percent of which are shared by different
persons.
The human gut is another site characterized by a high degree of microbiome diversity
and abundance. In a study of 124 European individuals, researchers isolated some
3.3 million microbial genes. Many of these genes represented frequently occurring
bacterial gut species, at least 160 of which were believed to inhabit each person’s gut.
The identification of such frequently occurring species in populations is fundamental
to defining so-called common bacterial cores, which enable scientists to explore the
interface of the human microbiome with factors such as diet, culture,
and genotype (genetic makeup).
The role of the human microbiota
Staphylococcus aureus; human microbiome

The bacterium Staphylococcus aureus is found on the skin of healthy persons, making it a member of the
normal human microbiota. Certain strains of S. aureus, however, are major agents of wound infections,
boils, and other human skin infections and are common causes of food poisoning.(more)
Most members of the human microbiota benefit humans by providing them with
traits that they would not otherwise possess. Some microorganisms found in
the human gut, for instance, obtain nutrients from ingested food in return for
assisting with the breakdown of food or preventing the colonization of the gut by
harmful bacteria. There are, however, many microorganisms in the human
microbiota that are closely related to pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms or are
themselves capable of becoming pathogenic. Examples include bacterial species of
the genera Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Klebsiella, Enterobacter,
and Neisseria.
Clostridioides difficile infection serves as a useful example for illustrating the
significance of the relationship between the human microbiome and health and
disease. C. difficile infection, which is characterized by severe recurrent diarrhea,
abdominal cramping, and nausea, occurs most often in persons who receive a course
of antibiotics while in a hospital. Antibiotics kill or inhibit the reproduction of
pathogenic bacteria and in the process cause dramatic changes in normal human
microbial communities, such that previously established colonies may be overtaken
by colonies of different and potentially pathogenic species. In the case of C. difficile,
researchers have discovered that infection can be treated effectively through fecal, or
stool, transplantation, in which fecal material from a healthy person is transferred to
the patient, thereby restoring populations of beneficial gut microbiota.
Scientists studying obesity have detected an increased abundance
of Prevotella and Firmicutes bacteria and of methanogenic (methane-
producing) archaea in obese individuals relative to normal-weight persons and
persons who have undergone gastric bypass surgery. Scientists suspect that these
microorganisms are more efficient at harvesting carbohydrates from food than are
the types of microorganisms that dominate the gut flora of normal-weight
individuals. The extra nutrients are then stored in the body as fat.
Ongoing study of the human microbiome is expected to continue to shed light on

fundamental aspects of human physiology and particularly human nutrition.
Improved understanding of nutritional requirements could lead to changes in dietary
recommendations and in food production. In addition, information about the human
microbiome could lead to the development of new diagnostic techniques and
treatments for a variety of human diseases, as well as to the development of
industrial products based on substances (e.g., enzymes) that are produced by
members of the human microbiota.
Kara Rogers
hip
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hip
anatomy
Also known as: hip joint

Article History
human hip and pelvis
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acetabulum
Hip, in anatomy, the joint between the thighbone (femur) and the pelvis; also the
area adjacent to this joint. The hip joint is a ball-and-socket joint; the round head of
the femur rests in a cavity (the acetabulum) that allows free rotation of the limb.
Amphibians and reptiles have relatively weak pelvic girdles, and the femur extends
horizontally. This does not permit efficient resistance to gravity, and the trunks of
these animals often rest partially on the ground. In mammals the hip joint allows the
femur to drop vertically, thus permitting the animal to hold itself off the ground and
leading to specializations for running and leaping. See also pelvic girdle.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Robert Curley.
jaw
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jaw
anatomy

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maxilla
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Jaw, either of a pair of bones that form the framework of
the mouth of vertebrate animals, usually containing teeth and including a movable
lower jaw (mandible) and fixed upper jaw (maxilla). Jaws function by moving in
opposition to each other and are used for biting, chewing, and the handling of food.
The mandible consists of a horizontal arch, which holds the teeth and contains blood
vessels and nerves. Two vertical portions (rami) form movable hinge joints on either
side of the head, articulating with the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone of the skull.
The rami also provide attachment for muscles important in chewing. The centre front
of the arch is thickened and buttressed to form a chin, a development unique to man
and some of his recent ancestors; the great apes and other animals lack chins.
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The upper jaw is firmly attached to the nasal bones at the bridge of the nose; to the
frontal, lacrimal, ethmoid, and zygomatic bones within the eye socket; to the palatine
and sphenoid bones in the roof of the mouth; and at the side, by an extension, to
the zygomatic bone (cheekbone), with which it forms the anterior portion of
the zygomatic arch. The arched lower part of the maxilla contains the upper teeth.
Inside the body of the bone is the large maxillary sinus.
In the human fetus and infant both the upper and lower jaws have two halves; these
fuse at the midline a few months after birth.
Among the invertebrates, arthropods often have modified limbs that function in jaw
action. In the subphylum Chelicerata (e.g., pycnogonids, arachnids), the pincers
(chelicerae) may be used as jaws and are sometimes aided by pedipalps, which are
also modified appendages. In the subphylum Mandibulata (crustaceans, insects, and
myriapods), the jaw limbs are the mandibles and, to some extent, the maxillae. Such
limbs may be modified for other purposes, especially in insects. Horseshoe
crabs (and perhaps the extinct trilobites) can chew food with
toothed projections (gnathobases) at the bases of the walking legs, but these are not
considered true jaws.
Other important examples of invertebrate jaw structures are: in rotifers, the mastax
of the pharynx; in polychaete worms, the jaws of the proboscis; in brittle stars, the
five triangular oral jaws; in leeches of the order Gnathobdellida, the three toothed
plates in the pharynx; and in cephalopods (e.g., octopuses), strong, horny, parrotlike
beaks.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Rick
Livingston.
coccyx
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coccyx
anatomy
Also known as: tailbone

Article History
Also called:
tailbone
Related Topics:
human skeleton
vertebral column
vestigial structure
caudal vertebra
Coccyx, curved, semiflexible lower end of the backbone (vertebral column) in apes
and humans, representing a vestigial tail. It is composed of three to five successively
smaller caudal (coccygeal) vertebrae. The first is a relatively well-defined vertebra
and connects with the sacrum; the last is represented by a small nodule of bone.
The spinal cord ends above the coccyx. In early adulthood the coccygeal vertebrae
fuse with each other; in later life the coccyx may fuse with the sacrum. A
corresponding structure in other vertebrates, such as birds, may also be called a
coccyx.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Rick
Livingston.
infancy
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Also known as: baby

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Infancy, among humans, the period of life between birth and the acquisition of
language approximately one to two years later.
A brief treatment of infancy follows. For a full treatment of human mental

development during infancy, see human behaviour: Development in infancy.
Britannica Quiz
The average newborn infant weighs 3.4 kg (7.5 pounds) and is about 51 cm (20
inches) long. The newborn gains weight at an average of 170 to 200 g (6 to 7 ounces)
per week for the first three months. Growth continues, but the rate gradually declines
to an average of 60 g per week after 12 months.
Newborns typically sleep for about 16–18 hours a day, but the total amount of time
spent sleeping gradually decreases to about 9–12 hours a day by age two years. At
birth infants display a set of inherited reflexes involving such acts as sucking,
blinking, grasping, and limb withdrawal. Infants’ vision improves from 20/800 (in
Snellen notation) among two-week-olds to 20/70 vision in five-month-olds to 20/20
at five years. Even newborns are sensitive to certain visual patterns, chiefly
movement and light-dark contrasts and show a noticeable preference for gazing at
the human face; by the first or second month they can discriminate between different
faces, and by the third they can identify their mother by sight. Young infants also
show a predilection for the tones of their mother’s voice, and they manifest a
surprising sensitivity to the tones, rhythmic flow, and sounds that together make up
human speech.
The ideal food for the young infant is human milk, though infant formula is an
adequate substitute. Babies can usually be weaned after they are six months old, and
the appearance of teeth allows them to switch from soft foods to coarser ones by the
end of the first year. The first tooth usually erupts at about six months. By the end of
the first year, six teeth usually have erupted—four upper incisors and two lower
incisors.
Every normal, healthy infant proceeds through a sequence of motor

development that occurs spontaneously and needs no special training. By four
months of age the baby can reach for and grasp an object, and by the 10th month he
can grasp a small object between thumb and forefinger. By four months most babies
are able to sit up for a minute or so without support, and by nine months they can do
so without support for 10 minutes or more. Most infants begin crawling between 7
and 10 months, and by 12 months they can stand up alone. The average baby is able
to walk with help by 12 months and can walk unaided by 14 months, at which time he
is often referred to as a toddler.
The infant’s understanding and mastery of the physical world begins with the reflex
movements of newborns. These movements progress within three months to such
actions as sucking, grasping, throwing, kicking, and banging, though these are
purposeless and repeated for their own sake. During the 4th to the 8th month, the
infant begins to repeat those actions that produce interesting effects, and from the
8th to the 12th month he begins coordinating his actions to attain an external goal—
e.g., knocking down a pillow to obtain a toy hidden behind it. The infant’s physical
actions thus begin to show greater intentionality, and he eventually begins to invent
new actions in a form of trial-and-error experimentation. By the 18th month the
child has begun trying to solve problems involving physical objects by
mentally imagining certain events and outcomes, rather than by simple physical
trial-and-error experimentation.
Infants display behavioral reactions suggestive of emotional states as early as the

first three or four months of life. The four earliest emotional states they seem to
experience are surprise, distress (in response to discomfort), relaxation, and
excitement. New emotional states such as anxiety, fear, and sadness have appeared
by one year of age. Infants’ central emotional feat, however, is probably the
establishment of enduring emotional bonds with their parents or other caregivers.
They are biologically predisposed to form such attachments, which in turn form the
basis for healthy emotional and social development through childhood. It is through
the reciprocal interactions between child and parent that the child learns to love,
trust, and depend on other human beings. By two months of age, all normal infants
show a social smile that invites adults to interact with them, and at about six months
of age infants begin to respond socially to particular people to whom they have
become emotionally attached.
Crying is basic to infants from birth, and the cooing sounds they have begun making
by about eight weeks progress to babbling and ultimately become part of
meaningful speech. Virtually all infants begin to comprehend some words several
months before they themselves speak their first meaningful words. By 11 to 12
months of age they are producing clear consonant-vowel utterances such as “mama”
or “dada.” The subsequent expansion of vocabulary and the acquisition of grammar
and syntax mark the end of infancy and the beginning of child development.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Adam
Augustyn.
puberty
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Puberty, in human physiology, the stage or period of life when a child transforms
into an adult normally capable of procreation.
A brief treatment of puberty follows. (See also adolescence.)
Britannica Quiz
Because of genetic, environmental, and other factors, the timing of puberty varies
from person to person and from country to country, but it usually occurs between
ages 11 and 16. Among moderately well-off British or North American children, for
example, puberty on average peaks at about age 12 for girls and age 14 for boys.
However, increasing numbers of girls in those countries have started puberty by age
7 or 8. In 2010 a study of girls in three U.S. metropolitan regions revealed that some
10.4 percent of white girls, 14.9 percent of Hispanic girls, and 23.4 percent of black
girls had begun puberty by age 7. Generally, puberty occurs earlier in black girls, the
age range in the United States being between ages 9 and 14, compared with an age
range between 10 and 14 for white girls in that country.
The rapidity with which a child passes through the several stages of puberty also
varies. In girls the interval from the first indication of puberty to complete maturity
may vary from 18 months to 6 years. In boys a similar variation occurs; the male
genitalia may take between 2 and 5 years to attain full development.
In puberty both girls and boys experience a swift increase in body size, a change in
shape and composition of the body, and a rapid development of the reproductive
organs and other characteristics marking sexual maturity. In a girl the first
observable change is usually noted in the breasts; the nipples start to enlarge, and a
few months later the breast tissue begins to grow. A few pubic hairs develop, and she
enters into a period of relatively rapid growth. The ovaries begin producing estrogen,
causing fat deposits to develop on the hips and thighs, and the slim, angular girl
moves steadily toward a more rounded female contour.
The larynx undergoes minor structural changes so that her voice alters and becomes
less childlike (but the changes are not nearly so radical as those in a boy). Meanwhile,
her adrenal glands are manufacturing male sex hormones, which play a key role in
the development of pubic and underarm hair and contribute to the physical growth.
The first menstrual period is generally the final event, usually occurring about two or
more years after the entire puberty process is under way. During the following two
years, the girl’s menses are apt to be irregular; her normal cyclic hormonal pattern
has not yet been established, and ovulation is infrequent. Eventually, however,
her menstruation and ovulation cycles become more regular.
In boys the first sign of puberty is usually an accelerated growth of

the testes and scrotum, with reddening and wrinkling of the scrotal skin. The first
pubic hair may begin at the same time or a little later. About a year later the boy’s
height is apt to be increasing again at the rapid rate that he last experienced at about
age two. At this time the penis also grows, as do the seminal vesicles, the prostate,
and the bulbo-urethral glands, all of which contribute their secretions to the seminal
fluid. The time of the first ejaculation of seminal fluid varies but usually occurs about
a year after the beginning of accelerated penis growth. Unlike the girl’s initial
irregularity in menses and ovulation, the boy’s fertility may be almost constant after
initial ejaculation. In a final stage, averaging about two years after the beginning of
pubic hair growth, hair begins to appear on the armpits and face, and there may soon
appear hair on the chest and other parts of the body (though much of this general
hair growth may occur after puberty). The voice changes in pitch because of the
enlargement of the larynx and lengthening of the vocal cords, initiated by action of
the male hormone testosterone.
Numerous factors may retard maturation or prevent normal growth, including
hormonal disorders, metabolic defects, hereditary conditions, and
inadequate nutrition.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Kara Rogers.
vertebral column
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vertebral column
anatomy
Also known as: backbone, spinal column, spine

Last Updated: May 10, 2024 • Article History
human vertebral column
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Also called:
spinal column, spine, or backbone

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coccyx
vertebra
sacral curve
cervical curve
lumbar curve
Vertebral column, in vertebrate animals, the flexible column extending
from neck to tail, made of a series of bones, the vertebrae. The major function of the
vertebral column is protection of the spinal cord; it also provides stiffening for the
body and attachment for the pectoral and pelvic girdles and many muscles. In
humans an additional function is to transmit body weight in walking and standing.
Each vertebra, in higher vertebrates, consists of a ventral body, or centrum,

surmounted by a Y-shaped neural arch. The arch extends a spinous process
(projection) downward and backward that may be felt as a series of bumps down the
back, and two transverse processes, one to either side, which provide attachment for
muscles and ligaments. Together the centrum and neural arch surround an opening,
the vertebral foramen, through which the spinal cord passes. The centrums are
separated by cartilaginous intervertebral disks, which help cushion shock in
locomotion.
Britannica Quiz
Human Bones Quiz
Vertebrae in lower vertebrates are more complex, and the relationships of their parts
to those of higher animals are often unclear. In primitive chordates (e.g., amphioxus,
lampreys) a rodlike structure, the notochord, stiffens the body and helps protect the
overlying spinal cord. The notochord appears in the embryos of all vertebrates in the
space later occupied by the vertebral bodies—in some fish it remains throughout life,
surrounded by spool-shaped centrums; in other vertebrates it is lost in the developed
animal. In primitive chordates the spinal cord is protected dorsally by segmented
cartilages—these foreshadow the development of the neural arch of true vertebrae.
Fish have trunk and caudal (tail) vertebrae; in land vertebrates with legs, the
vertebral column becomes further subdivided into regions in which the vertebrae
have different shapes and functions. Crocodilians and lizards, birds, and mammals
demonstrate five regions: (1) cervical, in the neck, (2) thoracic, in the chest,
which articulates with the ribs, (3) lumbar, in the lower back, more robust than the
other vertebrae, (4) sacral, often fused to form a sacrum, which articulates with the
pelvic girdle, (5) caudal, in the tail. The atlas and axis vertebrae, the top two
cervicals, form a freely movable joint with the skull.
The numbers of vertebrae in each region and in total vary with the species. Snakes
have the greatest number, all very similar in type. In turtles some vertebrae may be
fused to the shell (carapace); in birds all but the cervical vertebrae are usually fused
into a rigid structure, which lends support in flight. Most mammals have seven
cervical vertebrae; size rather than number account for the variations in neck length
in different species. Whales show several specializations—the cervical vertebrae may
be either much reduced or much increased in number, and the sacrum is missing.
Humans have 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 fused sacral, and 3 to 5 fused caudal
vertebrae (together called the coccyx).
The vertebral column is characterized by a variable number of curves. In quadrupeds

the column is curved in a single arc (the highest portion occurring at the middle of
the back), which functions somewhat like a bow spring in locomotion. In humans
this primary curve is modified by three more: (1) a sacral curve, in which the sacrum
curves backward and helps support the abdominal organs, (2) an anterior cervical
curve, which develops soon after birth as the head is raised, and (3) a lumbar curve,
also anterior, which develops as the child sits and walks. The lumbar curve is a
permanent characteristic only of humans and their bipedal forebears, though a
temporary lumbar curve appears in other primates in the sitting position. The
cervical curve disappears in humans when the head is bent forward but appears in
other animals as the head is raised.
In humans the structure and function of the vertebral column can be affected by
certain diseases, disorders, or injuries. Examples include scoliosis, lordosis,
and kyphosis, which are deviations from the normal spinal curvature; degenerative
diseases, such as osteoarthritis and Baastrup disease (kissing spine syndrome); and
tuberculosis of the spine (Pott disease), which is caused by infection of the vertebral
column by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Kara
Rogers.
ankle
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ankle
anatomy
Also known as: ankle joint

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X-ray of a human ankle
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Related Topics:
foot
tarsal
anklet
tarsus
talus
Ankle, in humans, hinge-type, freely moving synovial joint between the foot and leg.
The ankle contains seven tarsal bones that articulate (connect) with each other, with
the metatarsal bones of the foot, and with the bones of the lower leg. The articulation
of one of the tarsal bones, the ankle bone (talus, or astragalus), with
the fibula and tibia of the lower leg forms the actual ankle joint, although the general
region is often called the ankle. The chief motions of the ankle are flexion and
extension. Like other synovial joints (those joints in which fluid is present), the ankle
is subject to such diseases and injuries as bursitis and synovitis.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Amy Tikkanen.
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human skeleton

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

human skeletal system

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