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Rose M. Pringle
Researching
Practitioner
Inquiry as
Professional
Development
Voices from the Field of Science Teaching
Researching Practitioner Inquiry as Professional
Development
Rose M. Pringle
Researching Practitioner
Inquiry as Professional
Development
Voices from the Field of Science Teaching
Rose M. Pringle
College of Education, School of Teaching and Learning
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL, USA
ISBN 978-3-030-59549-4 ISBN 978-3-030-59550-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59550-0
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to George, George
Junior, and Johanna as well as Renee
and Mark.
Keegan and Kaila, may you always have the
best teachers!
Preface
There are numerous texts on the market that describe the process and procedures for
conducting practitioner or teacher inquiry. There are also many texts on profes-
sional development (PD) in general that have, as the primary goal, the promotion of
teachers’ learning and improved pedagogical practices. This book, Researching
Practitioner Inquiry as Professional Development: Voices from the Field of Science
Teaching, strategically presents the authentic voices of middle school science teach-
ers validating the use of teacher inquiry in facilitating their learning and in shaping
their classroom practices. Practitioner or teacher inquiry is teachers’ intentional
involvement as researchers steeped in the systematic study of their own teaching
practices. The impetus for making inquiries into their own practices emerges from
a place of concern for students’ learning and the teachers’ desire to make the neces-
sary pedagogical adjustments.
This book is about middle school science teachers, their engagement in a multi-
faceted PD program, and the deliberate practice of practitioner inquiry as a tool to
support their learning. In the broader context, the book lays bare the role of science
education and its development over the years to contribute to the development of a
scientifically literate society. A society in which its citizens have a good understand-
ing of the nature of science and grasp the local, national, and global implications of
scientific issues such as climate change and renewable energy. Science education is
also expected to ensure the availability of a continued pipeline to careers in science
and engineering. At this current juncture, and in the face of new societal expecta-
tions, science education has had to make the necessary adjustments. Changes in
society and the new wave of reform being spurred on, however, are not occurring in
a vacuum. Hence, the book introduces and briefly discusses major reforms in sci-
ence education. The discussion begins with the era of Sputnik and ends with the
current reform as described in A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices,
Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas. What follows the historical discussion is a
description of the PD program, including the NSF-sponsored Teacher Institute for
the 21st Century, and other complementary workshop activities. The program
described in Chap. 3 supported the preparation of middle school science teachers
who would, as agents of change, lead district-wide transformation of science
vii
viii Preface
teaching. Four years later, the program was scaled and now being sustained as a
one-year professional learning certificate program for third to eighth grade teachers
of science.
Chapter 4 describes the intense process of introducing the group of teachers to
practitioner or teacher inquiry and to its acceptance as being viable within the con-
text of education research. The chapter is described as intense because the course
and the process of conducting the teacher inquiry challenged the teachers’ beliefs
about research, their engagement as researchers, and the extent to which their work
would have credence within their schools and districts. The efforts of the PD were
to ultimately increase students’ science achievement by positioning the group of
teachers as agents of change in the transformation of science teaching. The program
therefore embraced the current reform efforts in science education and was guided
by a conceptual framework that situated teachers as learners in their classrooms as
they deepen both disciplinary content knowledge and science-specific teaching
practices. The teachers’ introduction to practitioner inquiry as research, their strug-
gles in accepting the process, and how they eventually conceptualized their engage-
ment in inquiry as PD are carefully documented. Chapter 4 is important to
understanding the process of developing a culture of practitioner inquirers among
practicing teachers and also sets the context leading to the voices of the teachers
presented in the following three chapters.
Chapters 5, 6 and 7 give credence to the teachers’ experiences. The teachers,
immersed in the cycle of inquiry, illuminated the complex and challenging nature
inherent in teaching. Their stories provide a first-hand account of the potentials and
possibilities of practitioner inquiry as PD and teachers as knowledge producers. The
narratives are presented around three major themes that emerged from the analysis
of the issues of practice addressed by the teachers. Within each theme, three repre-
sentative narratives are presented. Each chapter ends with a critical discussion of the
importance of the knowledge garnered from the teachers’ experiences and the link
between theory and practice.
In Chap. 8, the final chapter, I position practitioner inquiry as an element of PD
and discuss the impact of the process on teachers’ learning as indicated in their
reflections and response to a formal interview. The book is about elevating teachers’
voices and giving credence to their positions as knowledge generators. Hence, in
continuing this theme, their reflections and their perspectives are used to frame the
value-added components of practitioner inquiry within the context of their learning.
During the process of conducting the inquiry, teachers systematically and intention-
ally observed and reflected on their teaching with specific intent to make adjustment
toward improved practice. I present the teachers’ reflections on their learning, the
ways their practices were impacted by the newly constructed knowledge, and how,
in some instances, they were forced to confront policies and systemic issues.
Teachers were aware of the issues in the broader systems that inhibited change, but
over time, they collectively began to conceptualize practitioner inquiry as a tool that
can be incorporated and harnessed to support effective practices in their local
contexts.
Preface ix
The teachers agreed that the standard-driven science curriculum that included
learning progression, integration of science content and skills, and well-defined
instructional practices for supporting students’ learning provided ease during its
enactment. In planning for and conducting the practitioner inquiries, teachers there-
fore focused on vexing issues in their own contexts that were negatively impacting
students’ learning. In the process, teachers built closer and stronger relationship
with their students, developed a range of teaching strategies specifically related to
issues of learning, and became empowered as they adjusted their instructions. The
book ends with making the case for elevating practitioner inquiry to the status of
being an element of effective PD. When teachers as learners are driven by the need
to increase students’ achievements, they confront their realities and make the neces-
sary pedagogical adjustments in their local contexts. This is the essence of teacher
learning and the beginning of changing the culture of learning in schools – a focus
on improving students’ achievement from the inside.
Acknowledgments
The University of Florida Unites Teachers to Reform Education in Science

(U-FUTuRES) project was funded by the National Science Education Math/Science
partnership program, Award # 1050166. The book, Researching Practitioner Inquiry
as Professional Development: Voices from the Field of Science Teaching, focuses on
one aspect of the 5-year federally funded–program – teachers conducting practitio-
ner inquiry. The program was a comprehensive endeavor. I acknowledge that the
successes we have achieved are attributable to the dynamic team of individuals who
contributed to the planning and enactment of the program throughout the years.
First, I acknowledge Dr. Lynda Hayes, who, as the principal investigator and in
her positions as a school and district administrator and an affiliate university profes-
sor, occupied a unique position from the program’s conception through to its sus-
tainability. Her wisdom and knowledge of the nature of schools, administration, and
partnerships were superb in the creation, alignment, and achievement of the vision
of U-FUTuRES.
Dr. Jenn Mesa was the program’s associate for science education. Her passion
for science teaching and learning and her tireless collaborative effort supported the
translation of the project plans into meaningful learning activities for the teachers.
Jenn, your involvement in the program will always be greatly appreciated.
I am grateful for the managerial and organization skills and attention to details
that Dr. Leela Kumaran brought to the program in her role as program associate.
Her knowledge and expertise were priceless!
I extend gratitude to Dr. Natalie King, Dr. Joanne LaFramenta, Dr. Tim Barko,
and Mrs. Erin Mistry for the extensive travels to observe classrooms, offer support
in course development, and the valuable contributions to the different phases of the
program.
Dr. Karen Kilgore, thanks for your assistance in the final research efforts of the
program. Your skills in data collection and your assistance in analysis contributed
greatly to the articulation of the teachers’ voices.
The program was for middle school science teachers. I thank all 37 teachers who
participated in the initial program. I also extend many thanks to the nine teachers
whose voices have been amplified in the telling of their stories: Mayra, Allison,
xi
xii Acknowledgments
Anthony, Brittni, Jennifer, Janet, Ruth, Sean, and Sandra. May you all continue to
be stellar in the field of science teaching.
This book is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation
under Grant No. 1050166. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommenda-
tions expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect
the views of the National Science Foundation.
About the Book
With every new wave of reforms in science education, there is a need for effective
professional development (PD). This book, Researching Practitioner Inquiry as
Professional Development: Voices from the Field of Science Teaching, has at its core
the experiences of middle school science teachers engaged in a professional devel-
opment (PD) program grounded in current science reform. The book describes the
PD program that had as its goal the transformation of science teaching practices and
increase in students’ learning. The teachers were immersed in their classrooms as
they developed and practiced the new knowledge and skills. The practitioner inquiry
served to satisfy the university’s requirement for the graduate program but also
afforded the teachers another strategy to continue their learning and to gain more
insights into their teaching. As reflective practitioners, the teachers observed,
reflected on, and adjusted their practices in support of science learning. The book
shares nine teachers’ authentic experiences, thus allowing us a window into their
classrooms. The value of practitioner inquiry as a genre of educational research is
discussed and the teachers’ voices provide a framework from which other educators
can begin to reflect on their own problems of practice in working with inservice
teachers. Researching the teachers’ inquiry brings to the fore the need for practitio-
ner inquiry to occupy a place among the elements of effective PD.
xiii
Contents
Part I Setting the Stage

1 Introduction�� 3
1.1 A Resource in Inservice Teacher Education �� 5
1.1.1 For Science Teacher Educators: The Making of Scholars�� 6
1.1.2 For Inservice Teacher Educators
and School Administrators�� 6
References�� 7
2 Reforms in Science Education: A Response to Changing Societal
Contexts�� 9
2.1 Science Education and the Development
of Twenty-First Century Skills�� 11
2.1.1 A New Framework for Science Education�� 13
2.2 Science Education in the Era of STEM�� 14
2.3 Science Teaching and Learning in the Twenty-First Century �� 16
2.3.1 Windows into Science Classrooms �� 18
References�� 19
3 University of Florida Unites Teachers to Reform Education
in Science (U-FUTuRES): A Reform-Based and Comprehensive
Professional Development Program �� 23
3.1 The Context�� 24
3.2 Professional Development in the Service of Science Reforms�� 25
3.3 Theoretical Framework �� 27
3.4 The Professional Development Program�� 28
3.4.1 Setting the Context�� 28
3.4.2 The Partnership �� 29
3.4.3 The Science Teacher Leadership Institute�� 32
3.4.4 Face-to-Face Components: Cadre Meetings and Summer
Institutes�� 34
xv
xvi Contents
3.4.5 Investigating and Questioning Our World Through

Science and Technology (IQWST) Curriculum�� 36
3.5 Conclusion�� 37
References�� 38
4 In the Mirror: Introducing Teachers to Practitioner Inquiry
as Professional Development�� 43
4.1 Introducing Practitioner Inquiry in Professional Development�� 44
4.1.1 Practitioner Inquiry and Teacher Learning �� 45
4.2 Practitioner Inquiry as a Course�� 46
4.2.1 Introduction to Practitioner Inquiry�� 46
4.2.2 Practitioner Inquiry as Educational Research �� 47
4.2.3 From “Wondering” to Questions for Inquiry�� 49
4.2.4 How Do I Respond to My Questions?�� 49
4.2.5 In Collaboration: Learning with Peers�� 51
References�� 54
Part II Introduction to Chapters 5–7: Researching Teachers

Doing Inquiry: Presenting Their Stories
5 Literacy Skills and Science Learning�� 59
5.1 Dilemma in Implementing a Reform-Based Science
Curriculum When Students Struggle with Vocabulary
and Reading Comprehension�� 59
5.2 Exploring the Literature: Vocabulary�� 61
5.3 The Cycle of Teaching Inquiry �� 62
5.3.1 Data Analysis: A Process of Learning�� 63
5.3.2 Vocabulary Instruction in Science Learning to Support
Struggling Readers�� 63
5.3.3 Marking Text Paired with Cloze Reading Improved
Reading Comprehension�� 66
5.5 Developing Students’ Writing Skills: Toward a Deeper
Understanding of Science �� 68
5.5.1 My Wondering�� 69
5.6 What Does the Literature Say About Writing to Learn Science? �� 70
5.7 Where in the Inquiry-Based Science Lesson Do I Integrate
Writing Skills?�� 70
5.7.1 Writing as Scientists: The Missing Link in a Sixth-Grade
Class�� 71
5.8 Moving Through the Process: From Doing to Writing�� 72
5.9 Final Thoughts and Future Questions �� 74
5.10 Literacy and Inquiry-Based Instruction: Accommodating
Students with Special Needs�� 75
5.11 Wonderings �� 76
5.12 Related Literature�� 76
Contents xvii
5.13 My Cycle of Teacher Inquiry: Supporting Reading Among

Students Labeled as LD�� 77
5.13.1 Text Marking Efforts Varied: Increased Effort Meant
Increased Engagement�� 78
5.13.2 Text Markings Improved Reading Comprehension�� 79
5.13.3 Students Adapted Text Marking Strategies in Personal
Ways�� 79
5.13.4 Study Guides Did Not Improve Science Vocabulary
and Decreased Some Students Scores�� 79
5.14 Discussion �� 80
5.15 The Promise�� 81
5.16 Researching Practitioner Inquiry: Literacy Practices
and Science Learning�� 81
References�� 84
6 Toward a Pedagogy of Cultural Relevance�� 87
6.1 Improving My Practice to Support the Science Learning
of Sixth Grade African American Female Students�� 87
6.1.1 Cultural Relevant Pedagogy in the Literature�� 88
6.1.2 Conducting the Inquiry �� 89
6.1.3 Findings and Discussion �� 90
6.1.4 Teacher Inquiry as Professional Development�� 93
6.2 Cultural Competence: It Matters in the Science Classroom!�� 94
6.2.1 Moving into Action �� 94
6.2.2 Related Literature�� 95
6.2.3 Making Inquiry into My Teaching Practices�� 96
6.3 Using Culturally Responsive Strategies to Increase Science
Achievement Among a Group of 7th Grade African American
Boys�� 102
6.3.1 Introduction�� 102
6.3.2 Culturally Responsive Practices�� 104
6.3.3 Inquiring into Teaching Science to African
American Boys�� 105
6.3.4 Learning About My Teaching: The Importance
of Practitioner Inquiry�� 109
6.3.5 Final Thoughts and Further Questions�� 110
6.3.6 Researching Practitioner Inquiry: Developing Cultural
Competence�� 110
References�� 114
7 Metacognition: It’s Thinking Time in Science�� 117
7.1 Thinking About Learning and the Sense Making Process
in Science�� 117
7.1.2 A Call to Action�� 118
xviii Contents
7.1.3 Sense Making in Science: Developing Metacognitive

Processes �� 119
7.1.4 Teacher Inquiry �� 120
7.1.6 Conflicts and Implications�� 123
7.2 Teacher Questioning and Student Thinking�� 125
7.2.2 From the PD Program to Classroom Wondering�� 126
7.2.3 My Cycle of Teacher Inquiry�� 127
7.2.4 Taking a Stance on Questioning in Science Classrooms�� 127
7.2.5 Can I Break Free from the Planned Curriculum? �� 128
7.2.6 It’s Not a Test: Getting Students to Think About
Their Own Learning�� 129
7.2.7 Conclusion and Implications�� 131
7.3 Learning How to Think: Metacognition in Science�� 131
7.3.2 Wondering�� 132
7.3.3 Wading Into Metacognition: My Cycle of Inquiry �� 133
7.3.4 What Does the Literature Say About Metacognition?�� 133
7.3.5 Data Collection and Analysis�� 134
7.3.7 Conclusion�� 138
7.4 Researching Teachers’ Inquiry: Metacognition,
It’s Thinking Time in Science �� 139
Part III Practitioner Inquiry: Lessons Learned From the

Field of Science Teaching
8 Lessons Learned and the Implications for Teacher Learning in
Professional Development for Science Teachers�� 147
8.1 Professional Development and Teacher Learning�� 147
8.2 Researching Practitioner Inquiry�� 149
8.3 Learning from Practitioner Inquiry�� 150
8.3.1 Impact on Teaching Practices �� 150
8.3.2 The Unwelcome Truths of Teaching�� 151
8.3.3 Becoming Reflective Practitioners�� 153
8.3.4 Practitioner Inquiry as Professional Development�� 155
8.4 Discussion �� 157
Appendices�� 163
About the Author
Rose M. Pringle is an associate professor of science education in the School of

Teaching and Learning at the University of Florida. As a science educator, her
research focuses on interrelated themes along the continuum of science teacher edu-
cation: pre-service teachers’ positionality as science learners, science-specific peda-
gogies of both prospective and practicing science teachers, and the translation of
these practices into equitable inquiry-based science experiences for all learners.
Currently, she is exploring elements of effective science instruction consistent with
current reform in science education and pedagogical content knowledge as frame-
works for gauging the practices of science teachers. Of particular interest is her
quest to increase the participation of underrepresented minorities, especially girls of
African descent, in science and science-related careers. Her work has revealed that
school-wide policies and teachers' autonomous decisions impact the regularity and
nature of science instruction, and teachers do not always conceptualize African
American girls as science achievers positioning them in negative ways. Therefore,
Rose is examining how teachers develop knowledge about teaching and learning
science and how engaging in practitioner or teacher inquiry will increase their cul-
tural competence and strengthen their science-specific teaching practices. She pos-
its that teachers’ attention to culture and the examination and adjustment of their
practices to accommodate diverse learners will increase students’ achievement in
science.
xix
Abbreviations
3D Three Dimensional
AAAS American Association for the Advancement of Science
ASD Autism Spectrum Disorders
CER Claims, Evidence, and Reasoning
CK Content Knowledge
CL Cooperative Learning
DLDS District Leadership Development Series
ESE Exceptional Student Education
IEP Individual Education Plan
IHE Institution of Higher Education
IQWST Investigating and Questioning Our World Through Science and
Technology
K-12 Kindergarten to Twelfth Grade
KWL Know-Want-Learn
LD Learning Disabilities
LEA Local Education Agencies
MAE Master of Arts in Education
MSP Math/Science Partnership
NASEM National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
NEFEC Northeast Florida Educational Consortium
NGSS Next Generation State Standards
NRC National Research Council
NSF National Science Foundation
NSTA National Science Teacher Association
OHI Other Health Impairments
PCK Pedagogical Content Knowledge
PCK Pedagogical Content Knowledge
PD Professional Development
PKY P.K. Yonge Developmental Research School
xxi
xxii Abbreviations
STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

STLI Science Teacher Leadership Institute
U-FUTuRES University of Florida Unites Teachers to Reform Education
in Science
U.S. United States
List of Figures
Fig. 3.1 The comprehensive PD model. (Pringle et al., 2018)�� 31

Fig. 5.1 Modified four-square graphic organizer�� 65
xxiii
List of Tables
Table 3.1 U-FUTuRES program partners�� 30

Table 3.2 STLI program of study�� 33
xxv
Part I
Setting the Stage
Chapter 1
Introduction
With every new wave of reforms, there is a need for professional development (PD).
The publication of A Framework for K-12 Science Education in (2012) was deemed
an important first step in reforming science education for the twenty-first century.
The efforts described in the reform document were the result of years of research,
intent on revitalizing science education, and increasing its relevance. The history of
science education in the United States (U.S.) has taught us that elements of reform
and the duration of their effectiveness are contingent on contemporary socio-
political and economic outlook and the advancements of knowledge. In the past,
major changes in science education occurred in response to historical and social
circumstances (Bybee, 1993). The current framework acknowledges the foundation
laid by earlier reform efforts and the strong research that ushered in the develop-
ment of standards in the mid twentieth century. In this era of standard-driven educa-
tional system, standards are embraced as the set of educational aspirations positioned
to guide curricular and instructional activities. As descriptions of what students are
expected to know and be able to do, standards have been afforded much prominence
in education. The national science education standards, though not adapted by all
states, provide a set of goals and guidelines for science learning in the U.S.
The documented shortcoming in achieving society’s goals of the development of
a scientifically literate population and a workforce with twenty-first century skills
created the need for the current wave of transformation in science education. The
appeal for a better approach to science education was also borne out of the revolu-
tions in science and science knowledge and in other related disciplines such as tech-
nology, engineering, and mathematics. The reform effort generated to improve K-12
science teaching and learning has at its core the organization of selected conceptual
knowledge frameworks coordinated around core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and
learning progression. These frameworks have implications for core knowledge
learning, instruction, and assessment.
While the reform ideas are generated by educators and other stakeholders, class-
room teachers are central to their translation into practice. Inservice teachers in the
current school system are seasoned in their approach to teaching science. They are
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

R. M. Pringle, Researching Practitioner Inquiry as Professional Development,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59550-0_1
4 1 Introduction
guided by their beliefs as to what constitutes best teaching strategies and the orga-
nization and nature of their curriculum. To effect changes as envisioned in the
reform, teachers need to be sufficiently prepared with the depth of understanding of
the content knowledge and the science-specific teaching strategies to enact the new
approach. This certainly heightens the necessity for PD programs to prepare teach-
ers in ways that will ensure that the envisioned conceptions of reform efforts are
ingrained in their belief systems to guide and impact their practices. This was the
vision of the University of Florida Unites Teachers to Reform Education in Science
(U-FUTuRES) project – a comprehensive PD program. With a focus on students’
learning, the activities increased the content knowledge of middle school teachers,
engaged them in inquiry-based science as learners and allowed them to practice,
reflect, and refine their practices within the supportive learning community devel-
oped and sustained within the program.
The program was conceptualized and initiated within a partnership that included
schools and districts populated by poor and rural students including African
Americans and Hispanics and for whom participating in science careers was not a
foreseeable reality. Many of the schools were not meeting the expectations of the
science standards and their history of low science achievement was not only an
issue for the future of the students but was a factor in the accountability system
established by the state. While the motivation for teachers’ learning is usually from
within (Simon & Campbell, 2012), in this program, they were selected for participa-
tion after being recommended by their administrators. However, from as early as
their initial interviews, before being matriculated into the university system, they all
expressed that they accepted the program’s long-term vision to impact the academic
trajectory of their populations of learners.
The PD program included a job-embedded graduate degree program and comple-
mentary workshop activities aligned with the formal courses. A core component was
the preparation of the teachers to enact the middle school science curriculum grounded
in the elements of the current reform in science education. That is, the program stra-
tegically and intentionally facilitated the teachers developing a strong understanding
of the scientific ideas and practices as outlined in the reform and through the enact-
ment of the curriculum translated their learning into practices. Informed by social
constructivism, the program facilitated teachers’ learning through active engagement
and as reflective practitioners reconstructed their existing understanding of science
teaching and learning. That is, teachers moved beyond dissonance toward trans-
formed teaching practices aligned with the current reform in science education.
The immediate context for this book is a Math Science partnership funded by the
National Science Foundation (NSF). The funding period of 5-years supported two
cohorts of 37 middle school teachers in a Teacher Institute for the twenty-first
Century that included a series of comprehensive PD activities and the completion of
a 2-year job-embedded master’s degree in science education. The book, Researching
Practitioner Inquiry as Professional Development: Voices from the Field of Science
Teaching, has at its core, the experiences of science teachers in the PD program as
they share the authentic learning experiences that emerged during the practitiioner
inquiry. The teachers, immersed in their sites of practice, and as deliberative
1.1 A Resource in Inservice Teacher Education 5
intellectuals, engaged in systematic and intentional study of their teaching toward

improving students learning (Dana & Yendol-Hoppey, 2019). The nine stories pre-
sented in chapters five through seven include the teachers’ informed perspectives as
they observed, reflected on their actions, and then adjusted their teaching to enhance
students’ science learning. The book does not present a sanitized version of the
teachers’ stories. It describes the full PD program in which the teachers were pre-
pared to be agents of transformation within the current reform in science education.
Through the sharing of the teachers’ narratives, we are provided a window into real-
time occurrences in science teaching and learning in middle school classrooms.
The practitioner inquiry was one component of the PD program. The authentic
teachers’ voices represent the culmination of their introduction to, and completion
of their first practitioner inquiry. The book begins with a historical discussion pro-
viding insights into past experiences that have shaped the current science education
culture. In the midst of current socio-political and cultural shifts, an understanding
of the history of science education is important to appreciate the significance of the
interaction between science and society and the emergence of priorities over the
years. What follows the historical discussion, is a description of the PD program and
the course work that introduced and scaffolded the teachers into and through the
cycle of teacher inquiry. The content of the book is not about the author’s experi-
ences as a science educator whose research is in teacher education. It is about teach-
ers’ learning that emerged from inquiring into their issues of practice, their posture
as reflective practitioners, and the generation of valuable knowledge about teaching
and learning science. Thus, three major areas of their concerns are presented in
chapters five through seven. While I have selected literacy in science learning, cul-
tural competence, and development of metacognitive skills to be presented here,
other areas of concerns explored in the teacher inquiries were, gender and science
learning, gifted but low achieving in science, and migrating populations of learners.
The book ends with a critical discussion of practitioner inquiry as a force in support-
ing teacher learning as garnered from the teachers’ reflections. Finally, the case is
made that all PD activities should include practitioner inquiry. However, as an edu-
cational movement and as a research genre (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009), teach-
ers should be introduced and scaffolded through a formal job-embedded learning
experience that includes the cyclic process from observation through to transformed
practices and leading to further observation.
1.1 A Resource in Inservice Teacher Education
The book can be interpreted as a historical documentation of one component of a

twenty-first century PD; an attempt to reveal, through the voices of science teachers,
issues of practice in real classrooms; or a framework from which other educators
can begin to reflect on their own problems of practice in working with inservice
teachers regardless of the disciplines. The goals for those who read and use this
book are to (1) develop an understanding of science education, its relationship to
6 1 Introduction
science, and the impact of social, global, and economic occurrences on its develop-
ment; (2) provide a window into middle school classrooms through the authentic
voices of science teachers engaged in practitioner inquiry; and (3) bring to the fore
the power of practitioner inquiry as a tool in PD to support the development of
reflective practitioners. The book is intended for a wide audience including science
educators, school and district administrators, and policymakers. The information is
also applicable to educators whose discipline may not be science education but who
are engaged with teachers in efforts to increase students’ achievement. The follow-
ing are recommendations for use of the book by educators in higher education and
educators and administrators whose interests are in enhancing the professional
learning of all teachers.
1.1.1 For Science Teacher Educators: The Making of Scholars
Foregrounding the aspects of the history of reform in science education provides

insight into a field that philosophically has been engaged in a process of legitimiz-
ing its place in an evolving world. While there are numerous texts on the history of
science education, the information presented within the context of a PD program is
pertinent for graduate students being prepared for academia. The historical discus-
sion lays the foundation for understanding how past experiences have shaped the
current science education culture and its relationship to the society’s expectation. In
the midst of current socio-political and cultural shifts, an understanding of the his-
tory of science education not only highlights the significance of the interactions
between science and society and the emergence of priorities over the years but will
make for scholarly discussions in graduate seminars. In addition, understanding the
historical antecedents to the current reform efforts and the implication for PD has
the potential to generate research agendas to further promote the achievement of the
long-term goals of the discipline.
1.1.2 or Inservice Teacher Educators

F
and School Administrators
Regardless of the discipline of focus, the information provided in the text can be
used to shape conversations around the context and opportunities for more powerful
professional teacher learning. The experiences of these teachers reveal the extension
of their role as they developed the professional dispositions of life-long learning,
reflective and mindful teaching, and self-transformation (Mills, 2000). As scholars,
they developed knowledge about their teaching and students learning – a testament
to the scope at which teachers, as reflective practitioners can learn from their experi-
ences and make the necessary changes to their practices. To achieve such, however,
References 7
the information contained in the book can guide the development of an approach
that will reframe the nature of PD from being static in time to one that empowers
teachers as continuous learners. It is this empowerment, emerging from the practi-
tioner inquiry that will facilitate continued learning beyond any given duration.
As administrators seek to encourage environments in which teachers contribute
to school change, the book provides insight into a component of PD that allows
teachers to identify the issues associated with their practices and simultaneously
study their teaching, their students and themselves. With the focus on improved
practices and student learning, the powerful voices of the teachers and the impact of
teacher inquiry on their learning are areas that can foster teachers’ involvement in
school change (Elmore, 2004). Furthermore, this text becomes a unique resource for
initiating and or supporting learning communities (DuFour, 2004) on school cam-
puses. The history, description of the program, and the narratives are precursors to
teachers making connections to the lived experiences presented by their peers. The
final chapter presents a succinct discussion of the knowledge garnered from
researching practitioner inquiry and its potential to be a catalyst in school change.
References
Bybee, R. W. (1993). Reforming science education. Social perspectives & personal reflections.
New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as stance: Practitioner research for the next
generation. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Dana, N. F., & Yendol-Hoppey, D. (2019). The reflective educator's guide to classroom research:
Learning to teach and teaching to learn through practitioner inquiry (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Corwin.
DuFour, R. (2004). “What is a” professional learning community? Educational Leadership,
61(8), 6–11.
Elmore, R. F. (2004). School reform from the inside out: Policy, practice, and performance.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Mills, G. (2000). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Merrill/Prentice-Hall.
Simon, S., & Campbell, S. (2012). Teacher learning and professional development in science edu-
cation. In B. Fraser, K. Tobin, & J. M. R. Campbell (Eds.), Second international handbook of
science education (pp. 307–321). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Chapter 2
Reforms in Science Education: A Response
to Changing Societal Contexts
Reforms in science teaching and learning have often emerged in response to major
socio-political and economic occurrences. The launching of Sputnik by the Soviet
Union in the 1950s was viewed as a challenge to the scientific and technological
prowess of the United States (U.S.) (Stine, 2008). This was a new age in geopoli-
tics. An age in which science education was expected to play an important role in
response to global challenges in science, technology, and the advancement of
nation states. The launch prompted a rapid national response that resulted in the
mobilization of new federal policies, educational programs, and a call for the
renewing of intellectual rigor to school science programs (DeBoer, 1991; Rudolph,
2002). The need for a vibrant, science and mathematics enriched learning environ-
ment, raised the concerns of scientists and spurred their input into education. The
intellectual contest with the Soviets provided the opportunity for scientists to
become involved in revitalizing the science curriculum (Rudolph, 2002). A tide of
new approaches to science curricular development influenced by these scientists,
lead to initiatives promoting science teaching and learning that emphasized the
logical structure of the disciplines and the processes of science (DeBoer, 1991;
Rudolph, 2002).
Science education in the immediate post-Sputnik era, saw an emphasis on the
learning of process skills such as observing, inferring, and experimenting. Later, in
the 1990s, the National Research Council (NRC, 1996a), released the National
Science Education Standards (NSES), which, even today, are embraced as an impor-
tant document in giving directions to setting the ideals for teaching and learning
science. The central goal of the standards was the establishment of the major pur-
pose of science education which was the development of scientific literacy for all
students, not just those destined for careers in science and engineering. Embedded
in this goal was the expectation that all students would be given equitable science
learning opportunities during their K-12 schooling. Thus, the emergence of the
phrase, Science for all students. The principles of the standards included an empha-
sis on teaching science in ways that reflected how science itself is conducted by
scientists – emphasis on inquiry as a way of achieving knowledge and
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 9

R. M. Pringle, Researching Practitioner Inquiry as Professional Development,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59550-0_2
10 2 Reforms in Science Education: A Response to Changing Societal Contexts
understanding about the world (National Research Council (NRC), 1996).

Embedded within the reform effort, was the distinction between content standards
that identified the science ideas to be learned and inquiry standards that established
what students should be able to do (NRC, 2000). In this dispensation of science
teaching and learning, the goals of inquiry became clarified by attempts to teach
science as practice (Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Lederman, 1998; Lehrer & Schauble,
2006). It was during this time in the development of science education that attention
given to the process skills in science learning became heightened.
The national standards directed a vision that embraced science as practice within
the context of an inquiry approach to science teaching and learning. This notion of
inquiry, however, was not defined operationally in the accompanying reform docu-
ments. The lack of a consensus lead to varying conceptualizations and translations
in the science classrooms that did not accurately represent the vision of inquiry as
envisioned in the reform. As the standards’ movement became central in the
reformed educational systems, a plethora of K-12 science programs emerged that
had implications for teaching, learning and assessment, and the preparation of
teachers. In addition, on a political level, the standards-based teaching ushered in
the era of tests and accountability, which overtime, have become a constraint on the
achievements for which it was instituted to support.
By the dawn of the twentieth century, the influence of the rapid changes in
approaches and methods brought about in response to the Sputnik era was far
removed from the evolving discipline, science education. So too, were the issues
and concerns in education that initiated the report, “A Nation at Risk” (National
Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). Notably, at this juncture, the lin-
gering challenges from the past centuries remained and were very evident in the
current state of science education. Seventeen years after the emergence of the
“Science for all students,” the science education community was again faced with
the failure of meeting society’s expectations. Science education was still plagued by
the low level of scientific literacy, less than adequately prepared citizens to respond
to the prevalence of science in the society, and the need to prepare a scientifically
trained workforce (NRC, 2007). In addition, critics cited the inadequacies of the
education system to provide learning experiences that engaged all students in the
enterprise of science.
A review of the past discussions of the early 1900s reveals some interesting con-
versations and lamentations about the state of K-12 science education. Specifically,
its role in securing the development of knowledge, skills, and habits of mind leading
to personally fulfilling and responsible lives. However, more than the individual
self-fulfillment and the economic and natural interests were at stake. At stake,
according to Rutherford and Ahlgren (1990), was attention to global challenges
including but not limited to acid rain, shrinking of tropical forests and other sources
of diverse species, and pollution of the environment. These conditions and conver-
sations are eerily similar to occurrences in our current system and so too are the
efforts for remediation. In Bybee’s (1993) reflections on science education, he pos-
ited that increasing the development of scientific literacy would require
2.1 Science Education and the Development of Twenty-First Century Skills 11
fundamental changes in the approach to science curricula. Some of his suggestions

included a reduction in the volume of content knowledge with a focus on a few
major concepts and skills; greater emphasis on interdisciplinary learning with a
softening of the rigid boundaries of the individual science disciplines; and the enact-
ment of programs that were conceptually sound and contained procedural integrity.
Furthermore, in 1983, Bybee projected that in the next decade, the issue of equity
would need attention to enhance the opportunities for historically underrepresented
groups. Despite the standards call for a commitment to the provision of equitable
learning experiences for all learners (NRC, 2007), under-representation in science
by ethnic minorities remains a function of the nature of K-12 science education.
The practices of science teaching envisioned in the science standards for all and
the conceptions of science as inquiry, became synonymous with science learning as
the assimilation of discrete facts. In such practices, teaching was about covering
science content that was “a mile wide and an inch deep,” which, according to
Schmidt, Burroughs, and Cogan (2013), supported a surface learning of the science
content knowledge. Teaching with an emphasis on accumulation of facts did not
allow students to experience science as a dynamic enterprise and in ways consistent
with how scientists work in studying the world. With the science knowledge perme-
ating every aspect of the modern world, science education was once again not meet-
ing the need of the U.S. to secure economic dominance and maintain its
competitiveness in the international arena. Furthermore, the impact of deficiencies
in K-12 learning was being felt at both the personal and communal levels. There
was now an obvious failure in the extent to which citizens on a whole were partici-
pating in public issues and prepared to make informed decisions. An ineffective
science education program therefore became a signal for a new framework, accom-
panying standards, and a more intentional and inclusive approach to K-12 science
teaching and learning.
2.1 cience Education and the Development of Twenty-First

S
Century Skills
We live in a world that is profoundly being shaped by the advancing and ever-
increasing volume of science knowledge. “This scientific advancement has funda-
mentally changed our beliefs about what it means to do science, to engage in
scientific inquiry and to describe science as a way of knowing,” (Duschl & Grandy,
2008, p. ix). These changes have had significant implications for the nature of sci-
ence teaching and the demand for quality education in K-12 classrooms. The com-
mitment to a program, that over time, embodies these new beliefs was also supported
by a new understanding of learning informed by cognitive science research
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). Amidst these changes, the goals of science
education have remained consistent. The goals include the development of the intel-
lectual skills of thinking and reasoning, practical goals of empowerment that will
Another random document with
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adult. In the Lobata and Cestoidea there is, however, a definite larval
stage, of the general appearance of a Mertensia, and during this
stage fertile eggs and spermatozoa are formed and set free.
Distribution.—Ctenophora are found at the surface of nearly all

seas, and many of the genera have a cosmopolitan distribution.
Some of the Lobata, the Cestoidea, and the Platyctenea are more
commonly found in the warmer regions of the world. Pleurobrachia
pileus, Bolina infundibulum, Beroe ovata, and B. cucumis occur off
the British coast.
Most of the Ctenophora are from 5 to 20 mm. in diameter, but Beroe

reaches the length of 90 mm., Eucharis multicornis a height of 250
mm., and Cestus veneris has been found no less than 1½ metres
from one extremity to the other.
Ctenophores usually go about in shoals, and in the case of Beroe

cucumis and Eucharis multicornis the shoals may be of very great
extent. Pleurobrachia pileus of the British coasts is often found at the
end of the season (July) as a series of isolated individuals; but in
June they occur in small shoals, swimming so close together that
they will choke a tow-net in a very short space of time.
CLASS I. TENTACULATA
Ctenophora provided with a pair of tentacles in the larval stages only
or in both larval and adult stages.
Order I. Cydippidea.
This order includes a number of spherical or oval Ctenophores, with
a pair of tentacles retractile into deep tentacular pits in the adult
stage.
Fam. 1. Mertensiidae.—The body is compressed in the transverse
plane, and the ribs on the transverse areas are longer than those on
the sagittal areas. The family includes the genus Euchlora, which
occurs in the Mediterranean and in the northern part of the Atlantic
Ocean. In Charistephane there are only two enormous ctenophoral
plates in each of the longitudinal tracts. These plates are so broad
that they almost meet laterally to form two continuous circlets round
the body of the animal. This genus is found in the Mediterranean, but
a few specimens have also been obtained in the Atlantic.
In Tinerfe the body is almost cylindrical, and there is a pair of kidney-

shaped swellings at the sides of the aboral pole. It has a pale blue
colour, and is found in the Guinea and south equatorial currents of
the Atlantic Ocean.
The name Mertensia has been given to several forms that are
undoubtedly the young stages of genera belonging to the Lobata, but
Chun retains the name M. ovum for a species which is very
abundant in the Arctic currents of the North Atlantic.
Fam. 2. Callianiridae.—Two or four wing-like processes, into which

the longitudinal canals extend, are found at the aboral pole.
Callianira has two of these processes arranged in the transverse
plane, and Lophoctenia has four. Callianira is found in the
Mediterranean and in the Atlantic from the Arctic to the Antarctic
waters.
Fam. 3. Pleurobrachiidae.—The body is almost spherical in form,

and the eight ribs are equal in length.
This family includes the genus Pleurobrachia, in which the ribs

extend for a considerable distance along the lines of longitude of the
spherical body, but do not reach either the oral or the aboral areas.
P. pileus is the commonest British Ctenophore, and may be found in
shoals in May, June, and July at the surface of the sea or cast up on
the sand as the tide ebbs. It is widely distributed in the North Atlantic
waters. P. rhodopis of the Mediterranean has rather shorter ribs than
P. pileus. Two new species have recently been described from the
Malay Archipelago.[430] Hormiphora (Fig. 180, p. 413) differs from
Pleurobrachia in having much shorter ribs, and in possessing two
kinds of pinnae on the tentacles, those of the ordinary kind and
others much larger and sometimes palmate in character. This genus
has a world-wide distribution.
In Lampetia and Euplokamis the body is more cylindrical in shape

than it is in the other genera, but the ribs and subjacent longitudinal
canals extend up to the margin of the aboral field. Both these genera
occur in the Mediterranean, but Lampetia is also found in the Malay
Archipelago.
Order II. Lobata.

The body is considerably flattened in the transverse plane, and the
sagittal areas are extended into the form of two wide peristomial
lobes. The oral ends of the areas between the transverse and
sagittal ribs are extended to form four flaps, called the "auricles."
There are no tentacles nor tentacle-sheaths of the ordinary kind in
the adult form; but numerous tentilla, similar in some respects to the
pinnae of the tentacles of other Ctenophora, form a fringe round the
margin of the auricles and the peristome. A single pair of long,
filamentous, non-retractile tentacles arise from the sides of the
peristomium in Eucharis multicornis. These tentacles have no
sheaths, and do not bear pinnae. They are probably not homologous
with those of other Ctenophora.
The characters that separate the families of Lobata are chiefly those
of varying size, shape, and position of the peristomial lobes and
auricles. In the Lesueuriidae the peristomial lobes are rudimentary;
in the other families they are moderately or very large. In the
Bolinidae the auricles are short, but in most of the other families they
are long and ribbon-like. In Eucharis they can be spirally twisted in
repose.
The modifications of the external form seen in the Lobata are

accompanied by some modifications of the internal structure. Among
these, perhaps the most interesting is a communication between the
transverse longitudinal and the paragastric canals, and the long
convoluted tubes given off to the peristomial lobes by the sagittal
longitudinal canals. Very little is known about the life-history and
development of most of the Lobata, but Chun has shown that in
Eucharis and Bolina there is a Cydippiform larval stage which
produces ripe ova and spermatozoa. This is followed by a period of
sterility, but when the adult characters are developed they become
again sexually mature. To this series of sexual phenomena the name
"Dissogony" is given.
Fig. 181.—Ocyroe crystallina. Ab, aboral sense-organ; au, auricle; Can,

diverticulum from the paragastric canal passing into peristomial lobe; Ct,
costae; M, mouth; Par, paragastric canal passing outwards to join one of
the transverse subcostal canals; P.L, peristomial lobe; w, wart-like tubercles
on the lobe. (After Mayer.)
The order contains only fifteen genera, but they are usually arranged
in the following eight families:—
1. Lesueuriidae. Lesueuria.
2. Bolinidae. Bolina, Bolinopsis.
3. Deiopeidae. Deiopea.
4. Eurhamphaeidae. Eurhamphaea.
5. Eucharidae. Eucharis.
6. Mnemiidae. Mnemia, Mnemiopsis.
7. Calymmidae. Calymma.
8. Ocyroidae. Ocyroe.
Most of these Ctenophores occur in the warm and tropical seas; but
Bolina is found occasionally at Plymouth in the month of May, on the
west coast of Ireland, and at other stations on the British coasts.
Eucharis is regarded as one of the most beautiful of the Phylum. A
swarm, some miles in length, of large specimens of E. multicornis
was met by the Plankton Expedition in the south equatorial current of
the Atlantic during the month of September.
Order III. Cestoidea.

In this order the body is so much compressed in the transverse
plane and elongated in the sagittal plane that it assumes the shape
of a long narrow band or ribbon. The tentacular sheaths are present
but the tentacles are degenerate in the adult. The tentacular
functions are performed by numerous tentilla situated in long
grooves extending along the whole length of the oral side of the
band-like body. The transverse ribs are reduced; the sagittal ribs
extend along the whole of the aboral side.
Fam. Cestidae.—This is the only family of the order. Cestus veneris,

the Venus's girdle of the Mediterranean Sea, is also found in the
Atlantic Ocean, and specimens belonging to the same genus, but
probably to a different species, occur as far north as the White Sea.
Some of the larger specimens are considerably over 1 metre in
length.
Fig. 182.—Cestus pectenalis. Ab, aboral sense-organ; Ct, the sagittal ribs; M,
mouth. (After Bigelow.)
C. pectenalis was found in abundance off one of the Maldive Islands
[431] and differs from C. veneris in having a large and prominent
orange patch at each end of the body. It is said to be extremely
graceful in the water, moving with slow, ribbon-like undulations, and
shining in the sunlight with a violet iridescence. Vexillum, from the
Mediterranean Sea and Canary Islands, is rather more pointed at the
extremities than Cestus, and differs from it in some important
anatomical characters.
Order IV. Platyctenea.

This order has been constituted for two remarkable genera, in which
the oro-apical axis is so much reduced that distinct dorsal and
ventral surfaces can be distinguished.
There is a single pair of long milky-white tentacles capable of

complete retraction into tentacular sheaths.
Fam. 1. Ctenoplanidae.—Ctenoplana was discovered by Korotneff

in 1886 floating with the Plankton off the coast of Sumatra. In 1896
Willey [432] discovered four specimens on a cuttle-bone floating off
the coast of New Guinea. To these authors we are indebted for the
only accounts of this animal that have been published.
When the Ctenoplana is creeping on the bottom of a dish or with its

dorsal side downwards on the surface film of the water, it has the
form of a flattened disc with a notch on each side. On the upper or
dorsal surface eight short rows of ctenophoral plates may be seen,
and in a position corresponding with the two notches in the margin of
the body are situated the two sheaths from which the long pinnate
tentacles protrude. In the exact centre of the dorsal surface is
situated the statolith, supported by stiff processes from adjacent
cells; and forming a circlet round the statolith there is a row of short
ciliated tentacles. These tentacles, however, when examined
carefully in the living animal, are found to be arranged in two sets of
about nine in each, separated by narrow gaps on each side, the
gaps corresponding in position with the axis through the tentacles.
When the animal is swimming it assumes a helmet-shape by

depressing the sides of the body like a pair of flaps on the tentacular
axis, and then the ctenophoral plates come into play and produce
the progressive movements of the animals. The pinnate tentacles
are opaque white in colour, and have peculiar serpentine
movements. Very little is known at present concerning many details
of the internal anatomy, but there is one point of considerable
theoretical interest—namely, the presence of definite male genital
ducts.
Three of Dr. Willey's specimens were mottled with a green pigment,

whereas his fourth specimen and Korotneff's only specimen were
mottled with a red pigment. It has yet to be determined whether the
differences which have been observed in the individual specimens
are of specific value.
Fam. 2. Coeloplanidae.—Coeloplana was originally discovered by

Kowalevsky in the Red Sea, but has recently been found by Abbott
[433] on the coast of Japan.
Fig. 183.—Coeloplana mitsukurii, floating at the surface of the sea with the
dorsal side downwards. T, T, the tentacles expanded. (After Abbott.)
The Japanese species are found principally on encrusting Algae,

Zostera, Melobesia, etc., which they resemble very closely in colour.
The Red Sea species is, according to Kowalevsky, ciliated all over,
but the Japanese species are ciliated only on the ventral surface. As
in Ctenoplana, the body of Coeloplana is a flattened disc with a
notch at each end of the tentacular axis, when creeping; but
Coeloplana does not swim, nor at any time does it assume a helmet-
shape. The tentacles are very long and of a chalky-white colour.
They can be retracted into tentacle-sheaths. When the animal is
excited it throws out the whole tentacle in a cloud of white filaments,
"and to watch it at such a time, shooting out and retracting the
tentacles, moving along the side of the aquarium like a battleship in
action is truly a remarkable spectacle."[434] On the dorsal side of the
body there is a series of processes which are called the dorsal
tentacles. The statolith is very small, and is not surrounded by
sensory processes as it is in Ctenoplana. There are no ctenophoral
plates. The colours of the Japanese species are scarlet or carmine
red and dirty brown or brownish yellow. They are from 1 to 2
centimetres in diameter.
CLASS II. NUDA

Ctenophora without tentacles.
Fam. Beroidae.—Beroe, the only genus of this family and class,

differs from other Ctenophora in several important particulars. There
are no tentacles, and the stomodaeum is so large that the body-form
assumes that of a thimble with moderately thick walls. The
infundibulum is small. The paragastric and longitudinal canals give
rise to numerous ramifications which form a network distributed
throughout the surface of the body. The statolith is unprotected by a
dome, and the polar fields are bordered by a number of small
branching papillae. The eight ribs extend for nearly the whole length
of the body. Beroe is almost cosmopolitan, and is frequently found at
the surface of the sea in great numbers. B. ovata is found off the
Shetlands, Hebrides, and west coast of Ireland, but is rare on the
east coast of the British Islands and in the English Channel. At
Valencia it is common in August and September, and sometimes
reaches the great size of 90 mm. in length by 50 mm. in breadth. It is
usually of a pale pink colour.
Appendix to Ctenophora
Hydroctena salenskii has recently been discovered by Dawydoff[435]

floating with the Plankton off the island Saparua in the Malay
Archipelago. It is claimed to be a connecting link between the
Ctenophora and the Medusae of the Hydrozoa.
In external features it is like one of the Narcomedusae, having a

transparent jelly-like bell with a wide bell-mouth guarded by a velum
(Fig. 184, V). There are only two simple but solid tentacles (t),
provided with tentacle-sheaths, but inserted on opposite sides of the
bell—not on the margin, but, as in the Ctenophore, at a level not far
removed from the aboral pole. At the aboral pole there is a minute
pore surrounded by a high ciliated epithelium bearing an orange
pigment. This leads into a short blind canal, which terminates in an
ampulla bearing two statoliths supported by elastic processes from
the ampullar epithelium.
The sub-umbrellar cavity extends for a distance of about one-half the

height of the bell. The mouth (M), which opens into this cavity, leads
into a wide cavity that gives off a short blind canal to the side of each
tentacular sheath, and a straight tube that leads straight to the
statocyst, where it also ends blindly. There are no radial canals and
no ring canal at the margin of the umbrella. There are also no
ctenophoral plates. In the absence of any information concerning the
position of the genital glands, the character of the epithelium of the
tentacles and the development, we are not justified in regarding
Hydroctena either as a Ctenophore or as a connecting link between
the Ctenophora and the Hydromedusae. It may be regarded simply
as a Craspedote Medusa, probably related to the Narcomedusae,
with a remarkable aberrant aboral sense-organ.
Fig. 184.—Hydroctena salenskii. ab, Aboral organ; M, manubrium; t, tentacle; V,
velum. (After Dawydoff.)
ECHINODERMATA
BY
E. W. MacBRIDE, M.A., FRS.

Formerly Fellow of St. John's College
Professor of Zoology in McGill University, Montreal.
CHAPTER XVI
ECHINODERMATA—INTRODUCTION—CLASSIFICATION—ANATOMY OF A
STARFISH—SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF ASTEROIDEA
The name Echinodermata[436] means literally "spiny-skinned," and

thus brings into prominence one very conspicuous feature of most of
the animals belonging to this phylum. All, it is true, do not possess
spines; but with one or two doubtful exceptions, all have calcareous
plates embedded in the skin, and these plates, in many cases, push
out projections which raise the skin into corresponding elevations,
which are called the spines. The spines are, like the other plates,
inside the skin, and to speak of an Echinoderm living in its shell, as
we speak of a Snail, is a serious error. The shell of a Mollusc is
fundamentally a secretion poured forth from the skin, and is thus
entirely external to the real living parts; but the plates and spines of
an Echinoderm may be compared to our own bones, which are
embedded deeply in the flesh. Hence the name ossicle (little bone) is
used to designate these organs.
Besides the possession of these spines, Echinoderms are

characterised by having their organisation pervaded by a
fundamental radial symmetry. The principal organs of the body are
repeated and are arranged like the spokes of a wheel round a
central axis instead of being, as, for example, in Chaetopoda,
arranged behind one another in longitudinal series.
In addition to these striking peculiarities, Echinoderms possess a

most interesting internal organisation, being in this respect almost
exactly intermediate between the Coelenterata and the higher
Invertebrata. Like so many of the latter, the Echinodermata have an
anus, that is, a second opening to the alimentary canal through
which indigestible material is rejected; like them also, they have a
body-cavity or coelom surrounding the alimentary canal—from the
lining of which the genital cells are developed. On the other hand,
there is no definite circulatory system, nor any specialised excretory
organ, and the nervous system exhibits no concentration which
could be called a brain, and is, moreover, in close connexion with the
skin. In all these points the Echinodermata resemble the
Coelenterata.
One of the most characteristic features of the internal anatomy of

Echinodermata is the presence of a peculiar series of organs, known
collectively as the water-vascular system or hydrocoel. This is really
a special division of the coelom or body-cavity which takes on the
form of a ring-shaped canal embracing the mouth, from which are
given off long radial canals, usually five in number, running to the
more peripheral parts of the body.[437] Each radial canal carries a
double series of lateral branches, which push out the skin so as to
appear as appendages of the body. These appendages are known
as tentacles or tube-feet; they are both sensory and respiratory in
function, and often in addition, as the name tube-foot indicates,
assist in locomotion. As a general term for these appendages, to be
applied in all cases without reference to their function, the name
podium has been suggested and will be employed here. A system
of canals, in many ways resembling the water-vascular system, is
found in Brachiopoda, Gephyrea and Polyzoa, but the peculiarity of
Echinodermata is the way in which it is kept filled with fluid. From the
ring-canal in the interval (or interradius) between two radial canals,
a vertical canal, termed the stone-canal, is given off, which
communicates with the exterior by means of a sieve-like plate, the
madreporite, pierced by fine canals. These canals and the stone-
canal itself are lined with powerful cilia, which produce a strong
inward current, and keep the water-vascular system tensely filled
with sea water.
The phylum includes the familiar Starfish and Sea-urchins, which in

sheltered spots are found between tide-marks; the Brittle Stars and
Sea-cucumbers, which can be dredged up from below low-water
mark, and lastly the beautiful Feather-stars, of which there are
comparatively few species still living, although huge beds of
limestone are composed of the remains of fossil Feather-stars.
One species of Sea-cucumber (Synapta similis)[438] is said to enter

brackish water in the mangrove swamps of the tropics; but, with this
exception, the whole phylum is marine. A few species can endure
partial exposure to the air when left bare by the receding tide, but the
overwhelming majority are only found beneath low-water mark, and
a considerable number live in the deepest recesses of the ocean.
Their distribution is, no doubt, partly determined by food, a number

of species being strictly confined to the neighbourhood of the shore.
On the other hand, since a very large number of species live on the
layer of mud impregnated with animal remains which forms the
superficial layer of the deposit covering the sea-floor, it is not
surprising to learn that many have an exceedingly wide range, since
this deposit is very widely distributed. Another equally important
factor in determining distribution is wave-disturbance, and it is
surprising to learn to what a depth this extends. Off the west coast of
Ireland a large wave literally breaks on a submerged rock 15
fathoms beneath the surface. Speaking generally, it is useless to
look for Echinoderms on an exposed coast, and the same species,
which in the sheltered waters of the Clyde are exposed at low water,
must be dredged up from 20 to 30 fathoms outside Plymouth Sound.
The ordinary collector is attracted to the group chiefly by the
regularity and beauty of the patterns produced by the radial
symmetry, but to the scientific zoologist they are interesting from
many other points of view. Differing widely nevertheless from the
higher Invertebrata in their symmetry when adult, they have as
larvae a marked bilateral symmetry, and the secondary development
of the radial symmetry constitutes one of the most remarkable life-
histories known in the animal kingdom.
Then again, owing to the possession of ossicles, the Echinodermata

are one of the few groups of Invertebrata of which abundant remains
occur fossilised. In attempting, therefore, to decipher the past history
of life from the fossil record, it is necessary to have an exact and
detailed knowledge of Echinoderm skeletons and their relation to the
soft parts. Lastly, the internal organisation of Echinoderms throws
valuable light on the origin of the complicated systems of organs
found in the higher animals.
Echinodermata are divided into two great sub-phyla, which must

have very early diverged from one another. These are:—
(1) Eleutherozoa,
(2) Pelmatozoa.[439]
The sub-phylum Pelmatozoa, to which the living Feather-stars
(Crinoidea) and the majority of the known fossil species belong, is
characterised by the possession of a fixing organ placed in the
centre of the surface opposite the mouth—the aboral surface as it is
called. Ordinarily this organ takes on the form of a jointed stalk, but
in most modern species it is a little knob with a tuft of rooting
processes, termed cirri. In the other sub-phylum, the Eleutherozoa,
no such organ is found, and the animals wander about freely during
their adult life, though for a brief period of their larval existence they
may be fixed by a stalk-like protuberance arising from the oral
surface.
SUB-PHYLUM I. ELEUTHEROZOA
The Eleutherozoa are divided into four main classes, between
which no intermediate forms are found amongst the living species,
though intermediate types have been found fossil.
The four classes into which the Eleutherozoa are divided are defined
as follows:—
(1) Asteroidea (Starfish).—"Star"-shaped or pentagonal

Eleutherozoa with five or more triangular arms, not sharply marked
off from the central disc. The mouth is in the centre of one surface,
called from this circumstance the "oral"; the anus is in the centre of
the opposite surface, termed the "aboral." From the mouth a groove
runs out on the under surface of each arm towards its tip, termed the
"ambulacral" groove. Projecting from the ambulacral groove are
found the podia or tube-feet, the organs of movement and sensation
of the animal.
(2) Ophiuroidea (Brittle Stars).—Eleutherozoa, in which the body

consists of a round disc with long worm-like arms inserted in grooves
on its under surface. No anus is present, and the ambulacral
grooves are represented by closed canals. The podia are merely
sensory and respiratory, locomotion being effected by muscular jerks
of the arms.
(3) Echinoidea (Sea-urchins).—Globular or disc-shaped

Eleutherozoa, in which the skeleton forms a compact cuirass except
for a short distance round the mouth (peristome) and round the anus
(periproct). The ambulacral grooves are represented by canals
which, like meridians of longitude on a school-globe, run from the
neighbourhood of the mouth to near the aboral pole of the body. The
spines are large and movably articulated with the plates. The
animals move by means of podia and spines, or by means of the
latter only. The anus is usually situated at the aboral pole, but is
sometimes displaced towards the side, or even on to the ventral
surface.
(4) Holothuroidea (Sea-cucumbers).—Sausage-shaped

Eleutherozoa, in which the skeleton is represented only by isolated
nodules of calcium carbonate, and in which the body-wall is highly
muscular. The mouth and anus are situated at opposite ends of the
body, and the ambulacral grooves (represented by closed canals)
run from near the mouth to the proximity of the anus. Movement is
accomplished by means of the podia, aided by worm-like
contractions of the body.
CLASS I. ASTEROIDEA[440] (Starfish)

The Starfish derive their name from their resemblance in shape to
the conventional image of a star. The body consists of broad
triangular arms (generally five in number) which coalesce in the
centre to form a disc. The skin is soft and semi-transparent,
permitting the skeleton to be easily detected; this consists of a mesh-
work of rods or plates, leaving between them intervals of soft skin. In
a living Starfish it can be seen that many of these soft places are
raised up into finger-like outgrowths, which are termed "papulae" or
"dermal gills," through the thin walls of which an active interchange
of gases with the surrounding water takes place, and the animal
obtains in this way the oxygen necessary for its respiration.
Very few and feeble muscle-fibres exist in the body-wall, and the
movements of the arms, as a whole, are very slow and limited in
range. There is a membranous lip surrounding the mouth, from
which five broad grooves run outwards, one on the underside of
each arm. These are termed the "ambulacral grooves." Each groove
is Λ-shaped, and its sides are stiffened by a series of rod-like
ossicles called the "ambulacral ossicles."
The animal progresses by the aid of a large number of translucent
tentacles, termed "tube-feet" or "podia," which are attached to the
walls of the ambulacral grooves.
Anatomy of a Starfish.—As an introduction to the study of the

anatomy not only of Starfish but of Echinodermata as a whole, we
select Asterias rubens, the common Starfish of the British coasts,
which in many places may be found on the beach near low-water
mark.
External Features.—In this species (Fig. 185) the skeleton is a net-

work of rod-like plates, leaving wide meshes between them, through
which protrude a perfect forest of transparent papulae. From the
points of junction of the rods arise short blunt spines surrounded by
thick cushions of skin. The surfaces of these cushions are covered
with a multitude of whitish specks, which, on closer inspection, are
seen to have the form of minute pincers, each consisting of two
movable blades crossing each other below and articulated to a basal
piece. These peculiar organs are termed "pedicellariae" (Fig. 186),
and their function is to keep the animal clean by seizing hold of any
minute organisms which would attempt to settle on the soft and
delicate skin. When irritated the blades open and then snap together
violently, and remain closed for a long time.[441] These actions are
brought about by appropriate muscles attaching the blades to the
basal piece.
Fig. 185.—Asterias rubens, seen from the aboral surface, × 1. mad, Madreporite.
The last-named ossicle increases the certainty of the grip by fixing

the lower parts of each blade in the same vertical plane, and
preventing lateral slipping, so that it serves the same purpose as the
pivot in a pair of scissors. Each blade, in fact, fits into a groove on
the side of this piece. The muscles which close the blades arise from
the lower ends (handles) of the blades, and are united below to form
a common muscular string which attaches the whole organ to one of
the plates of the skeleton. An attempt of the victim to tear the
pedicellaria out is resisted by the contraction of this string, which
thus brings about a closer grip of the blades. In order that the blades
may open they must first be lifted out of the grooves on the basal
piece—this is effected by special lifting muscles. The opening is
brought about by muscles extending from the "handle" of one blade
to the upper part of the other.
Scattered about amongst the papulae between the cushions are

other pedicellariae of a larger size in which the blades do not cross
one another (Fig. 186, B).
In the space or "interradius" between two arms, on the aboral

surface, there is found a button-shaped ossicle. This is covered with
fine grooves, and from a fancied resemblance between it and some
forms of coral it has received the name "madreporite" (Fig. 185,
mad). The bottoms of the grooves are perforated by capillary canals
lined by flagella, through the action of which water is constantly
being introduced into the water-vascular system.
The anus is situated near the centre of the upper surface of the disc,
but it is so minute as to require careful inspection in order to discover
its position (Fig. 185).
Fig. 186.—View of pedicellariae of A. glacialis. A, Crossed form, × 100. 1,

Ectoderm covering the whole organ; 2, basal piece; 3, auxiliary muscle
closing the blades; 4, muscle lifting right blade out of the groove; 5, handle
of left blade; 6, muscles closing the blades, and uniting to form 7, the
muscular string attaching the pedicellaria to the skeleton. B, straight form, ×
10. 1, Basal piece; 2, blades; 3 and 4, muscles closing the blades; 5,
muscle opening the blades. (From Cuénot.)
On the under side of the animal the most conspicuous features are
the five ambulacral grooves which radiate out from the "peristome," a
thin membranous area surrounding the central mouth. The grooves
are filled with the tube-feet, which are closely crowded together and
apparently arranged in four rows.
Skeleton.—The sides of the ambulacral grooves are stiffened by the

rod-like "ambulacral ossicles." To the outer ends of these are
articulated a set of shorter rods termed the "adambulacral ossicles"
which carry each two or three rod-like spines, the "adambulacral
spines," the skin covering which bears numerous pedicellariae (Fig.
187, B). When the animal is irritated the edges of the groove are
brought together, and these spines then form a trellis-work covering
and protecting the delicate tube-feet; the numerous pedicellariae are
then in a position to make it unpleasant for any intruder. The closure
of the groove is effected by means of powerful muscles connecting
each ambulacral ossicle with its fellow. There are also feebler
muscles connecting these plates with their successors and
predecessors, which enable the arm to be bent downwards in a
vertical plane. It is raised by a muscular band running along the
dorsal wall of the coelom to the point of the arm.
Fig. 187.—A, Asterias rubens, seen from the oral surface, drawn from a living
specimen, × 1. B, an adambulacral spine, showing three straight
pedicellariae; C, a tube-foot expanded and contracted.
When the series of ambulacral and adambulacral ossicles is followed

inwards towards the mouth it is seen that the first ambulacral ossicle
is closely fixed to the second, but is widely separated from its fellow,
remaining, however, connected with the latter by a powerful adductor
muscle. In consequence of the separation of this pair of ossicles
each is brought into closer contact with the corresponding ossicle in
the adjacent radius, to which it is connected by a muscle called the
abductor. The first adambulacrals in adjacent radii are also brought
into closer contact and carry long spines which, when the ambulacral
grooves are contracted, project like a grating over the mouth. In the

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Researching Practitioner Inquiry as

Professional Development Voices from

Professional Development for Inquiry Based Science

Teaching Science Through Inquiry-Based Instruction

Quandaries of School Leadership: Voices from Principals

More Voices from the Classroom International Teachers

Inquiry-based Science Education 1st Edition Robyn M.

Professional Support Beyond Initial Teacher Education

Visual Methodologies An Introduction to Researching

Researching Within the Educational Margins Strategies

ISBN 978-3-030-59549-4 ISBN 978-3-030-59550-0 (eBook)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

The University of Florida Unites Teachers to Reform Education in Science

Part I Setting the Stage

3.4.5 Investigating and Questioning Our World Through

Part II Introduction to Chapters 5–7: Researching Teachers

5.13 My Cycle of Teacher Inquiry: Supporting Reading Among

7.1.3 Sense Making in Science: Developing Metacognitive

Part III Practitioner Inquiry: Lessons Learned From the

Rose M. Pringle is an associate professor of science education in the School of

STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

Fig. 3.1 The comprehensive PD model. (Pringle et al., 2018)������������������������� 31

Table 3.1 U-FUTuRES program partners��������������������������������������������������������� 30

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

intellectuals, engaged in systematic and intentional study of their teaching toward

1.1 A Resource in Inservice Teacher Education

The book can be interpreted as a historical documentation of one component of a

1.1.1 For Science Teacher Educators: The Making of Scholars

Foregrounding the aspects of the history of reform in science education provides

1.1.2  or Inservice Teacher Educators

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 9

understanding about the world (National Research Council (NRC), 1996).

fundamental changes in the approach to science curricula. Some of his suggestions

2.1  cience Education and the Development of Twenty-First

Distribution.—Ctenophora are found at the surface of nearly all

Most of the Ctenophora are from 5 to 20 mm. in diameter, but Beroe

Ctenophores usually go about in shoals, and in the case of Beroe

In Tinerfe the body is almost cylindrical, and there is a pair of kidney-

Fam. 2. Callianiridae.—Two or four wing-like processes, into which

Fam. 3. Pleurobrachiidae.—The body is almost spherical in form,

This family includes the genus Pleurobrachia, in which the ribs

In Lampetia and Euplokamis the body is more cylindrical in shape

Order II. Lobata.

The modifications of the external form seen in the Lobata are

Fig. 181.—Ocyroe crystallina. Ab, aboral sense-organ; au, auricle; Can,

Order III. Cestoidea.

Fam. Cestidae.—This is the only family of the order. Cestus veneris,

Order IV. Platyctenea.

There is a single pair of long milky-white tentacles capable of

Fam. 1. Ctenoplanidae.—Ctenoplana was discovered by Korotneff

When the Ctenoplana is creeping on the bottom of a dish or with its

When the animal is swimming it assumes a helmet-shape by

Three of Dr. Willey's specimens were mottled with a green pigment,

Fam. 2. Coeloplanidae.—Coeloplana was originally discovered by

The Japanese species are found principally on encrusting Algae,

CLASS II. NUDA

Fam. Beroidae.—Beroe, the only genus of this family and class,

Hydroctena salenskii has recently been discovered by Dawydoff[435]

In external features it is like one of the Narcomedusae, having a

3.4.5 Investigating and Questioning Our World Through

Part II Introduction to Chapters 5–7: Researching Teachers

5.13 My Cycle of Teacher Inquiry: Supporting Reading Among

7.1.3 Sense Making in Science: Developing Metacognitive

Part III Practitioner Inquiry: Lessons Learned From the

Fig. 3.1 The comprehensive PD model. (Pringle et al., 2018)�� 31

Table 3.1 U-FUTuRES program partners�� 30

1.1 A Resource in Inservice Teacher Education

1.1.1 For Science Teacher Educators: The Making of Scholars

1.1.2 or Inservice Teacher Educators

2.1 cience Education and the Development of Twenty-First