Structural Modeling of Metamaterials

Vladimir I. Erofeev
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Advanced Structured Materials

Vladimir I. Erofeev
Igor S. Pavlov

Structural
Modeling
of Metamaterials
Advanced Structured Materials

Volume 144

Series Editors
Andreas Öchsner, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Esslingen University of
Applied Sciences, Esslingen, Germany
Lucas F. M. da Silva, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Holm Altenbach , Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Otto von Guericke
University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany
Common engineering materials reach in many applications their limits and new
developments are required to fulfil increasing demands on engineering materials.
The performance of materials can be increased by combining different materials to
achieve better properties than a single constituent or by shaping the material or
constituents in a specific structure. The interaction between material and structure
may arise on different length scales, such as micro-, meso- or macroscale, and offers
possible applications in quite diverse fields.
This book series addresses the fundamental relationship between materials and their
structure on the overall properties (e.g. mechanical, thermal, chemical or magnetic
etc.) and applications.
The topics of Advanced Structured Materials include but are not limited to
• classical fibre-reinforced composites (e.g. glass, carbon or Aramid reinforced
plastics)
• metal matrix composites (MMCs)
• micro porous composites
• micro channel materials
• multilayered materials
• cellular materials (e.g., metallic or polymer foams, sponges, hollow sphere
structures)
• porous materials
• truss structures
• nanocomposite materials
• biomaterials
• nanoporous metals
• concrete
• coated materials
• smart materials
Advanced Structured Materials is indexed in Google Scholar and Scopus.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8611

Vladimir I. Erofeev Igor S. Pavlov
•

Structural Modeling
of Metamaterials

123
Vladimir I. Erofeev Igor S. Pavlov
Mechanical Engineering Research Institute Mechanical Engineering Research Institute
of the Russian Academy of Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Federal Research Center ‘Institute of Federal Research Center ‘Institute of
Applied Physics of the Russian Academy Applied Physics of the Russian Academy
of Sciences’ of Sciences’
Nizhny Novgorod, Russia Nizhny Novgorod, Russia

ISSN 1869-8433 ISSN 1869-8441 (electronic)

Advanced Structured Materials
ISBN 978-3-030-60329-8 ISBN 978-3-030-60330-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60330-4
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
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Preface

At present, technologies of creating advanced structural materials with micro- and

nanostructure are intensively developed. One example of such materials is meta-
materials—a new class of substances with a complexly organized internal structure
(microstructure) and possessing unique physical and mechanical properties [1].
They first appeared in the field of optics and photonics [2], but now they are
increasingly found in other areas. For example, acoustic metamaterials are widely
used [3–7]. In particular, they are applied as acoustic absorbers [8]. In addition,
among porous media, granular materials, polymers, composites, and crystalline
media, there are materials with a negative Poisson’s ratio (auxetic materials) [9–17].
However, the creation of metamaterials is extremely difficult without adequate
mathematical models.
In this monograph, the method of structural modeling is proposed to use for
constructing mathematical models of metamaterials. This method enables one both
revealing the qualitative effect of the internal structure of a material on its effective
elastic moduli and performing quantitative estimates of the moduli. Results of the
performed research can be used for the design of advanced metamaterials with
predetermined physical and mechanical properties.
This book has been written on the basis of studies carried out over the past two
decades in Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of the Russian Academy of
Sciences (Nizhny Novgorod, Russia), which is a branch of the Federal State Budget
Scientific Institution “Federal Research Center Institute of Applied Physics of the
Russian Academy of Sciences” since 2016.
We are very grateful to our colleagues who, unfortunately, have already passed
away:
to Prof. Alexander Ivanovich Potapov (1949–2010), who was the founder of this
scientific direction at our institute;
to Prof. Nadezhda Evgenievna Nikitina (1951–2016), who was an acoustoelasticity
specialist and made a significant contribution to obtaining the results of Chap. 7,
where prestressed media are considered;

v
vi Preface

to Prof. Gerard A. Maugin (1944–2016) from Pierre and Marie Curie University
(French: Université Pierre-et-Marie-Curie, Paris, France), in collaboration with
whom there were obtained scientific results presented in Chaps. 3 and 4;
to Prof. Alexander Vasilievich Vikulin (1947–2017) from the Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of
Sciences (Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Russia), who was a specialist in geody-
namics and seismology—discussions with him helped us make the transition from
nanomaterials to geomedia;
to Prof. Leonid lsaakovich Manevitch (1938–2020) from N. N. Semenov Federal
Research Center for Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow,
Russia), who was a specialist in nonlinear dynamics and materials science—
collaboration with him gave us new ideas to choose materials for elaboration
of their models.
We consider as a pleasant duty to thank our colleagues, in co-authorship with
whom the most important results of the monograph were obtained: Professor
I. V. Miloserdova (Nizhny Novgorod Technical State University n.a. R. E.
Alekseev, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia); Doctors V. V. Kazhaev, A. V. Leontyeva, and
A. O. Malkhanov (Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of the Russian
Academy of Sciences, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia); Prof. A. V. Porubov (Institute of
Problems of Mechanical Engineering of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
St. Petersburg, Russia); and Dr. A. A. Vasiliev (Tver State University, Tver, Russia).
We are grateful to Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences
V. P. Matveenko; Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
D. A. Indeytsev and A. N. Morozov; Foreign Member of the Russian Academy of
Sciences H. Altenbach; Profs. I. V. Andrianov, S. A. Lurie, A. V. Metrikine,
W. Muller, V. M. Sadovsky, I. N. Shardakov, V. S. Shorkin, and
D. V. Tarlakovsky, for useful scientific discussions and recommendations for
improvement of our book.
We also thank the staff of Mechanical Engineering Research Institute of the
Russian Academy of Sciences: Profs. V. N. Perevezentsev, S. I. Gerasimov,
B. A. Gordeev, V. V. Mishakin, V. M. Rodyushkin, and G. F. Sarafanov for their
attention to our work.
We would like to express our special gratitude to Anastasia Demareva and
Vladimir Sadovsky, postgraduate students of Lobachevsky State University of
Nizhny Novgorod, and to Anna Muravieva, a student of Lobachevsky State
University of Nizhny Novgorod, for their contribution to the development of a
three-dimensional model of a granular medium presented in Chap. 6 of this
monograph.

Nizhny Novgorod, Russia Vladimir I. Erofeev

Igor S. Pavlov
Lobachevsky State University
of Nizhny Novgorod
Preface vii.

References

1. Gulyaev, Yu.V., Lagar’kov, A.N., Nikitov, S.A.: Metamaterials: basic research and potential
applications. Herald Russ. Acad. Sci. 78, 268–278 (2008)
2. Zhu, S., Zhang, X.: Metamaterials: artificial materials beyond nature. Natl. Sci. Rev. 5(2), 131
(2018)
3. Bobrovnitskii, YuI: An acoustic metamaterial with unusual wave properties. Acoust. Phys. 60
(4), 371–378 (2014)
4. Bobrovnitskii, YuI: Models and general wave properties of two-dimensional acoustic meta-
materials and media. Acoust. Phys. 61(3), 255–264 (2015)
5. Cummer, S.A., Christensen, J., Alù, A.: Controlling sound with acoustic metamaterials. Nat.
Rev. Mater. 1, 16001 (2016)
6. Fedotovskii, V.S.: A porous medium as an acoustic metamaterial with negative inertial and
elastic properties. Acoust. Phys. 64(5), 548–554 (2018)
7. Zhou, L., Jiang, H.: Auxetic composites made of 3D textile structure and polyurethane foam.
Phys. Status Solidi B 253(7), 1331–1341 (2016)
8. Bobrovnitskii, Yu.I., Tomilina, T.M.: Sound absorption and metamaterials: a review. Acoust.
Phys. 64(5), 519–526 (2018)
9. Engelbrecht J.K., Fridman V.E., Pelinovsky E.N.: Nonlinear Evolution Equations. Pitman,
London. (1988)
10. Evans, K.E.: Auxetic polymers: a new range of materials. Endeavour New Ser. 4, 170–174
(1991)
11. Goldstein R.V., Gorodtsov V.A., Lisovenko D.S. Auxetic mechanics of crystalline materials.
Mechanics of Solids. 45(4), 529–545 (2010)
12. Goldstein, R.V., Gorodtsov, V.A., Lisovenko, D.S.: Average Poisson’s ratio for crystals.
Hexagonal Auxetics. Letters on Materials. 3(1), 7–11 (2013)
13. Goldstein, R.V., Gorodtsov, V.A., Lisovenko, D.S.: Classification of cubic auxetics. Physica
Status Solidi B. 250(10), 2038–2043 (2013)
14. Goldstein R.V., Gorodtsov V.A., Lisovenko D.S.: Cubic auxetics. Doklady Physics. 56(7),
399–402 (2011)
15. Goldstein R.V., Gorodtsov V.A., Lisovenko D.S. Longitudinal elastic tension of two-layered
plates from isotropic auxetics–nonauxetics and cubic crystals. European J. of Mech. – A:
Solids. 63, 122–127 (2017)
16. Goldstein, R.V., Gorodtsov, V.A., Lisovenko, D.S.: The elastic properties of hexagonal
auxetics under pressure. Phys. Status Solidi B 253(7), 1261–1269 (2016)
17. Koniok, D.A., Voitsekhovsky, K.V., Pleskachevsky, Yu.M., Shilko, S.V.: Materials with
negative Poisson’s ratio (The review). Composite Mech. Des. 10, 35–69 (2004)
Introduction

Prediction of physical and mechanical properties of media with microstructure and

adequate description of dynamic (wave) processes necessitate mathematical models
taking into account the presence of several scales (structural levels) in a medium,
their self-consistent interaction, and the possibility of energy transfer from one level
to another. The following scales are usually distinguished [1, 2]: atomic or mi-
croscopic level (characteristic sizes are angstroms and nanometers), mesoscopic
level (from 10−8 to 10−6 m), submacroscopic level (from 10−6 to 10−4 m), and
macroscopic level (over 10−4 m).
Mental breaking of a material into parts is restricted by some limit consisting in a
qualitative change of physical properties on a given scale level; i.e., in this case, a
size effect [3, 4] arises. During studying of wave processes in materials, the size
effects start to be shown, when the characteristic spatial scale of effect (e.g., length
of an elastic or electromagnetic wave) becomes comparable with the characteristic
spatial scale of a material—the size of grain, the lattice period, etc.
In process of accumulation of knowledge about microstructure of a material,
there arises a transition to new level of knowledge—a theory is created that enables
one to explain mechanical behavior of a material from new positions. It should be
emphasized that the actual values of the “microstructure” of the medium in a
specific problem can lie both in the range of nano- or micrometers and in the larger
scales. However, from the viewpoint of the methodology of theoretical research, the
absolute values of the “microstructure” are not so important, as the smallness of
some scales with respect to others.
Frequently, different physical properties of the medium are manifested at dif-
ferent scales. For example, it concerns media such as rocks, particularly, hydro-
carbon reservoirs. The internal structure of the rocks determines at different scales
not only various elastic properties, but also physical properties such as thermal and
electrical conductivity, and hydraulic and dielectric constant [5, 6].
In the mathematical simulation of microstructured media, two approaches can be
distinguished: “from micro to meso” and “from macro to meso.” The first approach
consists in the passage from atomic-level models to mesoscale models and is based
on the laws of quantum theory. In this case, the medium is considered as a discrete

ix
x Introduction

system of particles coupled by the interaction forces determined from the first
principles (quantum postulates). This approach allows one to understand the nature
of physical laws and to explain the origin of some properties having no substan-
tiation in the classical theory.
Until the middle of twentieth century, the quantum mechanics was considered,
basically, as the microworld mechanics. Being constructed on the basis of quantum
postulates, it does not appear at all on the macroscales, where the continuum
mechanics is valid, which is created on the basis of the laws of conservation of
mass, momentum, kinetic momentum, and the thermodynamics laws (the macro-
scopic first principles). The first fundamental step of the quantum mechanics in the
field of macroscopic phenomena was the creation of the hydrodynamic theory of
superfluidity of helium-II by L. D. Landau in 1941 and the idea of L. Onsager
(1948) to quantize vortex motion in it [7]. The next step in this direction was made
by A. F. Andreev and I. M. Lifshits, who developed in 1969 the phenomenological
theory of defects in quantum crystals [8]. According to this theory, defects are
considered as delocalized excitations (defectons) that move дeфeкты almost freely
through the crystal. A crystal with defectons is neither a liquid nor a solid. Two
different types of motion are possible in it. The first type of motion is associated
with small vibrations of the lattice sites near the equilibrium states and is described
by the classical equations of elastic solid mechanics. The second type is charac-
teristic for a liquid and is associated with quantum diffusion that leads to mass
transfer by defectons, when lattice sites are fixed. At present, such studies are the
subject of quantum macrophysics [9].
The second approach to modeling of microstructured media means passing from
description of a medium on a macrolevel to mesoscale models. Within its scope, the
elaboration of mathematical models of such media proceeds in three directions. The
first of them—the continuum-phenomenological direction—is associated with the
construction of generalized continuum models (generalized continua) of the
mechanics of a deformable solid and is based on the classical physics laws. It
involves expanding of the concept of a representative volume of the medium and
taking into account the rotational degrees of freedom of microparticles (polarity
of the material), as well as affine deformations of the mesovolume and non-locality
of the material [10–11]. Polarity indicates that rigid rotation is allowed, which is not
related to the field of displacements in the general case, whereas non-locality tes-
tifies the dependence of the physical properties of the material on the influence of
environmental particles. Continual theories are elaborated by the deductive way:
All the results are consequences of a system of fundamental assumptions—axioms
or postulates. The advantages of this elaboration are logical consistency, a rigor
of the derivation of various particular versions of the models, and the possibility of
a consistent classification of theories according to selected attributes. A decisive
contribution to the development of this direction was made by the works of
E. and F. Cosserat [12], C. Truesdell and R. Toupin [13, 14], E. L. Aero and
E. V. Kuvshinskii [15, 16], R. Mindlin [17], A. C. Eringen [18–21], W. Nowacky
[22], V. A. Palmov [23, 24], L. I. Sedov [25–27], V. I. Erofeev [28], A. I. Potapov
[29], V. P. Matveenko, I. N. Shardakov, M. A. Kulesh, and E. F. Grekova [30, 31],
Introduction xi

S. A. Lurie [32, 33], etc. At present, structurally heterogeneous materials are fre-
quently simulated by the generalized micropolar theories of the Cosserat continuum
type [34–39]. However, these theories involve a large number of material constants,
which have to be determined experimentally. Moreover, relationships between
these constants and the material structure are not always clear.
The second direction—structural modeling, which is the subject of study of this
monograph, is devoid of such a drawback. In accordance with this method, a
material is represented by a regular or quasiregular lattice consisting of finite-sized
particles. The elaboration of a structural model starts with selection in the material of
some minimal volume—a structural cell that is an analog of the periodicity cell in a
crystalline material. The cell is capable of characterizing the basic features of the
macroscopic behavior of the material [40–43]. As a rule, a structural cell is a particle,
which behavior is characterized by interaction with the environment and is described
by kinematic variables [44–61]. The role of these body particles can be played by
domains, grains, fullerenes, nanotubes, or clusters consisting of nanoparticles.
Sometimes, particles are represented as material points, i.e., force centers possessing
the properties of mass, charge, etc. The interaction forces are assumed to be rapidly
decreased with growing distance, so they can be neglected if the distance between
the points exceeds “the radius of molecular action.” This direction originates from
Max Born’s works on the theory of crystal lattices and until recently has developed
mainly in the framework of the solid-state physics [62, 63]. The founder of the
structural modeling method in Russia is a professor of Moscow State University
Nikolai Pavlovich Kasterin (1869–1947). He was a student of a great Russian
physicist Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov (1839–1896). N. P. Kasterin studied the
dispersion of sound waves by means of this method [64, 65].
Special attention in the structural modeling method is paid to studying the
propagation and interaction of elementary excitations—quasiparticles (phonons,
magnons, excitons, etc.)—and various defects inherent in real bodies [66, 67]. Both
quantum and classical approaches to the analysis of dynamic processes coexist
organically within the scope of this direction [68].
As distinct from the continual models, the structural ones explicitly contain the
geometric parameters of the structure—the size and shape of the particles. Finally,
the effective elastic moduli of various orders depend on these parameters [69, 70].
Structural models enable one not only to reveal the qualitative influence of local
structure on the effective moduli of elasticity but also to perform numerical esti-
mations of their quantities and even to control physical and mechanical properties
of a medium, these being generally unavailable from continuum-phenomenological
theories.
The clear coupling between a structure of a medium and its macroparameters
discloses major opportunities for the purposeful design of materials with given
physical–mechanical properties. Shortcomings of the structural modeling are
absence of universality of modeling procedure and complexity of the accounting of
nonlinear and non-local effects of interparticle interactions. A significant contri-
bution to the development of the structural modeling method was made by the
works of I. A. Kunin [71], E. Kroner [72], A. Askar [73–75], G. Maugin and
xii Introduction

J. Pouget [76–80], E. L. Aero and A. V. Porubov [81–88], N. F. Morozov and

A. M. Krivtsov [89–94], D. A. Indeytsev [95], L. I. Manevich and V. V. Smirnov
[96–98], Askes H., A. Suiker, A. V. Metrikine, and R. de Borst [99–101], Chinyu
Li and Tsu-Wei Chou [102], A. I. Potapov [103–112], A. A. Vasiliev,
S. V. Dmitriev, and A. E. Miroshnichenko [113–116], and others.
The third direction is related to the method of statistical averaging and is used
mainly for constructing models of a medium with arbitrary packing of particles
[117]. In the framework of this direction, equations of micromotion are first made
up, i.e., equations of motion of microparticles taking into account their interaction
with the environment, and then, using averaging, “macrovariables” are introduced
that describe various types of collective forms of motion of the medium and
averaged dynamic equations are derived [118–120]. Averaged equations of motion
have much in common with the generalized continuum models. This direction
includes elements of the first two directions, and its advantage is the ability to
simulate the dynamics of disordered systems. The disadvantages include the sub-
stantial complexity of deriving the averaged equations of motion and calculating
the constants containing in these equations. The works by V. A. Lomakin,
A. A. Ilyushin [121–123], V. N. Nikolaevsky [124, 125], T. D. Shermergor [126],
and others made a significant contribution to the development of this direction.
Further, let us consider the advantages of applying the method of structural
modeling to metamaterials.

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over-view. Phil. Mag. 83(31–34), 3475–3528 (2003)
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piezoelectric composites with spherical inclusions. Compos. Struct. 202, 1099–1108 (2018)
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sedimentary rocks. Geophys. J. Int. 172, 842–860 (2008)
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Introduction xiii

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17. Mindlin, R.D.: Microstructure in linear elasticity. Arch. Rat. Mech. Anal. 16(7), 51–78 (1964)
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20. Eringen, A.C., Edelen, D.G.B.: On non-local elasticity. Int J. Eng. Sci. 10(3), 233–248 (1972)
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28(3), 401–408 (1964)
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768–773 (1969)
25. Sedov, L.I.: Mathematical methods for constructing new models of continuous media. Russ.
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Cosserat medium. Acoust. Phys. 52(2), 186–193 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1134/
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31. Kunin, I.A.: Elastic Media with Microstructure, 2 volumes. Springer, Berlin (1983)
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Contents

1 Theoretical Basis of the Structural Modeling Method . . . . . . . . . ... 1

1.1 Review of References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1
1.1.1 Discrete and Continuum Models of Solids: A Brief
Historical Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 2
1.1.2 Development of Models of Microstructured Solids
with Account of Particle Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 5
1.1.3 Experimental Research of Dynamic Properties
of Microstructured Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 6
1.2 Methods of Description of Different Scale Levels . . . . . . . . . . ... 8
1.3 Limits of Applicability of the Classical Mechanics Laws
to Modeling of Generalized Continua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1 Quantum and Classical Descriptions of Microparticles . . . . 13
1.3.2 The Uncertainty Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.3 A Microparticle as a Localized Wave Packet . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.4 The Conformity Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4 Principles of the Structural Modeling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 A 2D Lattice with Dense Packing of the Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
2.1 The Discrete Model for a Hexagonal Lattice Consisting of Round
Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
2.2 The Continual Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39
2.3 Influence of Microstructure on Acoustic Properties
of a Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4 Dispersion Properties of Normal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.1 Dispersion Properties of the Discrete Model . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.2 Dispersion Properties of the Continual Model . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

xix
xx Contents

3 A Two-Dimensional Lattice with Non-dense Packing of Particles . .. 55

3.1 The Discrete Model for an Anisotropic Medium Consisting
of Ellipse-Shaped Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55
3.2 The Continuum Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60
3.2.1 Dependence of the Anisotropy of the Medium
on Its Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61
3.2.2 A Square Lattice of Round Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
3.2.3 A Chain of Ellipse-Shaped Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
3.3 Influence of Microstructure on Acoustic Properties
of the Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
3.3.1 Dependence of the Elastic and Rotational Wave
Velocities on the Shape of the Particles in the 1D
Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
3.3.2 Dependence of the Acoustic Characteristics of the 2D
Anisotropic Medium on the Microstructure Parameters . . . 67
3.4 Dispersion Properties of Normal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.1 Dispersion Properties of the Discrete Model . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.2 Dispersion Properties of the Continual Model . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4 Application of the 2D Models of Media with Dense and Non-dense
Packing of the Particles for Solving the Parametric Identification
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
4.1 Reduced (Gradient) Models of the Theory of Elasticity . . . . . . . .. 83
4.2 Problems of the Material Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
4.2.1 Identification of the Medium with Hexagonal
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88
4.2.2 Identification of the Medium with Cubic Symmetry . . . . .. 91
4.3 Comparison with the Cosserat Continuum Theory . . . . . . . . . . .. 95
4.4 Influence of the Microstructure on the Poisson’s Ratio
of an Isotropic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
4.5 Influence of the Microstructure on the Poisson’s Ratios
of the Anisotropic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5 Nonlinear Models of Microstructured Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1 A Rectangular Lattice Consisting of Ellipse-Shaped Particles . . . . 109
5.2 Estimation of the Nonlinearity Coefficients of the Mathematical
Model of the Square Lattice of Round Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3 The Square Lattice of Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.3.1 The Discrete Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3.2 The Continual Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Contents xxi

5.3.3 Relationships Between the Macroparameters of the

Material and the Parameters of Its Inner Structure . . . . . . . 124
5.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6 A Cubic Lattice of Spherical Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.1 A Discrete 3D Model of a Crystalline Medium of Spherical
Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.2 Nonlinear Model of a One-Layer Medium of Spherical
Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2.1 The Continuum Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2.2 Dependency of the Macroparameters of a One-Layer
Medium on the Parameters of Its Microstructure . . . . . . . . 135
6.2.3 3D Model of a Crystalline Medium of Spherical
Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.2.4 Continuum Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.2.5 Dependence of the Macroparameters of the 3D Medium
on the Parameters of Its Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.2.6 Comparison of the Proposed Model with the 3D Cosserat
Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7 Propagation and Interaction of Nonlinear Waves in Generalized
Continua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.1 Localized Strain Waves in a 2D Crystalline Medium
with Non-dense Packing of the Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2 A 1D Medium Consisting of Ellipse-Shaped Particles
and with Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2.1 Mechanical Model of a 1D Medium with Internal
Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.2.2 Equations of the Gradient Theory of Elasticity for a 1D
Medium with Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.3 Self-modulation of Shear Strain Waves Propagating in a 1D
Granular Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3.1 The Modulation Instability Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.3.2 Forms of Wave Packets in the Case of the Modulation
Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.4 Nonlinear Longitudinal Waves in a Rod Made of an Auxetic
Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.4.1 The Linear Mathematical Model. Dispersion Properties . . . 164
7.4.2 The Nonlinear Mathematical Model. Stationary Strain
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.4.3 Numerical Simulation of Soliton Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . 175
xxii Contents

7.5 Application of an Alternative Continualization Method for

Analysis of Nonlinear Localized Waves in a Gradient-Elastic
Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.5.1 One-Dimensional Model of a Nonlinear Gradient-Elastic
Continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.5.2 Nonlinear Strain Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Discussion of the Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Appendix A: Expressions for Elongation of the Springs in the
Hexagonal Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Appendix B: Expressions for Elongation of the Springs in the
Rectangular Lattice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Chapter 1
Theoretical Basis of the Structural
Modeling Method

The principles of the structural modeling method, the development of the theoretical
foundations of which this monograph is devoted, are formulated in the first chapter.
Moreover, the problem of the applicability of the classical mechanics laws to a
theoretical description of media with micro- and nanostructure is discussed here.

1.1 Review of References

One of the main hypotheses of the classical continuum mechanics is the Cauchy
stress principle, which postulates that the effect of all the internal forces applied to
an elementary area is equivalent to the effect of their resultant force applied to the
center of this area [1]. However, in the general case, the action of an arbitrary system
of forces is equivalent to the action of the main vector and the main moment. In
this case, couple stresses also appear in the medium, forming, generally speaking,
asymmetric tensors [2, 3]. Thus, the rejection of the Cauchy stress principle makes
possible taking into account the presence in the medium of internal pairs of forces
and moment interactions that arise naturally when considering a physically infinitely
small volume (over which the medium’s properties are averaged) not as a mate-
rial point, but as a more complex object with new degrees of freedom: rotational,
oscillatory, or the ability to microdeforming. The assumption about the existence of
an internal structure (microstructure) of a physically infinitesimal object, which is
provided by the discreteness or fibrous structure of real materials, leads to a significant
expansion of the spectrum of properties of a continuous medium. In particular, this
assumption enables one describing some experimentally observed acoustic effects,
for example, the dispersion of shear waves [4]. A brief description of the history of
studies of microstructured media is given below.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

V. Erofeev et al., Structural Modeling of Metamaterials,
Advanced Structured Materials 144,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-60330-4_1
2 1 Theoretical Basis of the Structural Modeling Method

1.1.1 Discrete and Continuum Models of Solids: A Brief

Historical Review

Isaak Newton was the first to use a discrete model in problems of the mechanics of
continuous deformable media [5]. He considered a one-dimensional lattice consisting
of pointwise particles and calculated the speed of sound in air using this model. His
model represented a chain of particles of uniform mass located at equal distances
from each other on a straight-line coinciding with the wave propagation direction.
According to his assumption, a force proportional to their relative displacement acts
on each particle from the side of its neighboring particles.
The reason, due to which I. Newton had to consider a chain of point particles, was
that the study of continuous media wosuld lead to partial differential equations, which
had been then unknown. The motion of the mechanical model chosen by Newton was
described by the set of ordinary differential equations already known at that time.
However, as it will be shown in Chap. 3, only longitudinal waves can be considered
in the framework of this model, whereas the study of transverse waves principally
necessitates taking into account either an additional degree of freedom provided by
the rotation of anisotropic particles or the initial deformation of the springs (see [6,
7] and Sect. 7.2).
A systematic study of one-dimensional lattices began in 1727 from the works
of Johann Bernoulli and his son—Daniel Bernoulli. They revealed that a one-
dimensional system of n point particles possesses n independent types of vibrations
and, as a consequence, n natural frequencies.
In 1753, D. Bernoulli established the superposition principle, according to which
any movement of the oscillatory system can be represented as a superposition of its
own vibrations. This most important principle is one of the particular consequences of
Fourier expansion. Later, it was generalized. Now it is known as “Fourier theorem.”
After Johann and Daniell Bernoulli gave a complete solution to the problem about
a one-dimensional lattice consisting of point particles, and Leonard Euler solved the
problem of an oscillating string, their results were interconnected in 1759 by J. L.
Lagrange, who established the transition from the continuous model to the discrete
one. The related work was published in the Proceedings of the Turin Academy. Later,
it was developed in the famous book “Analytical Mechanics” by J. L. Lagrange
(1788).
In 1830, O. L. Cauchy, using a discrete model of the medium (ether), tried
to explain the dispersion of light under the assumption that light is elastic waves
with a very high frequency [8]. He showed that for wavelengths much larger than
the distance between neighboring particles in a one-dimensional lattice, the wave
velocity does not depend on the wavelength. For short wavelengths (i.e., at high
frequencies), the wave velocity is a function of wavelength and can vary drasti-
cally. In 1839, W.R. Hamilton, considering waves in a discrete chain, introduced the
concept of the group wave velocity.
Cauchy’s ideas expressed in [8] served as the starting point for the studies of
Baden Powell, who, based on Newton’s model of a one-dimensional lattice, derived
1.1 Review of References 3

a formula related the wave propagation velocity and its length [9]. However, he did
not notice one of the most important properties of such systems, namely the existence
of a maximum frequency at which the waves can still propagate in a lattice. This
discovery was made in 1881 by Lord Kelvin (W. Thomson), who paid attention to the
fact that frequency is a function of the wavenumber [10]. Using a model of a chain
of particles of two kinds, Kelvin was able to explain the phenomenon of dispersion,
avoiding the difficulties that arose in Cauchy’s theory.
Since the middle of nineteenth century, most of the results of the deformable solid
mechanics had been obtained in the framework of the continuum theory of elasticity,
whereas discrete models were used in the solid-state physics and in the crystal lattice
theory [11, 12]. The emphasis on continuum models was associated with successes
in the theory of functions of the real and complex variables, the theory of boundary
and initial-boundary value problems of differential equations in ordinary and partial
derivatives, with the development of the theory of integral equations, i.e., with those
branches of science that operate mainly continuous and continuously differentiable
functions.
Historically, one of the first continuum models of an elastic medium that cannot be
described in the framework of the classical theory of elasticity considering a medium
as a continuum of material points possessing, in general, three translational degrees
of freedom is the Cosserat medium, which consists of solid non-deformable bodies-
particles possessing three translational and three rotational degrees of freedom. The
microdisplacement tensor acquires an antisymmetric part, which can be expressed
through the vector of particle rotation with respect to the particle axis. The role of such
rotations increases with increasing frequency, whereas as the frequency decreases,
the translational displacements of the centers of mass of the particles (elements of
the medium) become the governing factor [2]. The theoretical foundations of such
a continuum were laid by the brothers Eugène and François Cosserat [13] in 1909.
It is traditionally assumed that the work [13] exists as if in a vacuum, without any
predecessors or, until the beginning of the 1960s, followers. But this is not true.
So, yet in 1839, J. Mac Cullagh’s work [14] had been published, which was
devoted to construction of an elastic medium model capable describing both the
observed reflection and refraction. In the Mac Cullagh continuum, the strain energy
depends on the rotational components of the strain.
Ideas distinguishing from the classical continuum canons were contained in books
by Mossoti (1851) [15], Clebsh (1862) [16], Kirchhoff (1874) [17], Duhem (1891)
[18], and Hertz (1894) [19]. So, the concepts of “couple stresses” and “the rotational
energy” were introduced in their works by A. Clebsch in 1862 [16] and by G. Kirch-
hoff in 1874 [17]. The importance of taking into account couple stresses was also
mentioned by W. Voigt in 1887 in Ref. [20], and in 1891 P. Duhem [18] introduced
the rotational measure of deformation. Thus, in 1909, the Cosserat brothers gener-
alized and developed works of G. Kirchhoff, A. Clebsch, P. Duhem, and W. Voigt.
But the Cosserat theory remained forgotten until the middle of 1960s years.
However, discrete models of media consisting of non-point particles possessing
rotational degrees of freedom began to be developed after the elaboration of the
Cosserat continuum theory. So, in the late 1930s Ya.I. Frenkel considered a model of
4 1 Theoretical Basis of the Structural Modeling Method

a chain of oriented dipoles with fixed mass centers and showed that “waves of rota-
tional oscillations” [21] (i.e., orientational waves) can propagate in such a chain. The
first model of the interaction of translational and rotational oscillations in a molecular
lattice was proposed by Anselm and Porfiryeva in 1949 [22]. Only the linear interac-
tion of orientational waves with one type of translational oscillations—longitudinal
waves—was taken into account in this model. Nevertheless, the authors showed that,
basically, mixed orientational–translational oscillations, which frequencies depend
both on the mass and the moment of inertia of molecules, propagate in molecular
crystal lattices. There exist four branches of the rotational–translational oscillation
spectrum in a one-dimensional molecular lattice model with two molecules in a unit
cell. In the long-wavelength range, one branch (acoustic) corresponds to purely trans-
lational oscillations, the second branch—to purely rotational oscillations depending
only on the moment of inertia, and the other two ones are responsible for mixed
rotational–translational oscillations depending on both the mass and the moment of
inertia. Further research by N. N. Porfiryeva [23] showed that these results obtained
for a one-dimensional lattice model are, in general, saved for a three-dimensional
crystal lattice.
From the beginning of the 1960s generalized models of the Cosserat continuum
are intensively developed [24]: the theory of oriented media, asymmetric, multipolar,
micromorphic, gradient theories of elasticity. So, on the basis of assumption of the
rotational interaction of particles of elongated shape in an anisotropic elastic medium,
Aero and Kuvshinsky [25, 26] generalized the phenomenological theory of elasticity
in order to explain some anomalies in the dynamic behavior of plastics, to which
the classical theory of elasticity did not provide a satisfactory treatment. Later, the
idea of an “oriented” continuum, each point of which is assigned a direction (the
field of a director), was developed in the theory of liquid crystals [27–29], where the
director waves in liquid crystals are, in fact, analogs of rotational waves in solids,
like spin waves in ferromagnets [30]. A significant contribution to the development
of moment theories was also made by the works of Hermann and Gunther [24],
Green and Rivlin [31], Koiter [32], Ilyushin and Lomakin [33–35], Mindlin [36],
Nowacky [3], Palmov [37, 38], Savin [39], Toupin and Truesdell [40, 41], Eringen
[42–45], Kunin [2], and others (see also the List of references in [46]). By the middle
of 1960s, a new direction was formed that was closely related to the theory of the
crystal lattice—the nonlocal theory of elasticity, containing generalized Cosserat
continuum models as a long-wavelength approximation (Kroner [47], Krumhansl
[48], Kunin [2]). The nonlocal theory of elasticity was further developed by Green
et al. [49], Eringen [44, 50], and other authors [2, 47, 51].
On the other hand, the classical theory of elasticity was shown to be insufficient
in the solid-state physics when studying the thermodynamic properties of materials.
In 1952, Lifshits [52], when considering the thermal properties of chain and layered
structures at low temperatures, paid attention to the influence of the transverse rigidity
of atomic layers or chains on the dispersion law of acoustic oscillations of a layered
crystal in the long-wavelength section of the spectrum, where it should be absent
according to the laws of the theory of elasticity. In this paper, the dispersion laws
for longitudinal and transverse (bending) waves are given. Later on, bending waves
1.1 Review of References 5

in the crystal lattice were studied in more detail by Kosevich [53]. He remarked
that bending waves, in contrast to longitudinal waves provided by central forces of
interaction, are caused by weaker noncentral forces arising due to transverse displace-
ments of particles. He also showed that a more accurate description of the nonlinear
dynamics of the crystal lattice necessitates taking into account in the governing equa-
tions the couple stresses described by the fourth spatial derivatives of the transverse
displacements of the particles. It should be noted that couple stresses can also be
taken into account if one considers the rotational degree of freedom of particles
and then, using the method of step-by-step approximations, reduces the three-mode
system to a two-mode system admitting only translational displacements of particles
(see Chap. 4).
In mechanics, interest in discrete models has resumed since the mid-twentieth
century (see, for example, the works of M.Ya. Leonov [54], L.I. Slepyan [55, 56],
M.R. Korotkina [57], S.A. Nazarov and M.V. Paukshto [58]) and continues in the
current century (see, particularly, the works of A.M. Krivtsov and N.F. Morozov
et al. [59–62], A.V. Porubov et al. [63–67], A.A. Vasiliev, S.V. Dmitriev, and A.E.
Miroshnichenko [68–71], A. Suiker, A.V. Metrikine and R. de Borst [72, 73]).
According to N.F. Morozov and M.V. Paukshto [74], interest in discrete models
is associated with the following circumstances:
• A lot of scientists believed that employing of discrete methods is more justified
due to discreteness of computing processes.
• The development of personal computers currently enables one solving systems
containing great amount of equations. This fact partially disproves hypothesis
about the inadequacy of real and computing situations.
• Discrete methods had allowed, for example, in problems of fracture [54–56, 75,
76], to discover some effects that could not be found by continual methods. And
this is not accidental, because a continuum model is a certain concept of the long-
wavelength approach of the discrete model, whereas the destruction occurs at the
microstructure level and is described by the long-wavelength asymptotics only
approximately.
• Discrete models simulate a real atomic structure of substances.

1.1.2 Development of Models of Microstructured Solids

with Account of Particle Rotation

In recent decades, more and more models are being developed taking into account
the rotational degrees of freedom of particles and the moment interactions between
them. For example, in [77], J. Pouget and G. Maugin studied the nonlinear dynamics
of oriented media using the microscopic theory, modeling the medium as a system of
material objects with translational and rotational degrees of freedom. M. Sayadi and J.
Pouget proposed a one-dimensional chain of rotating dipoles as a model of an oriented
medium [78]. But this model took into account only one of the possible types of
6 1 Theoretical Basis of the Structural Modeling Method

anharmonic interactions between the nearest neighbors in the chain, associated only
with the rotational movements of dipoles (dipole interaction). A lattice consisting of
identical particles with both transverse and rotational degrees of freedom was studied
by A. Askar [79, 80]. The central forces of interaction between the particles were
simulated by tensile springs, whereas the noncentral forces were modeled by flexible
beams (rods). Later, this model was generalized to the case of a lattice consisting of
particles of two types with different masses and moments of inertia [81]. The cubic
lattice, consisting of identical dipoles, was considered by Japanese scientists K. Fujii,
T. Fuka, H. Kondo, and K. Ishii in [82], where the interaction between the particles
was described by the Lennard–Jones potential. In the linear approximation, a three-
dimensional model of a granular medium consisting of spherical particles interacting
by means of elastic springs of three types was constructed by K. Berglund [83].
One of the variants of the theory describing the moment dynamics of a deformable
solid has been proposed by A.G. Ugodchikov in [84]. Based on the physical and
mechanical properties of geomaterials with complex structure, V.N. Nikolaevsky
[85–87] elaborated mathematical models of the deformation and destruction of
mountain massifs and layers under external influences.
The academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V.E. Panin and his students
were actively developing an alternative way to construct mathematical models of
microstructured media—the method of movable cellular automata [88–92]. This is
a discrete modeling method that describes the behavior of materials at the meso-
and macrolevels. In its framework, a rotation is taken into account as an independent
degree of freedom of the automat along with the translational motion of its mass
center.
At present, the concept of the existence of rotational degrees of freedom and
various types of interactions in a crystal lattice is widely used in the study of dynamic
processes in microstructured media [7, 14, 71, 77, 78, 93–101].

1.1.3 Experimental Research of Dynamic Properties

of Microstructured Media

In the middle of 1930s and early 1940s, experimental physicists paid attention to the
importance of taking into account the rotational degrees of freedom of the elements
(particles) of the medium. Thus, the experiments of B. Bauer and M. Mag are very
interesting (see References in [102]). They compared the scattering spectra for heavy
and light water. From the comparison of spectra of these two substances, which
molecules have approximately the same mass, but different moments of inertia,
the authors made a conclusion about existence of both translational and rotational
oscillations of molecules. J. Bernal and J. Tamm [103] explained the differences
between some physical properties of light and heavy water under the assumption
about the existence of rotational oscillations.
1.1 Review of References 7

In 1940 E.F. Gross [102] observed the effect of variation of the wavelength of
scattered light in a liquid associated with orientation fluctuations of anisotropic
molecules. He remarked that the axes of molecules can rotate by a significant
angle, if the oscillation period is much larger than the relaxation time. Later, E.F.
Gross and A.V. Korshunov established experimentally [104] that in crystals of some
organic substances (for instance, benzene and naphthalene) the scattering spectrum
of small frequencies is associated with rotational vibrations of molecules. The scat-
tering spectrum is the most intensive in substances, which molecules have a large
optical anisotropy (carbon disulfide, naphthalene, benzene). The crystal lattices of
such substances consist of large molecules. In them, the intermolecular forces are
usually much larger than the van der Waals forces acting between the molecules;
therefore, the molecules can be regarded as solid bodies oscillating with respect
to each other. Among molecular crystals, the most popular objects for study are
naphthalene crystals [104–106]. There are translational oscillations of molecules,
rotational oscillations, as well as mixed translational–rotational oscillations. Experi-
mental studies of oscillations in such crystals, carried out by Raman scattering, have
shown that in the vicinity of the Rayleigh lines there are characteristic scattering lines
due to the rotational nature of molecular oscillations [105, 106]. In experiments on
spectrograms of light scattering in organic substances, estimates have been obtained
for the threshold frequency of benzene and naphthalene [105].
In the late 1950s, some experiments were performed to observe the optical–
acoustic effect in liquids and solids. So, in [107], experiments are described to study
the spectral dependence of the optical-acoustic effect in ferroelectric crystals (in
particular, Rochelle salt). The study of the spectral dependence of such an effect in
a Rochelle salt crystal and the comparison of the results with the infrared absorption
spectrum was interesting from the viewpoint of problems associated with the molec-
ular mechanism of the piezoelectric phenomenon. However, the degree of influence
of oscillation types on the excitation of the optical–acoustic effect has not been still
studied.
The first experiments on acoustics of microstructured solids were performed yet in
1970 by G.N. Savin et al. [4, 108]. The authors established the correlation between
the grain size in different metals and aluminum alloys and the dispersion of the
acoustic wave. In these works, they used the Cosserat and Mindlin models. Based on
the Mindlin model [36], where each of the material points of an elastic continuum
can both rotate and be deformed, the presence of wave dispersion for both shear and
longitudinal waves propagating in a microstructured medium was explained in [4].
A nonlinear problem for an isotropic elastic Cosserat continuum was considered in
[108]. The inclusion of microrotations caused the appearance of an additional elastic
constant with the dimension of length, as well as to the dispersion of shear waves.
Dispersion of the ultrasound waves was observed by V.I. Erofeev and V.M.
Rodyushkin in an artificial composite—ferrite pellets in epoxy resin [109]. The
appearance of a wave dispersion “forbidden” by the classical theory of elasticity
can be explained, in particular, by the influence of rotational modes. Moreover,
A.I. Potapov and V.M. Rodyushkin [110] experimentally observed the transfer of
momentum in a microstructured material with the velocity that is distinct from the
8 1 Theoretical Basis of the Structural Modeling Method

longitudinal wave velocity. A clear separation of the impact pulse into two compo-
nents was observed in this case. This fact indicates that pulse is carried by two
types of oscillations differing from each other in velocity. Nevertheless, still nobody
could observe experimentally the propagation of rotational waves in “laboratory
conditions.”
It should be noted that in microstructured media there are several types of waves—
the so-called acoustic and optical phonons, and it is possible to transfer energy from
one type of wave to another [111]. This fact should be taken into account both for
theoretical and experimental studies. So, in the monograph by V.E. Lyamov [112],
it was shown that the account of microrotations in crystals leads to the appearance
of the spatial dispersion and new wave modes. Chapter 4 of the monograph [30]
by A.I. Akhiezer, V.G. Barjahtar, and S.V. Peletminsky deals with the analysis of
coupled spin and acoustic waves in ferromagnets. Elastic waves are considered in
the framework of the classical theory without taking into account microrotations,
but it is shown that, due to the relatedness of the elastic deformations with the
magnetic field of spins, the stress tensor is no longer symmetric; i.e., in an elastic
ferromagnet, there appear couple stresses at the excitation of the spin waves. The
analysis of the dispersion properties showed that the acoustic wave with the “left”
circular polarization interacts with the spin wave much stronger than the acoustic
wave with the “right” polarization.
In the last thirty years, the processes of propagation and interaction of elastic
(acoustic) waves in microstructured solids have been extensively studied theoreti-
cally and experimentally (see, e.g., [110, 113–118]). However, the main attention is
paid to the analysis of the propagation of the longitudinal and shift waves, and the
propagation of rotational waves (waves of microrotations) is studied less. Thereby,
some articles by V.N. Nikolaevsky et al. [85, 86], where the nonlinear interactions
of longitudinal and microrotational waves were studied in relation to seismic acous-
tics problems (in the framework of a gradient-consistent model of a medium with
complex structure, they attempted to explain the generation of ultrasound during the
propagation of seismic waves), and by A.I. Potapov et al. [7, 119–123], including a
co-author of this monograph, in which the processes of propagation and interaction of
longitudinal, transverse, and rotational waves in crystalline media were investigated,
should be remarked.

1.2 Methods of Description of Different Scale Levels

An adequate description of wave processes in a structurally heterogeneous mate-

rial necessitates, as a rule, consideration of several scale levels, which continuously
interact with each other due to internal connections [124]. The following scales are
usually distinguished [125]: atomic or microscopic level (characteristic sizes are
angstroms and nanometers), mesoscopic level (from 10–8 to 10–6 m), submacro-
scopic level (from 10–6 to 10–4 m), and macroscopic level (over 10–4 m). Their brief
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British property should be paid, and threatening, if further piracies
were committed, to send a force into the Rif to chastise his rebellious
subjects.
No attention was paid to this edict, for though the Rifians
acknowledge the Sultan of Morocco as ‘Kaliph[24] Allah,’ H.M. being
a direct descendant from the Prophet, and though they allow a
governor of Rif extraction to be appointed by him to reside amongst
them, they do not admit of his interference in the administration of
government or in any kind of legislation, unless it happens he is
voluntarily appealed to in cases of dispute.
The Rifians, however, pay annually a small tribute, which is
generally composed of mules and honey, the latter article being
much cultivated on the extensive tracts of heather in the Rif
mountains. This tribute is collected by the Governor and transmitted
to the Sultan.
After a lengthened correspondence with the Moorish Court,
negotiations were closed by the Sultan declaring he had no power of
control over the mountainous districts in the Rif, and therefore
declining to be held responsible for the depredations committed on
vessels approaching that coast. The British Government then
dispatched a squadron to Gibraltar under Admiral Sir Charles Napier,
with orders to embark a regiment at that garrison, and to proceed to
the Rif coast to chastise the lawless inhabitants.
On his arrival at the Spanish fort of Melilla, which is about fifty
miles to the westward of the Algerian frontier, Sir Charles called on
the Spanish Governor and requested him to invite the chiefs of the
neighbouring villages to come to Melilla to meet him.
 On their arrival, the Admiral demanded compensation for the
losses sustained by the owner of the British vessels which had been
captured. The Rifians cunningly evaded discussion by replying that
they could not accede to demands which did not emanate from the
Sultan, whose orders they declared they would be prepared to obey.

Sir Charles accepted these vague assurances[25]; and with this

unsatisfactory result returned with the squadron to Gibraltar, and
addressed to me a communication, making known the language held
to him by the Rifians, and requesting that I would dispatch an
express courier to the Moorish Court to call upon the Sultan to give
the requisite orders to the Rifians who, he declared, were prepared
to obey, though he admitted he was ignorant of the names of the
chieftains with whom he had the parley.
In my reply to the Admiral I expressed my belief that the Rifians
had cunningly given these vague assurances to induce him to depart
with his ships from their coast, and that I apprehended the Sultan
would express his surprise that we should have been led to suppose
that the piratical and rebellious inhabitants of the Rif coast would pay
compensation or give other satisfaction, in pursuance of any orders
which H.S.M. might issue.
In this sense, as I had expected, the Sultan replied to my note;
holding out, however, a hope, which had been expressed in past
years, that he would seek at a more favourable moment to make the
Rif population, who had been from time immemorial in a semi-
independent state, more subservient to his control.
Some months after the squadron had returned to England, a
British vessel, becalmed off the village of Benibugaffer, was taken by
a Rifian piratical craft, and the English crew were made captives.
 Tidings having reached Gibraltar of the capture of the British ship,
a gunboat was sent to Melilla to endeavour to obtain, through the
intervention of the Spanish authorities and an offer of a ransom, the
release of the British sailors, but this step was not attended with
success. Having heard that the Englishmen who had been captured
had been presented by the pirates to a Rif Marábet (or holy man)
named Alhádari, who resided on the coast, and as I had in past
years been in friendly communication with this person regarding
some Rifians who had proceeded in a British vessel to the East on a
pilgrimage to Mecca, and had been provided by me with letters of
recommendation to British Consular officers, I wrote him a friendly
letter, expressing the indignation I felt at the outrages which had
been committed by his piratical brethren on British vessels; that I had
been informed the authorities at Gibraltar had endeavoured, when
they heard British sailors were in the hands of the pirates, to pay a
ransom for their freedom, but had failed, as exorbitant demands had
been put forward; and that since I had learnt my countrymen were in
his hands, I felt satisfied they would be well treated, and that he
would facilitate at once their release and return to Gibraltar; that I
entertained too high an opinion of him to suppose he would not
consent to their release except on the payment of a ransom, and
therefore I would make no offer to purchase the liberty of my
countrymen, but renewed those assurances of friendship and
goodwill, of which I said I had already given proof in the past
treatment of his brethren.
Alhádari replied that the sailors were under his care, had been
well treated, and would be embarked in the first vessel which might
be sent to receive them.
This engagement was faithfully executed, and at my suggestion
the authorities at Gibraltar sent a suitable present to the worthy
Marábet. I wrote also to thank Alhádari, and to beg that he would use
his influence to put a stop to the disgraceful outrages committed in
past years by his brethren on the lives and property of British
subjects, and to say that I should probably take an opportunity of
seeking to have a parley with the chiefs, in the hope of coming to an
understanding with them to bring about a cessation of these
outrages; adding, that if my friendly intervention did not put a stop to
the piracy of his brethren, the British Government would be
compelled, in concert with the Sultan, to resort to hostile measures
on a large scale, and send forces by sea and land to chastise these
rebellious subjects of His Sherifian Majesty.
In the spring of 1856 H.M. frigate Miranda, Captain Hall, arrived at
Tangier with directions to convey me to the coast of Rif, and I
embarked on April 21, taking with me a Rifian friend, Hadj Abdallah
Lamarti, who was Sheikh of a village near Tangier called Suanni,
whose inhabitants are Rifians, or of Rif extraction.
Hadj Abdallah had left the Rif in consequence of a blood feud. He
was the chief of the boar-hunters at Tangier, and was looked up to
with respect, not only by the rural population in the neighbourhood of
that town, who are chiefly of Rif extraction, but also by the local
authorities, who frequently employed him in the settlement of
disputes with the refractory tribes in the mountainous districts of the
Tangier province.
We steamed along the rocky coast of Rif and touched at the
Spanish garrisons of Peñon and Alhucema. The former is a curious
little rock, separated from the mainland by a very narrow channel. A
colonel and a few soldiers garrisoned the fortress, which is
apparently of no possible use, though the authorities at that time
might have aided in checking piracy by stopping the passage of the
Rif galleys. The rock is so small that there was not a walk fifty yards
long on any part of it.
On the island of Alhucema, so called from the wild lavender that
grows there, we also landed. The Spanish authorities were civil, but
held out no hopes of being able to take steps to put a stop to piracy.
This island is also an insignificant possession, about half a mile
distant from the mainland. The inhabitants had occasional
communication with the Rifians, hoisting a flag of truce whenever a
boat was dispatched to the shore; but Spaniards were not at that
time allowed to make excursions on the mainland, nor were they
permitted to obtain provisions except a few fowls, eggs, and honey.

On our arrival at Melilla, the Governor, Colonel Buceta[26],

received us courteously. I made known to him that the British
Government had directed me to proceed to the coast of Rif, to
endeavour to come to an understanding with the chiefs with the view
of putting a stop to piracy on that coast, the Sultan of Morocco
having declared he had no power of control over his lawless
subjects, who had shown an utter disregard of the peremptory orders
which had been issued to restore British property captured by their
piratical galleys; that in order to carry out this object I was anxious to
have an interview with some of the chiefs, not only of the villages on
the coast where the owners of the piratical galleys dwelt, but more
especially with the chiefs of the neighbouring inland villages, as the
latter derived no immediate benefit from the plunder of shipping.
Colonel Buceta endeavoured to dissuade me from this purpose,
reminding me that Sir Charles Napier had failed in obtaining any
beneficial result from his parley with the Rifians who had an interview
with him in Melilla.
 Perceiving from the Governor’s language that he entertained
those feelings of jealousy which prevail with Spaniards regarding the
intervention of any foreign Government in the affairs of Morocco, I let
him understand that, should no beneficial result be obtained by my
visit in putting a stop to the outrages committed on merchant vessels
approaching the Rif coast, it would become a serious matter for the
consideration of our Government whether steps should not be taken
to inflict a chastisement on the Rifians by landing a force, and in
conjunction with the Sultan’s troops which might be dispatched, at
our instigation, for that purpose, to destroy the hamlets and boats on
the coast. The question might also arise, perhaps, of erecting a
fortress in some sheltered spot where a gunboat could be placed to
guard the coast against pirates, which I observed the authorities at
Spanish fortresses had hitherto been unable to effect.
This language sufficed to decide Colonel Buceta to accede to my
wishes; but he informed me that, in consequence of late acts of
aggression on the part of the natives, all communication with the
garrison had been cut off, and that no Rifians were allowed to enter;
it was therefore out of the question that he could admit any chieftains
into Spanish territory. Neither did he think the latter would be
disposed to venture into the gates of the fortress.
I then proposed to be allowed to dispatch my Rifian friend Hadj
Abdallah Lamarti with an invitation to some of the neighbouring
chiefs, both on the seaboard and inland, to meet me on the neutral
ground.
Colonel Buceta assented, but he repeated that he could not admit
any Rifians into the garrison, nor send an escort to accompany me,
should I pass the gates to go into the Rif country, adding that he
thought I should be incurring a serious risk of being carried off a
prisoner by the Rifians, if in the parley I should happen to express
myself in language such as I had used to him regarding the outrages
committed by these lawless people.
His predecessor, he informed me, in consequence of the frequent
hostilities which had taken place between the natives and the
garrison, had proposed to have a meeting with some chieftains
within the garrison. This they declined, fearing, as they alleged,
some act of treachery; but it was finally agreed that they should meet
the Governor on the neutral ground; that he could bring an escort of
twenty-five armed men, and that the chiefs would also be
accompanied by an equal number of followers; that the Governor
and one chief, both unarmed, were to advance to a central spot that
was selected about 150 yards distant from where their followers
assembled, and that the Spanish Governor could also bring with him
an interpreter.
This arrangement was carried out, and a Rifian chief, a man of
gigantic stature and herculean frame, advanced to meet the Spanish
Governor.
The parley commenced in a friendly manner; propositions were
made by each party regarding the conditions upon which peaceful
relations were to be re-established; but without bringing about any
result.
The Spanish Governor, finding the demands put forward by the
chieftain to be of an unacceptable character, expressed himself
strongly on the subject. A warm dispute ensued, and on the
Governor using some offensive expression, the Rifian seized in his
brawny arms the Governor, who was a little man, and chucking him
over his shoulders like a sack of grain, called out to the Spanish
detachment of soldiers to blaze away, and at the same time to his
own men to fire if the Spanish soldiers fired or attempted to advance,
whilst the chieftain ran off with the Governor, who was like a shield
on his back, to his followers.
The officer in command of the Spanish detachment, fearing that
the Governor might be killed, did not venture to let his men fire or
advance, and the Governor was carried off prisoner to a village
about three miles off on the hills, and notice was then sent to the
fortress that he would not be released until a ransom of 3000 dollars
was sent.
The Rifians kept the Governor prisoner until a reference was
made to Madrid, and orders were sent for the ransom to be paid.
‘Now,’ said Colonel Buceta, ‘your fate if you trust yourself to these
treacherous people will probably be the same, and I shall be quite
unable to obtain your release.’
I thanked the Governor for the advice, but declared that I must
fulfil my mission and was prepared to run all risks, having been
accustomed for many years to deal with Rifians at Tangier.
Buceta then consented that I should be allowed to pass the gates
of the garrison and invite the chiefs of the neighbouring Rif villages
to a parley on the neutral ground.
Colonel Buceta, a distinguished officer well known for his great
courage and decision, was I believe, on the whole, pleased that I
held to my purpose, though he warned me again and again that I
was incurring a great risk, and that in no manner could he intervene,
if I and the English officer who might accompany me were taken
prisoners.
My messenger returned and informed me that the neighbouring
chiefs, both of the inland and of the piratical villages of Benibugaffer,
would meet me on the neutral ground as had been proposed to
them.
Accompanied by Capt. Hall, who commanded H.M.’s frigate
Miranda, my friend Hadj Abdallah, and a ‘kavass,’ we proceeded to
the rendezvous.
Five or six chiefs awaited our advent, attended by some hundred
followers, stalwart fellows, many of them more than six feet high.
The chiefs wore brown hooded dresses, not unlike the costume of
a Franciscan friar; but part of the shirt-sleeves and front were
embroidered with coloured silks. Handsome leather-belts girded their
loins. A few of the elders wore white woollen ‘haiks,’ like unto the
Roman toga or mantle without seam, such as our Saviour is said to
have worn.
Some of the wild fellows had doffed their outer garments, carrying
them on their shoulders as they are wont to do when going to battle.
Their inner costume was a white cotton tunic, coming down to the
knees, with long wide sleeves fastened behind the back by a cord.
Around their loins each wore a leathern girdle embroidered in
coloured silk, from which on the one side hung a dagger and a small
pouch for bullets; while on the other was suspended a larger
leathern pouch or bag prettily embroidered and having a deep fringe
of leather, in which powder is carried; containing also a pocket to
carry the palmetto fibre, curiously enough called ‘lif,’ used instead of
wads over powder and ball. Their heads were closely shaved, except
that on the right side hung a long lock of braided hair, carefully
combed and oiled. Several of them were fair men with brown or red
beards, descendants perhaps of those Goths who crossed over into
Africa.
 The wild fellows reclined in groups on a bank, immediately behind
where the chiefs were standing to receive us. After mutual greetings
I addressed them in Arabic, which though not the common language,
for Berber is spoken in the Rif, yet is understood by the better
classes, who learn to read the Koran and to write in the ‘jama’ or
mosque school. The Berber is not a written language.
‘Oh, men! I come amongst you as a friend; an old friend of the
Mussulmans. I have been warned that Rifians are not to be trusted,
and that I and those who accompany me are in danger of treachery;
but I take no heed of such warnings, for Rifians are renowned for
bravery, and brave men never act in a dastardly manner. My best
friends at Tangier are Rifians, or those whose sires came from the
Rif, such as my friend here, Hadj Abdallah Lamarti. They are my
hunters, and I pass days and nights with them out hunting, and am
treated by them and look upon them as my brethren; so here I have
come to meet you, with the Captain of the frigate, unarmed, as you
see, and without even an escort of my countrymen from the ship-of-
war lying there, or from the Spanish garrison, for I felt sure I should
never require protection in the Rif against any man.’
‘You are welcome,’ exclaimed the chiefs. ‘The English have
always been our friends,’ and a murmur of approval ran through the
groups of armed men seated on the bank.
‘Yes!’ I continued, ‘the English have always been the friends of the
Sultan, the ‘Kaliph Allah,’ and of his people.
‘You are all Mussulmans, and as followers of the Prophet every
year a number of your brethren, who have the means, go to the
shrine of the Prophet at Mecca, as required by your religion. How do
they go? In English vessels from Tangier, as you know, and they are
therefore, when on board, under the English flag and protection.
They are well treated and their lives and property are safe. They
return to Tangier in the same manner, and many of them have come
to me to express their gratitude for the recommendations I have
given them to English officers in the East, and the kindness they
have received at their hands.
‘These facts, I think, are known to you; but let us now consider
what is the conduct of certain Rifians,—not all, I am happy to add,
but those who dwell on the coast and possess ‘karebs,’ for the
alleged purpose of trade with Tangier and Tetuan, and for fishing.
‘The inhabitants of these coast villages, especially of the
neighbouring village of Benibugaffer, when they espy a peaceful
merchant vessel becalmed off their coast, launch a ‘kareb’ with forty
or fifty armed men, and set out in pursuit. The crews of these
merchant vessels are unarmed, and generally consist of not more
than eight or nine men. When they observe a ‘kareb’ approaching
with a hostile appearance, they escape in their little boats to the
open sea, trusting to Providence to be picked up by some passing
vessel before bad weather sets in, which might cause their small
craft to founder. The merchant vessel is then towed to the beach,
where she is stranded, pillaged of cargo and rigging, and burnt.
‘I now appeal to all true Mussulmans whether such iniquitous acts
are not against the laws of God and of the Prophet. These pirates
are not waging war against enemies or infidels, they are mere sea
robbers, who set aside the laws of the Prophet to pillage the
peaceful ships of their friends the English, to whom they are
indebted for conveying their brethren in safety to worship at the Holy
‘Kaaba’ of their Prophet.
‘To these English whom they rob, and also murder if they attempt
to resist, they are indebted for much of the clothing they wear, for the
iron and steel of which their arms are made, and for other
commodities. I now appeal to those Rifians who dwell in inland
villages, and who take no part in and have no profit from these
lawless acts, and I ask whether they will continue to tolerate such
infractions of Allah’s laws? Can these men of Benibugaffer who have
been guilty of frequent acts of piracy, can they be Mussulmans? No,
they must be “kaffers” (rebels against God).’ As I said this, I heard
from the mound behind me, where the Benibugaffer people were
seated, the sound of the cocking of guns, and a murmur, ‘He calls us
kaffers.’ Looking round, I perceived guns levelled at my back.
One of the elder Chiefs rose and cried out, ‘Let the English Chief
speak! What he says is true! Those who rob and murder on the seas
innocent people are not Mussulmans, for they do not obey the law of
God.’
I continued: ‘Hear what your wise Chief says. I fancied I heard a
sound like the click of a gun being cocked. Some foolish boys must
be sitting amongst the assembly, for no brave Rifians, Benibugaffers
included, would ever commit a cowardly murder on an unarmed man
who has come amongst you trusting to the honour and friendship
between the Rifians and English from ancient times.
‘You have, I think, heard that the English Government has
frequently complained to the Sultan Mulai Abderahman, the Kaliph
Allah and Emir El Mumenin (Prince of Believers), of the commission
of these outrages, and has put forward a demand for reparation and
compensation for damages.
‘The Sultan, who is the friend of the powerful Queen of England,
my Sovereign, under whose sway there are fifty million of
Mussulmans whom she governs with justice and kindness, issued
his Sherifian commands to you Rifians to cease from these outrages;
but you paid no attention to the orders of the Kaliph of the Prophet.
‘The Queen then sent a squadron to chastise the pirates and
obtain redress; but the Admiral took pity on the villages, where
innocent women and children dwelt, and did not fire a gun or burn a
‘kareb,’ as he might have done. He had a parley with the
Benibugaffer people and other inhabitants of villages where boats
are kept.
‘They made false promises and pretended they would cease to
commit outrages, but, as was to be expected, they have broken faith,
and since that parley have been guilty of further acts of piracy. So
now I have come to see you and hear whether the Rifians in the
inland villages will continue to suffer these outrages to be committed
by those who dwell on the coast, which may expose all the honest
and innocent inhabitants of the Rif to the horrors of war.
‘I have begged that no steps should be taken by my countrymen,
lest the innocent should suffer, until I make this final attempt to come
to an understanding with you; but I have to warn you, as a true
friend, if another outrage be committed, my great and powerful
Sovereign, in conjunction with the Sultan, will send large forces by
sea and by land to carry fire and sword into your villages, and bring
the whole population under subjection. H.S.M. may then think fit to
compel the Rif tribes dwelling on the coast to migrate to the interior
of his realms, or, at any rate, they will no longer be allowed to
possess a single boat for trade, or even for fishing.
‘I now ask—Will you inland inhabitants tolerate the continuance of
piracy on the part of your brethren on the coast?—Will you brave
inhabitants of the coast continue to set Allah’s laws at defiance, and
thus expose your lives and property, and those of your inland
brethren, to destruction?’
The old Chief again spoke, and others stood up and joined him,
saying: ‘He is right. We shall not allow these robberies to be
committed on our friends the English; such outrages must cease,
and if continued, we shall be prepared to chastise the guilty.’
The Benibugaffer Chiefs said, ‘We approve.’
‘I know,’ I continued, ‘you Rifians do not sign treaties or like
documents; but the words of brave men are more worthy of trust
than treaties, which are too often broken. Give me your hands.’ I
held out mine. As the pledge of good faith I shook the hands of the
chiefs, including the Benibugaffer.
‘Remember,’ I said, ‘it is not English vessels, but all vessels
without exception must be respected on approaching your shores.’
‘We agree,’ they cried.
Upon which I exclaimed, ‘I have faith in your words. May God’s
mercy and blessing be on you all and grant you prosperity and
happiness! The Rifians and English shall remain true friends for ever.
I bid you farewell.’
‘Stay,’ said the chief of a neighbouring village, ‘come with us and
be our guest. We shall kill an ox to feast you and our brethren here,
and bid you welcome. You are a hunter; we shall show you sport,
and become better acquainted with each other. Upon our heads shall
be your life and those of your friends.’
Pointing to the frigate, I said: ‘That vessel has to return
immediately, and I have to report what has been done, in order to
stop all preparations for seeking through other means to obtain the
satisfaction you have so readily offered. I should have been
delighted to have gone with you and should have felt as safe as if
amongst my own countrymen. You are a brave race, incapable of
doing a wrong to a true friend. I shall never forget the manner in
which you have received me.
‘I bid you all farewell. I believe in your promises, even those made
by the Benibugaffer. Send messengers at once to the villages on the
coast and let them know the promises you have made, which they
also must be required to carry out strictly.’
The Chiefs and their followers tried all they could to persuade me
to accompany them but finally consented that I should depart, on
promising that I would some day revisit them.
Colonel Buceta was surprised to learn the result of my visit, but
said the Rifians would never keep faith, and that we should soon
hear of fresh acts of piracy. ‘In such case,’ I replied, ‘we shall have to
land a force and burn every hamlet and boat on the coast; but I have
every hope the Rifians will keep faith.’
They have kept faith, and since that parley near Melilla no
vessels, either British or of other nationality, have been captured or
molested by the Rifians[27]

It was amongst these wild and lawless Rifians that Mr. Hay found
the most thorough sportsmen, and also men capable of great
attachment and devotion. Always much interested in the history of
this race, in their customs and mode of life, he wrote an interesting
account of the tribes which inhabit the north of Morocco and of his
personal intercourse with them.

The Rif province extends along the Mediterranean coast to the

eastward from a site called Borj Ustrak, in the province of Tetuan, for
about a hundred and fifty miles to the stream marked in maps as
‘Fum Ajrud’ (mouth of Ajrud), the northern boundary between
Morocco and Algiers.
The Rif country to the southward, inland from the Mediterranean
coast, extends about thirty-five miles and on the westward is
bordered by the Tetuan province and the mountains of Khamás and
Ghamára.
The population of Rif amounts, as far as can be calculated, to
about 150,000 souls. The Rifians are a Berber race, and have never
been conquered by the various nations—Phœnicians, Romans,
Goths, and Arabs—who have invaded Mauritania: they have always
maintained their independence; but on the conquest of Morocco by
the Arabs, the Rifians accepted the Mohammedan faith, and
acknowledged the Sovereigns of Morocco as the Kaliphs of the
Prophet.
The country is mountainous, the soil in most parts poor, and
though the Rif is rich in iron, copper, and other minerals, there are no
roads or means of conveyance to the seaboard. There are large
forests of ‘el aris[28],’ which the Rifians convey in their ‘karebs’
(sailing boats) to Tetuan and Tangier. They have no saws, so when a
tree is felled it is cut away with a hatchet until a beam or plank is
shaped, generally about ten feet long by a foot wide. This timber has
a strong aromatic odour, and when not exposed to damp is more
durable than oak. It was used for the woodwork of the Alhambra at
Granada and other Moorish palaces in Spain, and though many of
the Arabesque ornaments in plaster or stucco have fallen into decay
and walls have crumbled, this woodwork remains sound.
The Rifians are an industrious race; but their barren hills do not
produce sufficient grain to provide food for the population. Large
numbers migrate every year to different parts of Morocco, especially
to the northern provinces, and are employed to cultivate orchards
and gardens round Tangier and Tetuan. The majority of the
inhabitants of the town and neighbouring districts of Tangier are of
Rif extraction.
In the Rif the natives do not submit to any authority except upon
religious or legal questions, such as marriage, inheritance, and title
deeds. The ‘f’ki,’ or chief priest in a village mosque, draws up, with
the aid of ‘tolba’ or public notaries, all legal documents regarding
marriage or property. In other matters the Rifian does not submit to
legislation; his gun, pistol, and dagger are his judge and jury—yet
crimes such as robbery, theft, or outrages on women are rarely
known, but murder from feud is rife throughout the country to a
frightful extent. No man’s life is secure, even though he be a distant
relative, such as the great-grandson, of some one who may have
taken a life thirty years before in a blood feud. The widow of a
murdered man will teach her son, as soon as he can carry a gun or
pistol, how to use those arms, and daily remind him that his father
must be avenged lest the son be looked upon as despicable.
The men always go armed even in their own villages. Cursing,
swearing, or abusive language, so common amongst the Moors, are
rarely heard in Rif; for the man who ventures to use an opprobrious
epithet knows that he incurs the risk of being stabbed or shot. A
Rifian never forgives or forgets an insult.
They are distinguished for their courage. During the war between
Spain and Morocco in 1859, they did not obey the appeal of the
Sultan for assistance; but the inhabitants of the district of Zarhon
near Fas, who are of Rif extraction, sent a contingent of 1,500 men
to Tetuan. They arrived a few days before the battle of ‘Agraz’—the
last which took place between the Moors and Spaniards before the
peace of 1860—and fought so determinedly that two-thirds of their
number fell during that battle.
Polygamy is extremely rare in Rif. Few men venture to take a
second wife lest offence be given thereby to the father or brother of
either of the women they have married. Even in Tangier, where there
is a population of over 9,000 Mohammedans, chiefly Rifians by
descent, I never heard of more than four or five Moors who had two
wives. When an exception occurs, it has generally been at the
request of the wife, who, having had no child, begs her husband to
marry some cousin or friend, selected perhaps by herself.
Immoral conduct on the part of married women or maidens is
unknown; for, should they be suspected of leading an irregular life by
father, husband, or other male relative, such disgrace is wiped out by
death.
Rifian women do not cover their faces. If a man sees a young
woman fetching water from a well or walking alone, he will avoid
meeting her, and even turn back rather than run the risk of being
seen by some relative of the female and be suspected of having
communicated with her by word or gesture. He will shun the woman
who may be alone, as a modest girl in Europe might try to avoid a
man whom she should happen to meet when walking in some lonely
spot.
Some years ago an old Rifian, one of my boar-hunters, who dwelt
at a village near Tangier, presented himself before me looking very
miserable and haggard. ‘I take refuge under the hem of your
garment,’ he exclaimed, ‘and deliver into your hands these title-
deeds of my hut and garden, also a document regarding a mare;
these are all my possessions. I am about to deliver myself up to the
Basha of Tangier, Kaid Abbas Emkashéd, and to ask that I be sent to
prison.’
On inquiring of the old hunter why he thought of taking such an
extraordinary step, and also what he expected me to do with his
papers and property, he replied, whilst trembling from head to foot,
with tears running down his rugged cheeks and his teeth chattering
as he spoke, ‘My youngest daughter, whom I loved so dearly’—here
he gasped for breath—‘is no more. I have buried her. She was put to
death with my consent.’ Poor Hadj Kassim then covered his face and
sobbed violently, paused to recover himself, and continued, ‘The
authorities have heard that my daughter, who was very beautiful, has
disappeared, and have given orders that some innocent persons
who are suspected should be arrested, as it is supposed she has
been carried off or murdered. I cannot remain a passive spectator
whilst innocent men suffer, feeling that the whole blame of the
disappearance of my child rests on me alone. My daughter was of a
joyous character, and, like a silly girl, thought only of amusement.
Both her mother and I had repeatedly punished her for going to
weddings or other festivities without our permission. She had been
warned that misconduct on her part, as a Rifian maiden, would never
be forgiven; but she took no heed. Some neighbours reported that
she had been seen going to Tangier to dance in the “mesriahs.” Her
shameless conduct became a source of great scandal in the village,
and as it was supposed that I countenanced her misconduct, I was
shunned by my friends. They no longer returned my salams, and
when I joined the elders, who are wont to assemble of an afternoon
on our village green, they turned their backs on me.
‘Life had become a burden, and my son, who was also taunted by
young men for having a sister of bad repute, came to me yesterday,
when he heard that she had again gone off to the town, and declared
that as Rifians we could not allow a daughter and sister who did not
obey her parents, and brought disgrace on her family, to live.
‘Though I loved dearly my foolish child,’ continued the old hunter,
‘I gave way to the passionate language of my son, and consented
that, should we discover she danced at the “mesriah,” she should
die.
‘We went to Tangier and concealed ourselves near the entrance
of a “mesriah” we were told she frequented. We saw her enter,
followed by some young Moors. A little before sunset she came out,
enveloped in her “haik,” and walked hurriedly towards our village.
She did not see us, and we followed her until we reached a path in
the brushwood not far from our village, and then we stopped her. My
son accused her of leading a disgraceful life, and then struck her
heavily with a bill-hook on the head. She fell, never to speak again.
We buried her in a secluded spot. My son killed her, but I am really
her murderer—I alone am responsible for her death; but my
wretched child could not have lived to be a curse and a disgrace.’
Then the poor Hadj trembled in his acute misery, and shook as if he
had the palsy.
‘I shall,’ he continued, ‘present myself to the Basha. I shall not say
I am the murderer, as the Basha is a Rifian, and will understand all
when I declare I wish no man to be arrested on account of the
disappearance of my child, and that I alone am responsible for
whatever may have happened to her.
‘Now,’ he added, ‘you know, according to Moorish law, no man
can be punished for murder unless he acknowledges his crime, and
that after twelve months’ imprisonment, should no witnesses appear,
the accused can claim to be liberated from prison. If I live, therefore,
I shall be released; but I care no longer for life, except it be to work