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Copyright N^_J^ I S
COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.
DYNAMO ELECTRIC
MACHINERY;
ITS DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION,
AND OPERATION
DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES
BY
SAMUEL SHELDON, A.M., Ph.D., D.Sc.
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AT THE POLYTECHNIC
INSTITUTE OF BROOKLYN AND PAST-PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN
INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS
AND
ERICH HAUSMANN, E.E., Sc.D.
INSTRUCTOR IN PHYSICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AT THE
POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF BROOKLYN, AND ASSOCIATE
OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS
NINTH EDITION, REVISED
NEW YORK:
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
LONDON
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON
1915
TWi \8£
Copyright, 1900, by
Copyright, 1910, by
Copyright, 1915, by
Stanbopc iPrees
F. H. GILSON COMPANT
BOSTON.
-6 .15
U.S.A.
CI,.A397016
^^ ->a
PREFACE.
The object aimed at in the preparation of the first
edition of this book has been kept in view and has con-
trolled the preparation of this eighth edition. This has
been the production of a text -book for the use of students
pursuing electrical or non-electrical engineering courses.
The method of presentation is considered as especially
adapted for classroom exercises, which consist of recita-
tions, computations, and occasional lectures, and which are

supplemented by laboratory exercises, the two being cor-
related with a view to training the mind of the student
and adding somewhat to his knowledge. It will be found
that in treatment the sequence is such that parts which it
may seem undesirable to require from other than electrical

engineering students may be omitted without introducing
a discontinuity in the matter which remains.
With the exception of the first two chapters, the book
has been entirely rewritten; nearly two hundred of its illus-
trations are new, most of them having been specially drawn

to make clear methods of construction or characteristics of
operation; and it has been considerably extended in scope.
In the new matter will be found a set of problems at the
end of each chapter, a presentation of the theory of com-
mutation, means for the predetermination of the operating
characteristics of direct-current generators and motors, a
discussion on storage batteries from the engineering point
of view, a treatment of the theory of balancers and of
IV PREFACE.
boosters,and a discussion of costs, prices, and operating

expenses of machines and plants.
The chapters on the design of machines and on tests,
which appeared in the former editions, have been omitted, as
these subjects require for their adequate treatment more
space than one would be warranted in giving them in a
book of this character.
Polytechnic Institute,
Brooklyn, New York,
June 1, 19 lo.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Electrical Laws and Facts.

Art. Page
1 Mechanical Units i
2. Electrical Units 3
3. Ohm's Law 4
4. Resistance of Conductors 5
5. Divided Circuits 8
6. Power of Electric Current 10
7. Heat Developed by a Current 11
8. Insulating Materials 11
9. Test of Dielectric Strength 13

Problems 16
CHAPTER n.
Magnetic Laws and Facts.
10. Strength of Magnet Pole 18

11. Magnetic Field and Lines of Force 18
1 2. Intensity of Magnetic Field 19
13. Magnetic Potential 20
14. Permeability 20
15. Electro-magnetic Induction 21
16. Direction of Induced E M.F 23
17. Inductance 24
18. Growth of Current in an Inductive Circuit 26
19. Decay of Current in an Inductive Circuit 27
20. Quantity of Electricity Traversing a Circuit Due to a Change of
Flux Linked with it 29
21. Work Performed by a Conductor Carrying a Current and Moving
in a Magnetic Field 29
22. Force Exerted between a Field and a Conductor Carrying a
Current 30
V
VI CONTENTS.
Art. Page
23. Magnetomotive Force of a Circular Circuit Carrying a Current 31
24. The Toroid 32
25. Magnetization Curves ^;i
26. Reluctance and Permeance 36

27. Relation between Magnetomotive Force, Magnetic Flux, and
Reluctance 37
28. Hysteresis 38
29. Eddy Currents 42
Problems 43
CHAPTER HI.
Armatures.
30. Dynamos 45
31. Principle of Action of a Generator 45
32. The Function of the Commutator. 46
S3. Electromotive Force Generated 48
34. The Armature 52
35. The Field Magnets 53
36. Armature Windings 55
37. Multiplex Armature Windings 62
38. Equalizing Connections , 65
39. E.M.F. Equation of Dynamos 66
40. Core Construction 67
41 Armature Coils 73
42. Commutators 76
43. Brushes and Brush Holders 81
44. Shafts and Bearings. .
83
Problems 86
CHAPTER IV.
Field Magnets.
45. Field-Magnet Frames 88

46. Methods of Field Excitation 92
47. Magnetic Leakage 94
48. Calculation of Exciting Ampere-Turns 96
49. Field Coils 104
Problems 108
CONTENTS. Vll
CHAPTER V.
Armature Reaction. Commutation.

Art. Page
50. Armature Reaction no
51. Cross-Magnetizing Effect of Armature Current in
52. Demagnetizing Effect of Armature Current 113
53. Compensation for Armature Reaction 115
54. Devices for Reducing Armature Reaction 118
55. Commutation 121
56. Time of Commutation 125
57. Calculation of Reactance Voltage 127
58. Conditions for Good Commutation 134
Problems 138
CHAPTER VI.
Generators.
Efficiency of Operation.
59. Capacity of a Dynamo 140

60. Heating of Dynamos 142
61. Output Coefficients 145
62. Losses in Armature Cores 146
63. Armature Copper Loss 148
64. Pole-Face Losses 149
65. Excitation Loss 151
66. Bearing Friction and Windage 151
67. Commutator Loss 152
68. Temperature Elevation 153
69. Efficiency 155
70. Coefficient of Conversion 158
71. Economic Coefficient 158
72. Magnetos 159
73. Constant-Potential and Constant-Current Supply 160
Constant-Potential Generators.
74. Characteristic Curves of Shunt- Wound Generators 162

75. Voltage Regulation 164
76. Hand Regulation 165
77. Field Rheostats 166
Vlll CONTENTS.
Art. Page
78. Self-Regulation 171
79. Characteristic Curves of Compound- Wound Generators 172
80. Railway and Lighting Generators 173
81. Three- Wire Generators 180
82. Homopolar Dynamos 184
Constant-Current Generators.
83. Characteristic Curves of Series- Wound Generators 187

84. Power Lines 189
85. Series- Wound Generators 189
86. The Brush Machine , 193
87. The Excelsior Arc-Light Generator 198
2>?>. The Thomson-Houston Dynamo 200
89. Western Electric Arc-Light Dynamo 204
Problems 207
CHAPTER VH.
Motors.
90. Principle of Action of a Motor 210

91. Direction of Rotation , 211
92. Torque Exerted by a Motor 213
93. Counter Electromotive Force 214
94. Armature Reactions 216
95. Power of Motors 216
Shunt Motors.
96. Speed of Shunt Motors 217

97. Starting of Shunt Motors 225
98. Design of Starting Rheostats 230
99. Speed Regulation 232
100. Characteristic Curves of Shunt Motors 233
loi. Industrial Applications of Shunt Motors 236
Series Motors.
102. Series Motors 239

103. Characteristic Curves of Series Motors 241
104. Railway Motors 241
105. Railway Motor Control 251
106. Motors for Automobiles 258
CONTENTS. IX
Art. Page
107. Motors for Rolling Mills 260
108. Crane Motors 261
109. Compound- Wound Motors 263
Problems 265
CHAPTER VIII.
Dynamotors, Motor-Generators, Boosters, and Storage Batteries.
1 10. Dynamotors 266

111. Motor- Generators 273
112. Boosters 279
113. Storage Batteries 287
Problems 292
CHAPTER IX.
Central-Station Equipment.
114. Paralleling of Generators 294

115. Parallel Operation of Motors 299
116. Switches 300
117. Fuses 302
118. Circuit Breakers .
303
119. Measuring Instruments 305
120. Switchboards 312
121. Works Cost 314
122. Selling Prices 315
123. Plant Costs 318
124. Operating Expenses 319
125. Cost of Electrical Energy 320
Problems 322
DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY,
CHAPTER I.
ELECTRICAL LAWS AND FACTS.
I. Mechanical Units. — Force is that which tends to

produce, alter, or destroy motion. The units of force are
the dyne and the poundal. The dyne is that force which,
acting on a one-gram mass for one second, will tend to
produce a velocity of one centimeter per second. The
poundal is that force which, acting on a mass of one pound
for one second, will tend to produce a velocity of one foot
per second. The weight of a pound mass is frequently
taken as a unit of force, and is called, for brevity, a pound.
A force of one pound is approximately equal to 32.2
poundals.
Work is the production of motion against resistance.
The units of work are the foot-pound and the erg. The
foot-pound is the work done in lifting a body weighing one
pound one foot vertically. The erg is the work performed
by a force of one dyne in moving a body one centimeter
in the direction of the force. The joule is a larger unit
much used, and is equal to 10^ ergs.
Energy is the capacity to do work. It is expressed in
the same units as work. The two classes of energy are
Kinetic energy and Potential energy. A body possesses
2 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
kinetic energy in virtue of its motion, while potential energy
is due to the separation or the disarrangement of attracting
particles or masses. A wound-up spring has potential
energy because of the strained positions of the molecules,
while a weight raised to a height has potential energy
because of the separation of mass from the attractingits
mass of the earth. The potential energy of a body is

measured by the work required to put the body into its
strained condition. The kinetic energy of a body is pro-
portional to its mass and to the square of its velocity, or
Kmetic Energy = ,
since the mass of a body is equal to its weight divided by

the acceleration due to gravity. Kinetic energy will be
expressed in ergs when Wis, the weight in grams of the
body whose velocity is v centimeters per second, and when
^ is 98 1 cm. per second per second. If W be the weight
in pounds, v the velocity in feet per second, and ^ is 32.2
feet per second per second, then the kinetic energy is ex-
pressed in foot-pounds.
Power is the rate of performance of work. Its units are
the horse-power and the watt. A horse-power is 33,000
foot-pounds per minute. A watt is one joule per second.

One horse-power is equivalent to 746 watts. Representing
the torque or twisting moment of a machine in pound-feet
by T, and its angular velocity in radians per second by co
= 2 TT V/60y where V is the number of revolutions per

minute, then the horse-power of the machine is
Tjp _ 60C0T _ 2- VT
33000 33000'
In a belt-driven machine the torque in the shaft is equal to
ELECTRICAL LAWS AND FACTS. 3
the difference in tension of the two sides of the belt multi-

plied by the radius of the pulley, that is, T= {F — F') r
pound-feet.
2. Electrical Units. — Since distinction must continually
be made between absolute or c.g.s. units dind practical units,
throughout this work capital letters will be used for quan-
tities expressed in practical units, and lower-case letters for
quantities expressed in absolute units.
The absolute unit of current is such that, when flowing
through a conductor of one centimeter length, which is
bent into an arc of one centimeter radius, it will exert a
force of one dyne on a unit magnet pole (§ lo) placed at

the center. The practical unit of current, the ampere, is
one-tenth the magnitude of the absolute unit.

The absolute unit of quantity is that quantity of elec-
tricity which in one second passes any cross-section of a
conductor in which the absolute unit of current is flowing.
The practical unit of quantity is one-tenth of the absolute
unit, and is called the coulomb. For large quantities the
ampere-hour and the mega-coulomb, the latter being equal
to a million coulombs, are units frequently used ; and for
small quantities the micro -coulomb, equal to one-millionth
of a coulomb, is often used.
The absolute unit of difference of potential exists between
two points when it requires the expenditure of one erg of
work to move an absolute unit quantity of electricity from
one point to the other. The practical unit of difference
of potential, the volt, is lo^ times as large as the absolute
unit.
convenient and rational to make a distinction be-

It is
tween electromotive force and difference of potential.

Electromotive force is produced when a conductor cuts
magnetic lines of force, or when the electrodes of a pri-
mary battery are immersed in a solution. But a difference
of potential may exist due to the flow of an electric cur-
rent. Between any two points of a conductor carrying a

current there is that which would send a current through
an auxiUary wire connecting these points, and it is called
difference of potential. If the current in the original con-
ductor be doubled, the difference of potential between the

same two points will be doubled, showing that this differ-
ence of potential exists because of the current flowing in

the original conductor. The word pressure is used either
for difference of potential or for E.M.F. with obvious
relevancy.
The absolute unit of resistance is offered by a body when
it allows an absolute unit of current to flow along it be-
tween its two terminals, when these are maintained at unit
(absolute) difference of potential. The practical unit of
resistance, the ohniy is lo^ times as large as the absolute
unit. The megohm^ equal to a million ohms, and the
microhm, equal to one-millionth of an ohm, are units fre-
quently used.
3. Ohm*s Law. — The relation between the current,
electromotive force, and resistance of a simple circuit is
given by Ohm's law, in absolute units, as
e
/ = -.
r
Since the current in amperes is loi, the E.M.F. in volts

is 10-^ e, and the resistance in ohms is lO-V, Ohm's law may
be expressed in practical units by the formula
-I
where / is the number of amperes flowing in an undivided

circuit, E the algebraic sum of all the electromotive forces
in that circuit in volts, and R the sum of all the resistances
in series in that circuit expressed in ohms.
The form of the equation E = IR, as applied to a por-
tion of a circuit, is much used under the name of Ohm's
law. In this case, however, E is not E.M.F.y but differ-
ence of potential, as explained in the last article.
If, in a house lighted by electricity, the service maintains
a constant pressure of lOO volts at the mains where they
enter from the street, and no lights be turned on, then at
every lamp socket in the house there will be a pressure of
100 volts. If now a lamp be turned on, it will be working
on less than lOO volts, because of the drop or fall of po-
tential. If many lamps be turned on, a considerable drop
may occur. The drop is caused by the resistance of the

wires carrying the current from the place of constant po-
tential to the place where it is used, and the volts lost have
been consumed in doing useless work, i.e. heating the wires.
That the drop is proportional to the current flowing is
shown by a simple application of Ohm's law.
Let R be the resistance of the line, and E^t the volts
drop caused thereby when a current /flows. Then
from which it is evident that the drop varies as the cur-

rent when the resistance of the Hne is constant.
4. Resistance of Conductors. — The resistance 7? of a con-
ductor is expressed by the formula
where ^ is a constant called the resistivity, and depending

upon the material and the temperature of the conductor, /is
the length, and A the cross-section of the conductor. The
reciprocal of the resistivity, - is called the conductivity of a
P
substance.
If, in the foregoing expression for R, the centimeter and
square centimeter be the units of length and cross-section
respectively, and the resistance is desired in ohms, then
p must be the resistance between opposite faces of a cen-
timeter cube of the given material, and this is called its
specific resistance. Areas of conductors are frequently ex-
pressed in terms of a unit, circular mil, equal to the area
of a circle -y-qq-q inch in diameter. If area be so expressed
and be the length in feet of the conductor, then p must
if /
be the resistance of a portion thereof one foot long and
one circular mil in cross-section, i.e. of one mil-foot^ so
that R may be in ohms. The resistivities of various
metals at o° Centigrade are given in the following table
RESISTIVITIES.
SPECIFIC RESIST- RESISTANCE PER
MATERIAL ANCE IN MI- MIL-FOOT,
CROHMS AT 0°C. OHMS AT o'' C.
Copper (soft) . . .
1-59 9.6
Aluminum (soft) . . 2-55 15.4
Iron (soft) . . . . 8.7 52.4
Platinum . . . .
8.98 54.1
Steel 13.0 78
German Silver (i8%) 34 204
Manganin .... 43 259
German Silver (30%) 45
"Advance". . . .
49 295
"la la" 50 301
"Climax" . . . . 85
"Superior" . . . . 86
As rectangular conductors are much used in armatures

and upon switchboards, it frequently becomes necessary to
express their cross-sections in circular mils. Since the

cross-section of a circle having a diameter of y qV^ inch is
0.000000785 square inches, the equivalent cross-section of

a conductor expressed in circular mils is equal to its cross-
section in square inches divided by 0.000000785, and
the cross-section in circular mils is equal to 1273236 times
its cross-section in square inches.
The resistivity of a conductor depends upon its physical
condition and upon its purity. Thus, the resistivity of
hard drawn copper may be taken as 2.^ per cent higher

than that of annealed copper. The resistivity of an alloy
is usually greater than that of any of its constituents, con-
sequently the admixture of a small percentage of one
metal with another usually implies a higher resistivity.
The International Electrotechnical Commission has

adopted as its standard resistivity for annealed copper the
following : A wire of standard annealed copper, of uniform
cross-section, of one meter length, and weighing one gram,
has a resistance of 0.15328 ohm at 20° C. The conduc-
tivity ofcopper used in practice varies between 97 and 100
per cent of the value represented by this standard. wire A
table issued by the Bureau of Standards appears inside of
the back cover.
The resistance of conductors depends upon temperature.
Rise of temperature causes an increase of resistance in all
pure metals, and the rate of increase is approximately the

same for each. Representing the increase of resistance
per unit resistance at 0° C. and unit rise in temperature by
a, called thetemperature co efficient and the resistance of a
,
conductor at 0° C. by R^, then its resistance at any temper-

ature T may be expressed by
RT=R,{.y +<xT).
While it is sufficient for engineering purposes to consider
the temperature coefficient of any conductor constant, it
should be remembered that this coefficient varies slightly

at different temperatures.
The value of the temperature coefficient of copper is
0.00427 times its conductivity, reckoned from 0° C, that

is, between any initial and final temperature, standard
copper increases its resistance by 0.427 per cent of its
resistance at 0° C. for each degree rise of temperature.

Many alloys have a very small temperature coefficient,
and are thus desirable for resistances in measuring instru-

ments. Acid and salt solutions, carbon, hard rubber, and
glass have negative temperature coefficients.
5. Divided Circuits. — When portions of an electric cir-
cuit are connected in series^ the total resistance of the cir-
cuit is equal to the sum of the resistances of the separate

portions. To determine the equivalent resistance of a
number of resistances connected in parallel, let / be the
current flowing in the undivided part of the circuit shown
1 4% I I'l'^j
I
Fig. I.
in Fig. I, and let /^ and I^ be the currents flowing in the
resistances R^ and R^ respectively. Then
/ = /.+/,;
and, since the potential difference, E^ across each branch

circuit is the same, by Ohm's law
I. = E and = E
/^
R^
I I
whence ^1 '-h
The currents in the branches of a divided circuit are in-
versely as the resistances of the branches.

If Re be a single resistance, that, when substituted for
the shunted resistances R^ and R^ will leave / unchanged,
E
then / = — ; consequently
-
R.
E_ _E_ E_
Re ^1 ^2
or R, = ^^
The resistance equivalent to a number of shunted resistances
is equal to the reciprocal of tJie sum of the reciprocals of the
separate resistances.
The distribution of current through the elements of a
r.etwork of conductors, no matter how complex, may be
determined by the aid of the following two laws due to
Kirchhoff : —
Law I. —
The algebraic sum of the currents
meeting at any point of a netzuork is zero. Law IL In —
any m.esh of a network the algebraic sum of the IR drops
is equal to the algebraic sum of the electromotive forces.
For example, if E be the electromotive force of the battery

indicated in Fig. i, according to the first law
/-/. -/,=o, (I)

lO DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
and from the ; second law
£ = iR + rji^, (2)
and E = IR + hR^
-
(3)
From (2) and (3) hR.= hR.

Hence from (I) I- = o,
' R^
or /, =
R.^R^
6. Power of Electric Current. — If a differeace of poten-
tial of e absolute units exist between two points, the trans-
fer of an absolute unit quantity of electricity from one
point to the other requires the expenditure of e ergs of
work. Since the volt is equal to lo* absolute units of
potential difference, and the coulomb is equal to io~^ abso-
lute units of quantity, it follows that the work performed in
transferring one coulomb of electricity under a difference of
potential of one volt is lo^ ergs or one joule. A current
of / amperes flowing for / seconds represents It coulombs
of electricity, and if these be transferred under a potential
difference of B volts, the work done in joules will be
W = En.
The rate of working, or the J?ower, is
P= —W = EI,
t
where P is expressed in watts, i.e. joules per second.

Since, from Ohm's law, E= IR, by substitution
P = PR.
For commercial currents and voltages the watt is a need-
lessly small unit, hence the kilowatt (= looo watts) is
ELECTRICAL LAWS AND FACTS. II
generally used to express electrical power. It is repre-

sented by the abbreviation k.w. The horse-power is equal
to 746 watts, or approximately three-fourths of a k.w.
7. Heat Developed by a Current. When a current /—
is maintained in a circuit of resistance R, the work per-
formed is converted into heat. The work thus done per
second, or the power expended, will be PR watts. Since
this production of heat is often of no service, this expendi-
ture of power is generally called the I^R loss.
This production of heat causes a rise of temperature in
the conductor, and the temperature will continue to rise till
the heat generated per second by the I'^R loss is exactly

counterbalanced by the rate of dissipation of heat by con-
duction, convection, and radiation.
The inherent resistances of electrical machines involve
the production of heat in their operation (as do also fric-
tion and reversal of magnetism), which causes a rise of tem-

perature. As insulating materials can survive only moder-
ately high temperatures, such machines must be designed
to operate without becoming too hot. This is accomplished
by decreasing the /î? loss, by increasing the radiating sur-
face,and by improving ventilation.
8. Insulating Materials. The desirable properties of
materials which are to be used for insulating various elec-
trical conductors from each other are : (a) a high insulation
resistance and this resistance should remain high over a
considerable range of temperature ;
(b) a dielectric strength
sufficient to preclude any possibility of perforation by volt-
ages liable to exist between the conductors which they
separate, and this strength must also persist throughout all
probable ranges of temperature ;
{c) such physical proper-
ties as will permit of mechanical manipulation ;
(d) non-
alteration of chemical constitution when subjected to high
temperatures and operating conditions.
As no one insulating material possesses all of these desir-
able properties, for any particular purpose that insulating
material should be chosen which is best suited for the given
conditions. In this choice, available space and cost of the
insulation are also determining factors.
The dielectric an insulating material
strength of is
measured by the voltage which must be applied to it in

order to cause its rupture. The dielectric strength depends
upon the thickness of the dielectric, the form of the opposed
conducting surfaces, and the manner in which the E.M.F,
is applied,whether gradually, suddenly, or periodically
varying. has been stated that the dielectric strength
It
approximately varies inversely as the cube root of the

thickness, showing that a thin sheet is relatively stronger
than a thick one of the same material. For example, the
dielectric strength of mica when i mm. thick is 6io kilovolts
per centimeter, but when o. i mm. thick it is 1 150 kilovolts
per centimeter.
Mica possesses the highest insulation resistance and the
greatest dielectric strength of insulating materials. It does
not absorb moisture and its chemical constitution is un-
affected by high temperatures. It is not, however, me-
chanically strong.
Sheets of insulation made up from pieces of scrap mica
cemented together by linseed oil or preparations of shellac,
when carefully constructed with lapped joints, exhibit
nearly as good insulating and dielectric properties as sheet
mica. While not perfect mechanically, these sheets permit
of bending better than pure mica.
For insulating purposes where considerable flexibility
ELECTRICAL LAWS AND FACTS. I3
is essential, micanite paper and micanite cloth are well

adapted. These materials consist of small pieces of mica
in combination with paper or various kinds of fabric.
Preparations of fibrous materials with linseed oil, which,
after being dried, have been thoroughly baked, are fairly
good insulators. As water is generally present in their

pores, their insulation resistance, upon heating, decreases
until the temperature has reached 100° C, and then it in-
creases. These preparations are mechanically flexible.
Preparations of fibrous material with shellac are good in-
sulators, but crack upon bending.

Vulcanized fibers are made by treating paper fiber chemi-
cally, and, when dried, they have a fairly high insulation
resistance, but they readily absorb moisture, and, upon dry-
ing, are liable to warp and twist. They furthermore be-
come brittle when heated.
Hard rubber is a good insulator and possesses the desir-
able mechanical qualifications, but it does not withstand
moderately high temperatures, for at 70° C. it becomes
soft and melts at 80° C. Its employment is limited,
therefore, to apparatus to be used at comparatively low
temperatures.
Asbestos, a fairly good insulator, is used principally be-
cause of its incombustibility. Vulcabeston, which is a
preparation of asbestos and rubber, exhibits good insulating
and mechanical qualities, and is especially fitted for higher
temperatures. Asbestos and vulcabeston are much used
in electric heating apparatus.
9. Test of Dielectric Strength. — In order to test the
voltage necessary to break down a sample sheet of insulat-
ing material, the sample is placed between two flat metal-
lic surfaces which are connected respectively with the two
terminals of a high-voltage transformer, whose voltage can
be varied at will. The sample should project considerably
beyond the edges of the metallic surfaces, so that no dis-
charge can take place from one terminal to the other around
the sample under test. The test voltage is appHed and is
gradually increased until the material punctures.

Practical average values of dielectric strengths over the
thicknesses stated of various insulating materials are given
in the following table :
DIELECTRIC
STRENGTH IN
THICKNESS EFFECTIVE
MATERIAL IN MM. SINUSOIDAL
KILOVOLTS
PER CM.
Air . . . 0-5 50-3

1.0 43-6
((
5-0 33-5
U lO.O 29.8
Asbestos 0.5-1.5 25-10
Cotton 0.1-0.3 no
Glass 2.0-6.0 250-170
Hard rubber I-5-75-0 510-400
Mica 0.05-3.0 1300-500
Micanite 0.2-0.5 400
paper 0.2-0.6 150
" cloth 0.2-0.6 80
Paper (paraffined) 0.05-0.2 360
Silk 0.02-0.2 200-150
Vulcabeston 1.0-2.5 80-20
Vulcanized fiber 0.8-2.0 80
For measuring the test voltage a spark gap having sharp

needle-point terminals is connected in parallel with the
sample under test. The distance between the needle-points
is adjustable so as to limit the voltage which can be im-
pressed upon the conductors on each side of the insulating
material. In carrying out the test, the needle-points are
adjusted at a certain minimum distance apart. The voltage
impressed upon the terminals is raised until a spark passes

between the The
gap is then increased in
points. air
length,and the operation repeated until the sample breaks
down, and the spark passes through it instead of across
the air gap. The length of the air gap is measured and the
break-down voltage may then be obtained from the curve
of Fig. 2, which shows the effective sinusoidal voltages
275
250
/y
V
225
/
/
y
[^175
_i
200
y
y
O
>150 / /
y\
100 /"
y y
75 y
z'
50
25 /
/
/ 10 12 14 16 1i 20 22 2-4 26
INCHES
Fig. 2.
corresponding to the sparking distances in air between

opposed sharp needle-points.
The test voltage to be applied in determining the suita-
bility of insulation in commercial apparatus depends upon
the kind and the size of the apparatus, its normal voltage,
and the service for which it is designed. The following
voltages for testing insulation of apparatus and cables by a
i6 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
continuous application for one minute are recommended by
the American Institute of Electrical Engineers
RATED TERMINAL VOLTAGE OF CIRCUIT RATED OUTPUT TESTING VOLTAGE
Not exceeding 400 volts .... Under10 K.W. 1000 volts

loK.W.and over 1500 "
400 volts-800 volts Under 10 K.W. 1500 "
10 K.W. and over 2000 '•
800 volts- 1 200 volts Any 3500 «'
1200 volts-2500 volts Any 5000 "
2500 volts and over Any Double normal
rated voltage
The test voltage should be applied successively between

each electric circuit and surrounding conductors and also
between adjacent electric circuits. High-voltage tests
should be made at the temperatures assumed during normal
operation.
PROBLEMS.
1. How much work is done by a pump in raising 2500 gal-
lons of water from a mine 200 feet deep? If this is accom-
plished in 25 minutes, what is the power of the pump expressed
in horse-power ?
2. Calculate the kinetic energy of an electric locomotive

weighing 95 tons when running at a velocity of 50 miles per
hour.
3. The hot resistance of a loo-candle-power carbon incan-
descent lamp is 45 ohms. How much current does the lamp
take when connected to 120-volt mains ?
4. What must be the E.M.F. of a generator to supply a group
of 50 lamps connected in parallel, each requiring \ ampere,
the resistance of the generator being ohm, so that each lamp
o. i
of 220 ohms resistance shall receive its full current, assuming

the line wires to have a resistance of 0.5 ohm ?
PROBLEMS. 17
5. Determine the resistance of one mile of copper wire 0.325

inch in diameter at zero degrees Centigrade.
6. Calculate the resistance at 15° C of a mile of track rail
weighing 70 pounds per yard, taking 120 ohms as its resistance

per mil-foot at that temperature. Specific gravity of track rail
= 7-8-
7. Find the resistance at 700° C. of a platinum wire two
meters long and one millimeter in diameter ; the temperature
coefficient being 0.0036.
8. When four conductors of 4, 8, 10, and 16 ohms resistance
respectively are joined in parallel to the terminals of a battery
whose E.M.F. is 20 volts on open circuit and whose internal
resistance is 3 ohms, how much current will flow in each
conductor ?
9. Resistances of 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 10 ohms respectively are

connected as shown in Fig. 3, the number adjacent to each
-A/WW
AA/WV
AA/WV — l-V\AAA(—
AAAAAr
MAAAAt-'
Fig. 3.
branch representing its What will be the potential

resistance.
difference across each resistance and the current therein when
the terminals A, B are connected to 50-volt mains ?
10. What power is expended in the loo-candle-power lamp
of problem 3 ? Express the result in watts and in horse-power.
When electrical energy costs 10 cents per kilowatt-hour, how
much does it cost to operate the lamp for three hours ?
l8 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
CHAPTER II.
MAGNETIC LAWS AND FACTS.
10. Strength of Magnet Pole. —A unit magnet pole is
one which will repel an equal like pole, when at a distance
of one centimeter in vacuum or in air,* with a force of one

dyne.
It follows from this definition that a pole m units strong
will repel a like tmit pole with a force of m dynes. The
force exerted between two magnetic poles varies inversely
as the square of the distance between them. Hence the
force in dynes exerted between two magnetic poles of
strengths m and m' when d centimeters apart in air is
defined by the equation

_ mm!
~ ~d^'
11. Magnetic Field and Lines of Force. — The space
around a magnet where its action is felt is termed the field
of that magnet. This field may conveniently be considered

as permeated by lines of force. These by
lines represent
their direction the direction of the force exerted by the
magnet, and by their closeness to each other show the
magnittcde of this force.
The directions of the lines of force in the vicinity of a
magnet may be demonstrated by scattering iron filings
over a glass plate laid on a magnet. Magnetic poles are
* In this chapter air is considered to have the same magnetic properties
as a vacuum.
MAGNETIC LAWS AND FACTS. I9
induced in the iron particles and the latter arrange them-

selves parallel to the lines of force, this arrangement being
facilitated by gently tapping the glass plate.
12. Intensity of Magnetic Field. —-A magnetic field in
air is said to have unit strength or intensity at any point

therein when a unit magnet pole placed at that point is
acted upon by a force of one dyne, or when a magnet pole m

units strong is acted upon by a force of m dynes. There-
fore the strength of a magnetic field in air, represented by
5C, may be expressed as
m
By convention one line of force per square centimeter is
considered to represent a field of unit strength, the square

centimeter being on a surface that is at all points perpendic-
ular to the lines cutting it. Hence the strength or inten-
sity of any field in air, 3C, can be expressed by the number
of lines of force per square centimeter.
Suppose a sphere of one centimeter radius to be circum-
scribed about a unit magnet pole. Another unit pole at
any point on the surface of this sphere will be acted upon
by a force of one dyne. Hence there exists unit field in-
tensity at any point on this surface. But there are 4 n
square centimeters on this surface, and each square centi-
meter will be cut by one line of force. Therefore, there
emanate from a tmit magnet pole 4 n lines offorce. Similarly
a magnet pole of strength m, sends out 4 tlVI lines of force.
The total number of lines of force, or the total magnetic
flux, represented by the symbol $, may therefore be ex-
pressed as $ = 4 Tzm.
When a magnetic field has different intensities at various
points in it, as is usually the case, it is called a non-uniform
field ; and when it has everywhere the same intensity and
direction, it is said to be a imiform field.
13. Magnetic Potential. — The magnetic potential at

any point is measured by the work that would be required
to bring a unit magnet pole up to that point from an in-
finite distance.
The difference of magnetic potential between any two

points is measured by the work in ergs required to carry a
unit magnet pole from one to the other.
14. Permeability. — The maintenance of the same dif-
ference of magnetic potential between two points will result

in more fines of force in iron than in air. Iron is then said
to be more permeable than air, or to have a greater per-
meability. If, for a given gradient of magnetic potential,
5C lines of force per square centimeter be set up with air
as a medium, and later at the same point (B lines with some

other substance as a medium, then the ratio of (B to 5C
expresses the permeability of that substance. This ratio
is usually represented by the symbol fi, so that
(B
The permeabifity n expresses, therefore, the relative mag-

netic conductivity of a substance compared with air.
The total flux in the second substance is sometimes
considered to be made up of two parts, the first consisting
of that which would be present with air as a medium and

the second being that which is added by the second
substance. The total number of fines of force per square
centimeter, (B, produced in a substance of permeability ji is
called thQ flux density, or the induction per square centi-
meter. For air, vacuum, and most substances // = i . For

MAGNETIC LAWS AND FACTS. 21
iron, nickel, and cobalt ji has a higher value, reaching, in
the case of iron, as high as 3000. Such substances are

said to be paramagnetic^ or simply magnetic. Bismuth,
antimony, phosphorus, and a few other materials have a
permeability very slightly less than unity ; these being
known as diamagnetic substances. A substance for which
p. is zero would insulate magnetism; but no such substance
is known.
One line of force, that is, a flux equal to — that from an
isolated unit pole, is called a maxwell. A flux density of

one line of force, or one maxwell, per square centimeter, is
called a gauss. The total magnetic flux, $, in maxwells,

which passes through an area of A square centimeters,
in which the flux-density is (B gausses, is given by the
equation $ = (B^.
15. Electro-Magnetic Induction. — In 1831 Faraday dis-
covered that when a conductor was moved in a magnetic

field, an electromotive force was set up in the conductor.
This phenomenon is the foundation of all modern electri-
cal engineering.
An absolute unit of E.M.F. is produced when a conduc-
tor cuts one line of force per second. If the conductor
cuts two lines in the second, or one line in half a second,
then two such units of electromotive force are produced.

An E.M.F. of one volt is produced by the cutting of
10^ lines of force per second.
If, in the short interval of time, dt seconds, d^ lines be

cut, then during that interval the value of the induced
E.M.F. will be
= d^
e absolute units,
dt
or.
E = - —o-JT volts,
10^ dt
the negative sign being used because the induced E.M.F.

tends to send a current in such a direction as to demag-
netize the field. When of no con-
sequence the negative sign will
hereafter be omitted.
If a conductor, Fig. 4, / centi-
meters long moves in a direction
perpendicular to itself with a uni-

form velocity of v centimeters per
second across a uniform magnetic
field having a flux density of (B
gausses, the plane of its path

making an angle a with the direc-
tion of the lines of force, then the

number of lines cut per second is 6^/v sin a, and, since the
rate of cutting is uniform, the E,M,F. at any instant is
e^ = (S^lv sin a.
If there be a non-uniformity in the rate of cutting lines,
due either to an uneven field or to an irregular motion,

then the average value of the induced E,M.F, associated
with the cutting of ^ lines in the time, / seconds, will be
eav= —$ -absolute .
units, or E^^=
<|)
volts.
t 10^ t
If a circular loop of wire revolve about its diameter as
an axis in a non-uniform magnetic field with a constant
angular velocity, or if it revolve in a uniform field with a
variable velocity, its sides cut lines of force at various rates.
The instantaneous E.M.F. in the whole loop will be as
before, ^(^
e' =
~di'
where ^ is the number of lines that links with, or that

passes through, the loop. If the loop be of n turns, then
the pressure will be n times as great, or during the inter-
val dty
E= 10^ dt
volts.
16. Direction of Induced E.M.F. — The direction of
flow of a current induced in a closed circuit by moving it
in a magnetic field is best represented by drawing the

conventional representation of the three dimensions of
Motron
Fig. 5. Fig. 6.
space. If the flux be directed upwards, and the motion of

the conductor be to the right, then the E.M.F. will tend
to send a current toward the reader. If any one of these
conditions be changed it necessitates the change of one of
the others, and conversely the change of any two leaves
the third unaltered. About the same idea is represented
in Fleming's Rule, which is as follows :
—
Let the index finger of the right hand point in the di-
rection of the flux, and the thumb in the direction of the
motion. Bend the second finger at right angles with the

thumb and index finger, and it will point in the direction
of the E.M.F.
Another rule is :
—
Stand facing a north magnetic pole. Pass a conductor
downward. The current tends to flow to the left.
17. Inductance. — An electric current produces a mag-

netic field in the vicinity of the conductor carrying that
current. The conductor may therefore be considered as
encircled by lines of force. When the current is first
started in such a conductor, these lines of force must be

established. In establishing itself, each line is considered
as having cut the conductor, or, what is equivalent thereto,

been cut by the conductor. This cutting of lines of force
results in the production of an electromotive force in the
conductor, called the E.M.F. of self-induction. When the
flow of current ceases, the surrounding lines of force col-
lapse, cutting the conductor, thus also producing an electro-
motive force of self-induction. The E.M.F. of self-induction
is always a counter E.M.F.y that is, its direction is such
as to tend to prevent the change of current which
causes it.
The magnitude of this E.M.F. is dependent upon the

rapidity with which the field is established or destroyed,
and upon a constant called the self-inductance or the co-
efficient of self-induction of the circuit. It is generally
represented by the letter L, and is that coefficient by which
the time rate of change of current in the circuit must be
multiplied in order to give the E.M.F. induced in the cir-
cuit. Its absolute value is numerically represented by the

number of lines of force linked with the circuit per absolute

unit of current in that circuit. Its practical unit is lo^
times as large as the absolute unit, and is called the henry,
A circuit having an inductance of one henry will have a
pressure of one volt induced in it by a uniform change of
current of one ampere per second. Hence the E.M.F. of
self-induction may be written
But, from §15, the E.M.F. induced in a loop of wire mov-

ing in a magnetic field is
E = —lo-^
dt
Equating these expressions, there results
dl
Two circuits may exercise a mutually inductive action
upon each other, and an E.M.F. may be induced in one by
a change of current in the other. This is called an E.M.F.
of mutual induction. In magnitude it depends upon the
shape and position of the two circuits, and upon the char-
acter of medium in which they are placed. It is also
dependent upon a constant which is called the mutual
inductance or coefficient of mutual induction of the two
circuits. It is generally represented by the letter M.
It is that coefficient by which the time rate of change of
the current in one of the circuits is multiplied in order to
give the E.M.F. induced in the other circuit. Its absolute
value is numerically equal to the number of lines of force
linked with one of the circuits per absolute unit of current
in the other circuit. Its practical unit is the same as the
practical unit of self-inductance, that is, the henry, and is
lo^ times as large as the absolute unit.

1 8. Growth of Current in an Inductive Circuit. — When
a current is started in a circuit having resistance and in-
ductance by impressing a constant E.M.F. upon its ter-
minals, the self-induced pressure in that circuit tends to

oppose the flow of the current and prevents it reaching its
ultimate value immediately. At the instant of closing the

circuit there is no current flowing, and let time be reckoned
from this instant. At any subsequent instant, t seconds
later, the impressed E.M.F. may be considered as the sum
of two parts, E^ and E^.. The first, E^^ is that part which
is opposed to, and just neutralizes, the E.M.F. of self-
induction, so that E^ =— Es', but
so
'
dt
The second part, E^, is that which is necessary to send

current through the resistance of the circuit, according to
Ohm's law, so that
E,= RI.
The impressed electromotive force, being the sum of E^
and E^y is therefore
dl
^ = ^^ + ^57^
whence
-
Z L -Rdl
dt
'E-RI ~ R '
E- RI
Integrating from the initial conditions / = o, / = o, to any

condition t = t, I =- F,
[\og,{E-Rr)-\og,E\
R
Therefore
Rt ,
[ E-Rr \
L
from which the instantaneous current value is
i(--^)
where e is the base of the natural system of logarithms
and numerically equal to 2.7183. This equation shows
that the rise of current in an inductive circuit follows a
logarithmic curve, and that, when t is of sufficient magni-

tude to render the second term negligible, the value of the
current will be as given by Ohm's law, a condition which
agrees with experimental ob-
servations.
A curve of the growth of GROWING CURRENT
(direct) E.M.F.= 100
current in a circuit having R = 10
L = .2
resistance and inductance is
shown in Fig. 7, the values

of / being calculated for the .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
SECONDS
conditions noted.
Fig. 7-
The natural logarithms used
in preceding formulae can be obtained by multiplying the
common logarithm of the number, the mantissa and charac-
teristic being included, by 2.3026.
19. Decay of Current in an Inductive Circuit. — If a
current be flowing in a circuit having inductance and re-
sistance, and the supply of E.M.F. be discontinued, with-

out, however, interrupting the continuity of the circuit, the
flow of current will not cease instantly, but the E.M.F. of
self-induction will keep it flowing for a time, with values
decreasing according to a logarithmic law.
An expression for the value of this current at any time,
t seconds, after withdrawing the impressed E.M.F. may be
,
obtained as in the foregoing section. The current at the

instant of interruption of the impressed E.M.F. is due
solely to the electromotive force of self-induction and may
be represented by
E
— • Therefore
E= i?/ +L ^=
at
o,
whence , L dl
By integrating from the initial conditions t=o, / =

E
— ' to
R
any condition t=t,I = r, the instantaneous value of the
current is found to be
E -—
which is the term that had to be subtracted in the formula

for the growth of current.
This shows clearly that, while
self-induction prevents the in-
stantaneous attainment of the
ultimate value of the current,
there is eventually no loss of
energy, since what is sub-
Fig- 8. tracted from the growing cur-
rent is given back to the decaying current.
Fig, 8 is the curve of decay of current in the same cir-
cuit as was considered in Fig. 7. The ordinates of the

one figure are seen to be complementary to those of the
other.
20. Quantity of Electricity Traversing a Circuit Due to
a Change of Flux Linked with it. — In many dynamo
tests, and in many magnetic investigations, it is necessary
to measure, generally by means of a ballistic galvanometer,
the quantity of electricity traversing a circuit due to a
change of flux linked with it. If the circuit have a resist-
ance of r and in dt time the flux linked with n turns
changes by d^, then the instantaneous current
nd^
dt
r
But the quantity of electricity flowing during the time dt is

dq = idt, hence
dq
,
= nd^ ,
which is independent of time. So if the flux change from

4>j to $2, then
q = -^ ^ n.
r
If the resistance of the circuit be expressed in ohms and

the flux in maxwells, the quantity of electricity in micro-
coulombs will be
100 R
21. Work Performed by a Conductor Carrying a Current
and Moving in a Magnetic Field. — Let a conductor carry-
ing a constant current i be moved in a direction perpen-
dicular to itself and to the lines of force of a magnetic field.
Suppose it to move for dt seconds, and in that time to cut

d^ lines of force. Then the induced E.M.F. e will be
— — . The quantity of electricity dq that has to traverse
the circuit against this E.M.F. during the time dt will

be idt. Since potential is a measure of work, the work
required to carry dq units of electricity against a difference
of potential e is edq ergs. Hence the work in ergs,
d^ ,^
dw = edq = idt X -7- = .
td^.
dt
Therefore the current /, in cutting $ lines of force, per-

forms the work
w= i^ ergs.
From this it is seen that the work done by a conductor

carrying a current and cutting lines of force is independent
of the time it takes to cut them.
In the above discussion, if the field be non-uniform or
the motion be irregular, the value of e will not be the
same for each instant of time. But since the result
obtained is independent of time, it is immaterial how the
lines are arranged, and how the rate of cutting varies.
22. Force Exerted between a Field and a Conductor
Carrying a Current. — When a conductor moves in a field
perpendicular to itself and to the lines of force, then, from
the foregoing article, the work performed is
w= i^ eri^s.
t>'
If the conductor be / centimeters long, and traverses a

distance of d centimeters through a uniform field having a
flux density of (B gausses, then $ = ld(S), and

Work = ild(^ ergs.
But Work = force X distance = Fd,
:. F = //(B = //(B/io dynes.
This force acts perpendicularly to the wire and to the flux.

23. Magnetomotive Force Consider an indefinitely
long wire AB which carries a current of i abamperes in
the direction indicated in Fig.
9. It must be encircled by
concentric lines of magnetic
force which enter the paper
perpendicularly at the point
Py which is r centimeters
away from the wire. The
Fig. 9.
intensity of the magnetic
field g)C at this point may be considered as made up of
elements contributed by the current in successive elemen-
tary lengths, as A'B\ of the whole wire. Connect this
element A'B' with P by the fine R, which makes an angle
(^ with the perpendicular r, and consider the element
to subtend an angle d<^. As a consequence of the con-
ventional method of defining the unit of current, which is
based upon the experiments of Ampere, the part of the

magnetic intensity P due to the current in A'B' is
at
dU = idslR\
But ds = Rd^ = r</(/)/cos ^ and R = r/cos Substi- (/>.
tuting these values there results
rd<j) cos^
d^ =. z
.
(f)
i COS (^ d<^lr.
cos (f)
r^
+ ^/2 I 2
X
t
Integrating, e)C - COS (f) dih gausses.
-7r/2 r r
This represents the force in dynes which would be exerted
by the current upon a unit magnet pole placed at the point
P. To move the unit pole completely around the wire in
the concentric circular path of radius r against the reactive
force of the field would require 2 irr » 2 i/r = 4 tti ergs of
work. It should be noted that the work required to carry
the pole around the wire is the same irrespective of the
path, since the radius disappears in the final expression.
This work remains the same even though the wire, which
carries the current, be not straight but bent around into
a closed circuit. This is a consequence of the principle
disclosed in § 21, since every one of the 4 tt lines of force
which emerge from the unit pole must cut the circuit at
least once. If there be n turns of wire in the circuit the
work that must be performed in moving a unit pole around
the circuit will be 4 irm = 4 Trn// 1 o ergs. This work is
the measure of the difference in magnetic potential set up

by the nl ampere-turns of the circuit.
Difference of magnetic potential is a measure of the
ability of a circuit to set up lines of force, that is, of its
magnetomotive force. Magnetomotive force {M.M.F.) and
difference of magnetic potential are related to each other
as are electromotive force and difference of electrical poten-
tial. The practical unit of M.M.F. is termed the gilbert^
and since the M,M.F. of a circuit of n turns which carries
/amperes is ^Trnl/io = i.2^y nl gilberts, one gilbert is
or 0.7Q5 of an ampere-turn.
1.257
24. The Toroid. —A uniform toroidal winding upon a
ring-shaped iron core and carrying a current i produces the
same flux density at all points on the axis of the toroid.
Assuming the core to be removed and the portion of the
flux which is not due to the iron to have the same distribu-
tion as the flux occasioned by iron, then, if there be n turns
in the coil, and the length of the axis be / cm., the work
necessary to be exerted upon a unit pole to carry it once
along the axis would be 4 izni ergs, which is also equal to
the product of field intensity 5C at the axis into its length /.
Hence the magnetizing force, that is, the strength or inten-

sity of field, in the toroid is
OC —
= -A-Tznl
-
10/
•
25. Magnetization Curves. — The permeability of air is
constant for all magnetizing forces ; but this is not true of

iron and other substances having permeabilities noticeably
greater than unity. The values of /z for these paramag-
netic substances depend also upon the chemical composition

and physical condition of the latter. Values of magnetizing
and the corresponding flux density, (B, in average
force, 3C,
commercial wrought iron, in cast iron, and in cast steel are
given in the following table. The change of flux density
with variation of magnetizing force is best shown by curves,
called magnetizatio7i, or (B-3C, curves. In Figs. 10, 1 1, and
12 are given the magnetization curves respectively of
wrought and sheet iron, cast iron, and cast steel, the curves
being plotted from the tabulated values. From an inspection
of these curves, it is seen that an increase in magnetizing
force results at first in a marked increase of flux per unit
area, but as the material becomes magnetized further the
increment of flux density lessens and finally approaches a
value proportional to the corresponding increment of mag-
netizing force. At this point the material is said to be
saturated, that is, an increase of M.M.F. shows no increase
of flux density due to the presence of the given material.
WROUGHT AND SHEET IRON

129 20000-
—n — — — — — — — ' " " ~"
X- _ __ __ _
116 18000- h- _ __
^K — ~ U — ^ — "~ —~ — _ —
loa
\
/ ^
s,'-^ /
(x>
.5
/ î
/»,
it
%•
/ f^h^
^y
^ -
/ [^
•^
'^>''
^
'"''^
\
.3 \
r. nn
/
^^
10 20 30 40 50 CO 70 80 90 100 110 120
Ii.1per centimeter 16
5C
tX per JQcti
Permeabilit y u
Fig. lo.
CAST IRON
~
= rr - —
65 10000 — "^
S^
1
"^
-'
— '
9000
\
\
^y
8000
\
Vy
1
4...
(S
/ \
.g
''
/ \
3 / K^^
^ / \<V
,.2.5 \
/' f^s
S 26 4000 s
\N
v
/
/ N
2000
/
\
\
)
1000 1
y
/ —
c 10 20 ; 40 50 60 70 80 9C 100 110 120 130 140 15
nl per centimeter 16 32 48 04 80 96 112
nl per inch 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 _;
-"
Permeability// 100 200 300 4<X) 600
Fig. II.
MAGNETIC LAWS AND FACTS, 35
CAST STEEL
— ~~' ~ " ^ "~ ~ —~ ^ ^ ~~ ~~ ~" —— ~~
laa
n
116 18000
— —— —
103 16000 Ss _ — "^
\ ^^ .^
— -' '
14000
k: ^
/ ^
a ^ ^—
'^ 12000 ^
s / > 4?;,
/ ^Jt7ri>-
b^
10000
/
~~
^ '-
-->
1 ^^ 8000 / '
/ ,^
M
6000 /
^
26 4000
2000
) 5 10 15 20 25 ; 35 ^ 4-, 50 55 60 65 70 7
nl per centimeter g 16 24 32 40 43 56
2,0 40 60 80 100 120 140
Permeability M 1000 lipoo
Fig. 12.
DATA FOR (B-5C CURVES.

AVERAGE FIRST-QUALITY METAL.
WROUGHT AND CAST IRON. CAST STEEL.

1
AMPERE- SHEET IRON.

AMPKRE-
TURNS TURNS
X PER INCH KILO-
LINES
KILO-
LINES
KILO-
LINES
LENGTH.
LENGTH. (B PER (B PER (B PER
SQ. IN. SQ. IN. SQ. IN.
10 7.95 20.2 II 800 74 3900 25.2 12000 77

20 15.90 40.4 14000 90 5500 3S-S 13800 89
30 23-85 60.6 15200 98 6500 42.0 14600 94
40 31.80 80.8 15800 102 7100 45-7 15400 99
50 39-75 lOI.O 16400 106 7700 49. S 16000 103
60 47.70 121. 16800 108 8200 53-0 16400 106
80 63-65 161.6 17200 III 8900 57-2 16700 108
100 79-50 202.0 17600 114 9300 60.0 17600 "3
125 99.70 252-5 17800 IIS 9700 62.4 18200 117
150 119-25 303-0 18000 116 lOIOO 65.8 18600 120
5C = 1-257 {niper cm.) = .495 («7per in.). (B = .155 ($ per sq. in.)
In general all substances mixed with or alloyed with iron

lower its permeability. In steel and cast iron the permea-
bility seems to be in inverse proportion to the amount of
carbon present. Carbon in the graphitic (not combined)
form lowers the permeability less than carbon when com-
bined. In cast iron and cast steel such substances as tend
to give softness and greater homogeneity to the metal
when present in limited amounts, say 2 per cent, increase
the value of /z. Aluminum and silicon act in this way.
Silicon steel has a somewhat higher permeability at low
magnetic flux densities and a slightly lower permeability
at higher flux densities than standard wrought iron.
The physical condition of the metal also affects its per-

meability. ChilUng in the mold, when casting, lowers it,
as does tempering, or hardening the metal by working it.
On the other hand, annealing increases the permeability.

A piece of iron or steel, subjected to a small magnetizing
force, has its permeability increased by increasing the tem-
perature until a critical temperature is reached, when it
falls off rapidly to almost unity. For stronger magnetiza-

tion the permeability does not rise so high at the critical
temperature, and does not fall off so sharply after it. The
value of this critical temperature lies between 650° C. and
900° C, depending on the test piece. The influence of
temperature upon permeability is very small for the changes
in temperature occurring in practical operation, and is
therefore negligible.
26. Reluctance and Permeance. — In the flow of mag-
netic lines of force the reciprocal of the permeability^ -, is
called the reluctivity. The total reluctance^ tending to

oppose the passage of magnetic lines under the influence
of a magnetic difference of potential, is directly as the

length and the reluctivity of the medium and inversely as
its cross-section. Hence the total magnetic resistance or
reluctance =
cross-section
—— :
reluctivity.
Reluctivity is usually represented by v [

= - j. Hence for
a medium of cross-section A square centimeters and length

/ centimeters, the reluctance
A
The unit in which (R is expressed is called the oersted.
Permeance is the reciprocal of the reluctance, hence the
permeance
^ ^ ^
must be remembered that

It v and // are not constant for
some substances, but depend for their values upon the
strength of the magnetizing force 5C which is acting upon
the substances.
27. Relation Between Magnetomotive Force, Magnetic
Flux, and Reluctance. —
The flux produced in a magnetic
circuit by a magnetomotive force may be expressed by an
equation similar to that expressing the current flow in an
electric circuit due to an impressed electromotive force,
which is
electromotivê force
current = -.
resistance
The corresponding equation for the magnetic circuit is
magnetic flux
r,
= —
magnetomotive force
reluctance
,
or symbolically
^ ^ Ann —/
= MM.F. =
. ^ lo
(|)
(R
J_
Since the unit of magnetic flux is one line of force or the
maxwell, the unit of magnetomotive force is the gilbert,

and the unit of reluctance is the oersted, this equation may
be written
„ gilberts
maxwells = •
oersteds
The application of this equation is not as simple as

that of the corresponding equation of the electric circuit.
Electric circuits, in general, exist in media of zero electric
conductivity, and therefore permit of accurate calculations,
since the leakage is inappreciable. Magnetic circuits, on
the other hand, are situated in media which have permea-
bilities of at least unity and hence much leakage is present,
and precise calculations require a consideration of all flux
paths. In the designing of dynamo electric machinery,
however, one or more paths of low reluctance are presented
to the magnetizing force, and these are so shaped that the
leakage paths offer a comparatively high reluctance.
28. Hysteresis. — If a piece of iron become magnetized,
and the magnetizing force be then removed, the iron does
not become completely demagnetized. A certain magnet-
izing force must be applied to
in the opposite direction
bring it back to its original condition. This phenomenon,
where " changes of magnetism lag behind the changes of
force," has been termed hysteresis. Because of hysteresis
a (B-3C curve taken with continuously hicreasing values of 5C
to the maximum and then with continuously decreasing
values of 3C to a negative maximum, and so on, will assume

the shape shown in Fig. 13. The distance OA represents
Fig. X3.
the coercivity, that is, the magnetizing force necessary to

bring the iron from a magnetic to a neutral state. The
distance OC represents the retentivity, that is, the value
of the residual magnetic flux density in the iron after the
magnetizing force has been removed.
The area inclosed by the curve represents the energy
lost in carrying the iron through one cycle, i.e. from a
maximum magnetization in one direction to a maximum in
the opposite direction and back to the original condition.

Suppose the magnetization to be due to a current / flowing
n turns. If, in a short interval of time dL
in a solenoid of
a change of d^ be made in the flux which is Hnked with
the solenoid, then this change will induce an E.M.F. in the
solenoid, which, during the interval of time dt^ will be
equal to
E= ——7 volts.
During this time work must be performed to maintain this

current /, and its magnitude is
EIdt=^
lO'
for Idt represents the quantity of electricity which is trans-

ferred from one point to another, between which there ex-
ists a difference of potential E. Now <J> =^(B (§ 14) and
10 'fC/
hence ^$ = Ad(^. Furthermore, nl = (§ 24). Hence
47r
the work during the time dt is
Eldt = —Al—
;
10^47:
3C^(B joules.
Supposing the magnetizing force to vary cyclically, taking

t seconds to make one cycle, then the work per cycle is
r~^^m
Elt = —Alr— / 3C^(B joules.
If the number of cycles completed in one second be/, then
f= —
/ —i and, the power
p in joules per second, that is, the power
in watts, equals
+ (^m ,._7 n+(^:

EI = -^ f^d^ = —fv r^C^CB^
where v is the volume of iron in cubic centimeters. The

integral expression is evidently the area contained by the

hysteresis loop.
The value of this integral is dependent upon (B^, upon
the retentivity of the kind of iron, and upon its coercivity.
Steinmetz has shown that for all practical purposes the

value of the integral for flux densities ranging from 2000
to 14000 gausses may be expressed by the empirical formula
where 7^ is a constant depending upon the physical and

chemical properties of the iron. Therefore the power lost
in watts due to hysteresis may be written
•' ' m
Values of the constant rj are given in the following table :
—
HYSTERETIC CONSTANTS.
Average silicon steel 0.0008
Best soft iron or steel sheets 0.00
Good soft iron sheets 0.002
Ordinary soft iron 0.003
Soft annealed cast steel 0.008
Cast steel 0.012
Cast iron 0016
Hard cast steel 0.025
The hysteretic constant increases with continued heating,

and this effect is called ageing. Annealing, while it in-
creases the permeability, also increases the hysteretic con-

stant as well as the ageing effect.
The magnitude of the hysteretic constant is largely de-
pendent upon the mechanical structure of the iron. To
attain the smallest value, the iron should not be of homoge-
neous structure, but should be more compact in directions
perpendicular to the direction of the flux than in transverse
directions..
29. Eddy Currents. — When a mass of iron is subjected
to a pulsating flux, electromotive forces are set up in the
iron which produce currents therein, called eddy^ or Fou-
caulty currents. The flow of these currents represents an
expenditure of energy appearing as heat. In order to
prevent excessive heating of such portions of dynamo
electric machinery subject to rapid reversals or changes of
magnetization, these portions are constructed of laminated
iron, the laminae being transverse to the direction of flow
of the eddy currents, but longitudinal with the magnetic
flux. Each lamina is more or less thoroughly insulated
from its neighbors by the natural oxide on the surface or
by Japan lacquer.
The power due to eddy currents could be made
loss of
inappreciable by the use of laminae sufliciently thin but a ;
limitation exists due to the decrease in effective iron cross-

section caused by the waste of space which is taken up by
the insulation between adjacent laminae. The thickness
of the laminae generally used for dynamo armatures is
between 0.014 and 0.02 inch, and the space between

laminae is usually somewhat less than 0.002 inch.
A formula for the calculation of the power, in watts,
lost in iron due to eddy currents, based upon the assump-
tion that the laminae are perfectly insulated from each
other, is
Pe = kvpm\,
where k = a. constant depending upon the resistivity of
the iron, its value being about 1.6 X io~^\
V= volume of iron in cubic centimeters,
= thickness of one lamina in centimeters,
/
=
/ number of magnetic cycles per second,
and (Sijn = maximum flux density (i.e. <I>^ per sq. cm.).
PROBLEMS. 43
The eddy-current loss in silicon steel averages about one-

third as much as in standard iron.
The armatures of dynamos are usually provided with
projecting teeth, and therefore the flux density between
an armature and its field poles is greatest opposite the
teeth and is a minimum opposite the slots. As the arma-
ture rotates, this variation of flux produces to some extent
eddy currents in the pole faces. To reduce the loss occa-
sioned thereby, the pole faces are sometimes also con-
structed of laminated iron.
PROBLEMS.
1. Two cylindrical magnets, 1.8 cm. in diameter, are mag-
netized to an intensity of 500 units pole for each square cm. of
cross-sectional area, and their north poles are placed 8 cm.
apart. Compute the force of repulsion between the two north
poles.
2. What is the total flux from each pole of the magnets
specified in Prob. i , considering the poles to be isolated and
concentrated at points ?
3. A conductor 24 inches long, moving parallel to itself and

at right angles to a magnetic field having an intensity of 40000
maxwells per sq. in., traverses 5 ft. in 3.5 seconds. Determine
the average E.M.F. in volts induced in the conductor during
this interval.
4. In 2V second the current strength in a circuit, having an

inductance of 0.6 henry, falls from 30 to 15 amperes. What is
the magnitude and direction of the average induced E.M.F. in
the circuit due to this change of current ?
5. What is the inductance of a circuit having 5 ohms resist-
ance and in which the instantaneous value of the current 0.03

second after impressing no volts upon the circuit is 13.9
amperes ?
6. What would be the current in a circuit, having lo ohms
resistance and
0.3 henry inductance, 0.02 second after sup-
pressing the initial E.M.F. of 80 volts ?
7. The force exerted on a wire 5 ft. long, which carries a
current of 50 amperes, is 1800 dynes. What is the intensity of
the magnetic field in which this wire is situated .^
8. A brass toroid, having a mean diameter of 20 cm., is
completely wound with 8 turns of wire per cm. of axial length.

Determine the magnetic field intensity at the axis, when a cur-
rent of 50 amperes flows through the winding. Calculate the
total magnetomotive force which sets up this field.
9. A wrought-iron toroid, wound with 20 turns of wire per

inch of axial length, has a current of 3.5 amperes flowing
through the winding. Determine the flux density and perme-
ability of the iron from the data given in § 25.
10. The flux density in a cylindrical cast-iron rod 5 cm. in

diameter and 30 cm. long 6000 gausses (//= 250). Compute
is
the reluctance and permeance of the rod between the two faces.
1 1. Calculate the total number of ampere-turns necessary to
produce a flux density of 6000 gausses in the iron of Prob. 10.
12. A closed core, composed of the best steel sheets

0.035 ^"^- thick, has a volume of 5400 cu. cm., and is subjected
to 100 magnetic reversals per second, i.e. /= 50. Calculate
the hysteresis and eddy current losses when the maximum flux
density in the core is 3500 gausses.
ARMATURES. 45
CHAPTER III.
ARMATURES.
30. Dynamos. — Dynamos may be defined as machines

to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, or
electrical energy into mechanical energy, by utilizing the
principle of electromagnetic induction. A dynamo is known
as a generator when mechanical energy, supplied in the
form of rotation, in all commercial machines, is converted
into electrical energy, which may be delivered either as
^' direct cnrre7tt'' or as ^^ alternating currenty When the
conversion of energy takes place in the reverse order, the
dynamo is called a motor.
31. Principle of Action of a Generator. — If a loop of

wire be revolved in a magnetic field about an axis perpen-
dicular to the lines of force, as in Fig. 14, then each side
(but not the ends) of the loop a conductor moving across
is
the lines of a magnetic and as such will have an

field,
E.M.F. induced in it. Since the motion of one conductor

is up while that of the other is down, the directions of the
induced E.M.F.'?> in the two sides would be opposite to

each other, but since they are on opposite sides of a loop,
the pressure will be cumulative; i. e. instead of neutralizing
each other, the two pressures will be added to each other.
If now the two ends of the wire from which the loop is
made be respectively connected with slip rings, and a cir-

cuit be completed through contacts sliding on them, a cur-
rent will flow. When the loop, in its revolution, reaches a
46 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY
position (as illustrated in Fig. 14) such that the conductor
that was previously moving upward begins to move down-
ward, then the direction of the induced E.M.F. will be
changed in both sides of the loop, and the direction of the
Fig. 14.
current through the circuit will be changed. For each

complete revolution the current changes direction twice.
It is an alternating current, and the supposed machine is
an alternating-currejit generator, or simply an alteriiator.
32. The Function of the Commutator. — If, instead of

connecting the two ends of a loop of wire revolving in a
magnetic field to sHp rings, they be attached one to each
half of a split metal ring mounted on the same shaft, the
two halves being insulated from each other, and brushes be
provided, which are so placed that at the instant the induced
E.M.F. in the loop changes in direction the brushes will
slide across from one of the halves to the other, then the
current, while reversed in the loop, will flow in the same
direction in the external circuit. This arrangement, called
ARMATURES. 47
a commutator^ is employed when it is desired to obtain a recti-
fied, continuous or direct current. A dynamo so equipped

is called a direct-current generator, or simply a generator.
If the loop were wound double, i.e. have four conductors,
before the ends were attached to commutator segments,
and if the speed and the strength of the magnetic field be
maintained constant, twice the E.M.F. will be produced.
For a single loop, the commutator would consist of two
cylindrical pieces or segments, as shown in Fig. 15. In
would be no
this case there
E.M.F. produced at the in-

stants when the brushes pass
from one segment to the
other, and hence the current
would fall to zero twice during
every revolution of the loop.
Fig. 15.
If two loops, placed at right
angles to each other, are rotated in a magnetic field, one
or the other would always be cutting lines of force and at
no time could the pressure be zero. To satisfactorily collect
current from this arrange-

ment requires four commu-
tator segments and a system
of connections similar to that
shown in Fig. 16. In this
case the E.M.F. would fluc-
tuate, but not so badly as in

the previous one. If the num-
ber of loops be increased and
Fig. 16. the number of commutator
segments be correspondingly increased, the E.M.F. fluctua-
tion of such an arrangement will become practically negligible.
33. Electromotive Force Generated. — The magnitude of
the electromotive force induced in a conductor of length
/ cm. moving parallel to itself with a velocity of v cm. per
sec. across a uniform magnetic field having a flux density of
(B gausses is
E= (Silv io~^ sin a volts, § 15
where a is the angle between the paths of the flux and of

the conductor. If a single loop (two conductors) revolve
about an axis that is in the plane of the loop and perpen-
dicular to the flux with an angular velocity of ^revolutions
per minute, the linear velocity of the conductors will be
^ F
60
where r is the distance in cm. of each conductor from the
axis. The instajitaneoics E.M.F. for a loop of s conductors
is therefore
E' = 2 7v(S>lrs . -îo~^ sin a volts.

60
But 2 r/(B is the maximum flux passing through the loop,
$^ hence
;
£' = ^^^s— 10-^ sin a volts. (l)
The maximum value of the induced E.M.F. for the loop

of s conductors is attained when a = 90°, i.e. when the
conductors move perpendicularly across the magnetic flux.
This maximum value is
Em= TZ^mS ^10-' yoltS. (2)
The instantaneous E.M.F. is therefore
E' = E^ sin «,
ARMATURES. 49
which is the equation of a shie curve. Thus the sine curve,

Fig. 17, shows the instantaneous values of the induced elec-
tromotive force as the angle a varies from 0° to 360°.
Fig. 17.
The average E.M.F. during a half revolution is obtained

by dividing the area of one lobe by the base line. Thus
-Eflv
= X Em sin ada
COS <=^£».
"^
(3)
7: 7Z
7t TZ
Substituting the value of £^, there results the average

E.M.F. induced in the loop of s conductors
Ky =2$^5
V
— IO-« volts. (4)
If this loop be provided with a commutator as explained

in the foregoing section,
the direction of the vol-
tage impressed on the
external circuit remains
the same, but the magni-
tude varies sinusoidally
as shown in Fig. 18.
If a similar loop be
placed 90° from the other, the magnitude of the induced
E. M. F. therein will be the same as that in the first, but
corresponding instantaneous values in the two loops occur
90° apart, as shown in
Fig. 19. The resulting
electromotive force at any
instant may be found by
adding the E.M.F.'s in-
duced in the two loops at

that instant. Thus in
Fig. 19 the dotted Hne

Fig. 19.
shows the resulting pres-
sure for two loops situated 90° apart.
The instantaneous value of the electromotive force in-
duced in the first loop is
E/ = E^ sin a,
and that induced in the second is
£/=£^sin (90° + a);
therefore the resulting instantaneous value of voltage in-

duced in the loops when connected in series is
E' = E/ + E/ = E,„ [sin a + cos «].
In general, if there be m loops connected in series and
displaced — electrical degrees from each other, and rotating

m
about a common axis m a uniform magnetic field, then
the instantaneous pressure will be
£' = £^rsina + sin^— + « j+ . . + sm (tt ^^^^ +a M, (5)

ARMATURES. 51
and the average pressure will be
2 m
+ sin f TT ha
J
câ ;
whence
£,, = ^ = 2 m^^s •
^ to~' volts. (6)
The total number of conductors 5, connected m series

and in circuit between two brushes, is equal to the product
of the number of loops m and the number of conductors
per loop, i- ; or
5 = ms.
By substituting this value in (6), there is between brushes
£av = 2<D,5îo-«volts. (7)
The maximum and minimum values of instantaneous pres-

sures are obtained respectively by substituting for a in (5)
the quantities and o. The resulting expressions are

2 m
^max = Em CSC -^
2 m
and
-Emin = ^m Ôt-
2 m
where E^ is the maximum E.M.F. per loop. The percent-

age fluctuation of the E.M.F., therefore, can be represented
by
lOO X — ^-
'av
^^^ or ^^ [esc ^^
L 2 771
-cot ^^]-
2 mJ
(8)
Thus, for twelve loops revolving in a bipolar field, the

fluctuation of electromotive force is 1.7 per cent.
In order to render the foregoing formulae applicable
to a multipolar field, it is necessary to insert the symbol
/, which denotes the number of pairs of field poles. The
product of the terms —
60
and / represents the number of
magnetic cycles some of the iron of the machine passes

through in one second. It is termed frequency, as in
alternating-current work, and is represented by/. Thus
Therefore the average electromotive force available between

brushes is
£av = 2$^5/lO-«VOltS, (9)
where <I>^ is the total flux per pole passing through the
armature.
34. The Armature. — In a dynamo, the loops of wire in
which E.M.F. is induced by movement in a magnetic field,
together with the iron core that sustains them, with the
necessary insulation, and with the parts connected imme-
diately thereto, constitute the armature of a dynamo. An
armature in which both sides of the loop of wire cut lines
of force, as in the cases just described, is called a Drum
Armature. A kind of armature less generally used is the
ARMATURES. 53
Ring Armature, illustrated cliagrammatically in Fig. 20.

Here the lines of force emanating from the N. pole flow
through the iron core of
the ring, and very few
across the air space inside
the ring. Hence, when
wires are wound on the
ring, and the whole is
revolved about an axis per-

Fig. 20.
pendicular to the plane of
the ring, only the wires on the outside face of the ring
cut lines of force, those on the inside serving only to com-
plete the electrical circuit.
Drum armatures have all the conductors on the peripheral
surface, and therefore have a greater percentage of active
wire than ring armatures. Drum armature cores are
very often constructed in the form of a ring, because
of better ventilation and economy of iron ; and such
construction should not be confused with that of ring
armatures.
A drum armature of large diameter and of short length
in the axial direction may have more wire exposed on its
ends than on its periphery. The pole pieces are some-
times placed at the ends, and the armature is then called
a Disk Armature. This type is seldom used in this
country.
35. The Field Magnets. —
Almost all dynamos have their
magnetic fields produced by electro-magnets, and these are
Q.2i\[.^di field magnets. In small machines the field magnets

are usually bipolar, i.e. they have one North and one South
pole, with the armature revolving between them. Bipolar
machines are made in many forms, a few of which are
shown in Figs. 21, 22, and 23. The magnetizing coils, or
field coils, may be placed on both legs of the magnet, on
Fig. 21. Fig. 22.
one leg, or on X\\q yoke which connects the two. The best
and most used bipolar arrangement is the enclosed type of
Fig. 23.
Fig. 23, for the coils are almost completely surrounded by

iron, thereby securing protection from mechanical injury,
as well as avoiding excessive magnetic leakage.
ARMATURES. 55
A typical form of multipolar field magnet structure is
shown in Fig. 24, in which an even number of poles are so

wound as to be alternately magnetized North and South.
Fig. 24.
36. Armature Windings. — It is possible to connect the

conductors of an armature to each other and to the com-
mutator segments in a great many ways that will permit of
satisfactory operation. The design of an operative scheme
of winding is, to a great extent, a geometrical problem. Of
the many possible and proposed schemes of winding, those
which have been adopted and are still used in the construc-
tion of standard machines are characterized by economy

of copper, by good time constants to secure- satisfactory
commutation, and by such coil shapes as permit of con-
venience in construction and assembling and of accessibility
for making repairs.
Direct-current armature windings are divided into two
classes, namely opcii-coil and closed-coil windings. The
former are used almost exclusively on series constant-cur-
rent machines, such as the Thomson-Houston arc-light
generators, and will be discussed in a later chapter. With
open-coil windings, only those conductors which are con-
ductively connected between the commutator segments,
which the brushes are momentarily resting on, are effective
in supplying an electromotive force.
Closed-coil windings are much more generally used. If
the wire of an ordinary, that is, single^ closed-coil winding
were removed from the armature and uncoiled, it would
form a closed loop, and the points of connection with the
commutator segments would be equidistant from each other.
Some closed-coil windings are so constructed that the wire,
if removed from the armature core and uncoiled, would form
two or more closed endless loops. Such windings are
termed duplex, triplex, or quadruplex wijtdings, according
to the number of endless loops, whether two, three, or four.
Such multiplex windings are sometimes employed on ma-

chines of large current output ; but their use is relatively
infrequent, and therefore, unless explicitly stated to the
contrary, single, or simplex, windings will hereinafter be
understood.
It is convenient, in treating of armature windings, to call
each of the portions which terminates at two commutator
segments an element of the winding. An armature element
may consist of one or more armature coils. Those parts
of an armature element which lie on the periphery of the
armature and in which E.M.F.'s are induced are called in-
ductors. Thus, in the ring type of armature, only the por-

tions of the wire on the outer surface of the ring constitute
its inductors. A drum armature element, however, has two
ARMATURES. 57
inductors lying axially on the core surface. In the follow-

ing discussion of armature windings, when one inductor is
mentioned it does not imply that only one wire is meant

further, an element said to be formed by two inductors may
be a coil of many turns. Simplification of the winding
diagrams is effected in this manner.
Two types of closed-coil windings for direct -current arma-
tures are to be distinguished, namely two- circuit or wave
windings^ and multiple-circuit or lap windings; the former
being used principally on machines of small output, and the
lap winding on machines of intermediate and large output.
In the wave winding there are always two circuits between
the brushes, regardless of the number of field poles on the
machine, each of the circuits carrying one-half of the total
current. For this type of winding only two brushes are
required, but it is usual in practice to provide as many
brushes as there are poles, in order to avoid excessive spark-
ing at the commutator. There is a slight, but generally
neglected, E.M.F. induced in the portions of the winding
included at any instant between the different sets of brushes
of the same polarity. It is quite small, however, as com-
pared with the E.M.F. induced between brushes of opposite
polarity. In the lap winding there are as many circuits
between the brushes as there are field poles, and each cir-
cuit carries — of the total current. For armatures of this

2P
type as many brushes as field poles are required.
Starting from a certain commutator segment and passing
clockwise over / elements of a simplex wave winding, or
one element of a simplex lap winding, one reaches the next
adjacent segment either to the right or to the left. If it be
to the right it is called 2i progressive winding ; and if to the
left, it is called a retrogressive winding. The use of the

latter issomewhat more economical in copper.
A 4-pole two-circuit, or wave winding is shown diagram-
matically in Fig. 25, in which the inductors are represented

by the short radial lines
and the end conneetions by
the lines joining them.
The brushes are placed
commutator for
inside the
Fig. 26 shows
clearness.
the same winding more
clearly in developed form,
the seventeen commutator
segments being lettered
from atoq. Tracing the
Fig. 25. method of interconnecting
the 34 armature inductors, and starting from segment Uy
Fig. 26.
it is seen that connection is made to inductor No. 10,

which is connected at the rear to inductor No. 19; and
ARMATURES. 59
this at the front is joined to segment / and also to inductor

No. 28. Proceeding in this way, the winding scheme may
be tabulated as follows :
REAR END FRONT END
to to to
10 19 J 28
28 3 b 12
12 21 k 30
30 5 c 14
14 23 1 32
32 7 d 16
16 25 m 34
34 9 e 18
18 27 n 2
2 II f 20
20 29 4
4 13 g 22
22 31 P 6
6 15 h 24
24 33 q 8
8 17 i 26
26 I a 10
Thus the winding forms one closed circuit, and it is evident

that there are two paths from the positive to the negative
brush. It is a progressive winding.
The number of inductors spanned by the end connections
at each end is called the ivinding pitch, and is represented
by X. In Fig. 26 the inductors are numbered consecutively
from I to 34 in passing around the armature, and inductor
No. 10 joins inductor No. 19 at the rear; the rear-end
winding pitch is therefore 9, or
Xr = 19— 10 = 9.
At the front, or commutator, end, inductor No. 19 joins in-
ductor No. 28, so that the front-end wmding pitch is also
Xf= 9.
It occurs frequently, however, that the front and rear wind-

6o DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
ing pitches are different, in which case the mean winding
pitch is
/[
= Xr + Xj
There exists a definite relation between the total number

of inductors on the surface of an operative armature, the
number of pairs of poles, and the winding pitch. For the
wave winding, the permissible total number of inductors is
C= 2pX ± 2.
Hence, for the four-pole machine of Fig. 26 the total

number of inductors would be2X2X9±2; that is, C=
38 or 34. The latter number was here chosen.
ARMATURES. 6i
A wave winding for a drum armature having 3

six-pole
slots is shown in Fig. 27. There are 62 inductors, the
even and odd numbered ones representing the lower and
upper inductors in the slots respectively. The winding
pitches for this armature are
K =- 9>
Xf= II,
and >^ = 10.
A six-pole, retrogressive, lap or multiple-circuit, in this
case six-circuit, winding is shown diagrammatically in Fig.
28, and it is seen that

there are six paths in
parallel from the positive
to the negative brushes.
There are 80 inductors,
the winding pitches
being
Xr = II
and Xf = 13.
In the lap winding, the
front and rear winding
pitches cannot be equal
and the difference be- Fig. 28.
tween them must be some multiple of 2. If there be two

inductors per and the lower ones be even-numbered
slot,
and the upper ones odd-numbered, as usual, then the front

and rear winding pitches must be odd, and therefore the
mean winding pitch, I, is always an even number. The
expression for the total number of inductors on a lap
winding for / pairs of poles allows more latitude than is
the case with wave windings, and is
C= 2pX.
Herefrom the mean winding pitch is
but frequently values of X are taken which are considerably

smaller than the value obtained from this formula. In the
present case, for example, y^ = 1 2 instead of —6 . Such wind-

ings are called short-chord zvindings.
As previously winding element of a drum arma-
stated, a
ture has two inductors, yet there may be any number of
turns of wire in the element. This is often so in practice,
where high terminal voltages are desired. Fig. 29 shows
\
Fig. 29. Fig. 30.
a three-turn element for a wave winding, and Fig. 30 a

similar element for a lap winding. Winding pitches are
sometimes, but not in this text, expressed by the number
of spanned core-slots or subtended angles at the axis, the
latter being expressed in radians or degrees either electrical
or mechanical.
37. Multiplex Armature Windings. — In the simplex
armature windings thus far considered, a winding would
ARMATURES. 63
consist of one complete circuit. In multiplex windings, on

the other hand, there may be two or more distinct circuits
completely insulated from each other, and each of these
might be provided with a separate commutator and set of
brushes. The usual practice, however, is to provide only
one commutator with the segments pertaining to one wind-
ing intermeshed with those belonging to the other wind-
ings. Thus no greater number of brushes is required than
for a corresponding simplex winding, yet they must be
considerably wider so that simultaneous commutation of
all the circuits may be going on.
Starting from a certain commutator segment, and trav-
ersing/ elements of a simplex wave winding, or any one
element of a simplex lap winding, one reaches the next
adjacent commutator segment. Proceeding in like manner
with a duplex winding, one reaches the second following
segment from the starting point and similarly, with a
;
triplex winding, one reaches the third following segment,

etc., the intermediate segments being connected to the
other windings. Such multiplex windings, which consist
of a number of completeand independent simplex wind-
ings, are multiply re-entrant, that is, each individual circuit
re-enters upon itself to form a closed circuit. Multiplex
armature windings may be singly, doubly, triply, or in
general, multiply re-entrant.
A singly re-entrant winding is one in which, by succes-
sive angular advances, the entire winding is traversed before
returning to the starting point. A doubly re-entrant wind-
ing is one in which only half of the winding is traversed
before reaching the initial segment. Similarly, in a triply
re-entrant winding only one-third thereof is traversed. The
number of separate circuits on an armature determines the
degree of re-entrancy. The number of times it is necessary
to pass around the armature in traversing a complete circuit
must not be confounded
with the degree of re-
entrancy.
Fig. 31 depicts a six-
pole, retrogressive, two-
circuit, singly re-entrant
duplex winding compris-
ing 58 inductors. A four-
pole, retrogressive, two-
circuit, triply re-entrant
triplex winding, having 66
inductors, is shown in
Fig. 31.
Fig. 32. A duplex wind-
ing may be either singly or doubly re-entrant, a triplex
winding may be either singly or triply re-entrant, and a
quadruplex winding may
be singly, doubly, or quad-
ruply re-entrant. Multi-
plex windings beyond
these are rarely used in
practice.
The general formula for
multiplex wave windings
is
C = 2pl±2y,
where C, p, and X have
the same significance as
before, and where y is the
multiplicity of the winding,whether duplex, triplex, and so
on. For a given multiplex winding, the choice of the
ARMATURES. 65
mean winding pitch, and therefore also the total number

of inductors, depends upon the degree of re-entrancy
desired. The highest common factor of X and _y expresses
the degree of re-entrancy. Thus, for the duplex winding
of Fig. 31, y ^ 2
and ^ = 9)
therefore the winding must be singly re-entrant, since the
highest common factor of 2 and 9 is i. The total number
of inductors for this winding might be
C=2X3X9±(2X2)
= 50 or 58.
The latter value was here chosen.

For the triplex winding of Fig. 32,
y = 3 and >^ = 1 5 ;
hence the winding is triply re-entrant. The total number

of inductors might also have been 54 instead of 66 as
shown.
In multiplex lap windings, the degree of re-entrancy is
equal to the highest common factor of half the number of

C
inductors,—, and the multiplicity of the winding, _;?/. The
mean winding pitch is chosen as near as possible to
the same as for simplex lap windings.

38. Equalizing Connections. — The electromotive forces
generated in different sections of an armature are not ex-
actly equal, due to inaccurate centering of the armature
and to the unavoidable differences of distance of the arma-
ture conductors from the field pole pieces. The E.M.F.
differences, although small, nevertheless set up local cur-
rents in the armature, and these may result in excessive
heating of the conductors and sparking at the commutator.
In wave windings, little difficulty is experienced in this
respect, because the inductors are connected in series and
are distributed under all the poles ; but in lap windings
large internal currents are produced in the armature which
cause operative troubles. To minimize troubles from these
currents, lap-wound armatures of large generators are sup-
plied with equalizing connections of low resistance. These
are connections between points of the winding which should
be at the same potential, and they usually take the form
of rings situated at the commutator end of the armature
core.
39. E.M.F. Equation of Dynamos. — The average elec-

tromotive force between brushes, induced in the conductors
of an armature revolving in a multipolar magnetic field, is
E^^ = 2 ^^Sf io-« volts, §33
where ^^ is the flux per pole in maxwells which cuts the

conductors, Snumber of inductors in
is the series between
brushes, and /is the number of magnetic cycles through
which the armature core passes in one second ; or/ = / .
60
This equation is and applicable to
perfectly general, any
type of direct-current dynamo with any style of armature
winding. To ensure its proper application, a consideration
of the significance of the term ^ for various styles of
winding is necessary.
In general, 5 is the total number of . inductors on the
armature divided by the number of current paths through
the armature between brushes. Reference to §§36 and
ARMATURES. 67
37 shows that the number of paths between brushes for

various styles of winding are as follows :
TYPE OF WINDING WAVE LAP
Simplex . 2 2/
Duplex . . .
4 4/
Triplex . . . 6
Quadruplex 8 8/
As a numerical example, compute the no-load voltage of

an 8-pole generator having a simplex lap-wound armature
with a total of 1920 inductors, when revolving at 300 rev.
per min. The effective magnetic flux per pole is 7 mega-
maxwells.
There are 4 pairs of poles, whence the number of in-
ductors per circuit is
S = -^
2x4
—= 240.
The number of magnetic cycles passed through per second is
Therefore the terminal E.M.F. of the generator (neglect-

ing the resistance drop in windings) is
7000000
E.^ = 2 240 . 20 = 672 volts.
io«
40. Core Construction. — To reduce to a minimum the

otherwise excessive eddy current loss (§ 29) in armature
cores, these are constructed of thin discs of soft wrought
iron or mild steel, which are more or less thoroughly insu-
lated from each other by the natural oxide or by a coating
of varnish on the discs. Sometimes, for special machines,
shellac coatings on the discs, or thin paper sheets between
6S DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
them, are applied. Laminating the core in this way does
not completely prevent the flow of eddy currents, for small
E.M.F.'s will still be induced in each lamina which produces
them. The eddy current loss, being proportional to the
square of the thickness of laminations, would be lowered by
using very thin discs. A limit to the reduction of thickness
is the increased loss due to the higher flux density neces-
sary, owing to waste of space which is taken up by the in-
sulation between laminations.
Fig. 33-
For the smaller machines, having armatures less than 1
inches in diameter, the discs are punched in one piece, and

usually take the form shown in Fig. 33. Sometimes aper-
tures are provided in the laminations about the axis, and
ARMATURES. 69
these constitute air passages through the core, thus im-

proving ventilation. These discs are mounted directly
on the shaft and are
keyed to prevent turn-
ing. They are held
in position by flanges
of cast steel or cast
iron, which are pressed
together by nuts on
^^^* ^^'
the shaft, as shown in
Fig. 34, or by bolts passing through, but insulated from,
the laminations.
For the larger armatures, the discs consist of a number
of segments which are assembled on a mechanical support
Fig- 35.
called a spider, being attached thereto by inwardly-project-

ing lugs on the segments. In Fig. 35 is shown in part the
spider of a 300-K.W. generator with a segment dovetailed
ô DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
to one of the arms. The joints are staggered in the lami-
nations of successive layers. Fig. 36 illustrates a section
of the spider of the same machine with the end flanges hold-
ing the laminations in place. The flanges are shaped so as
to form a support for the armature winding. The spider,
which has an extension for supporting the commutator, is
pressed onto the shaft and keyed.
Fig. 36.
To obtain sufficient ventilation in the armature and

thereby lessen the temperature rise incident to operation,
it is usual to provide radial ventilating ducts in the core.
The rotation of the armature causes air to pass in through
the axial apertures, or spider openings, and out through
the ventilating ducts as indicated by the arrows in Fig. 37.
The ducts are formed by separating the laminations at
intervals by the interposition of blocks of non-magnetic
ARMATURES. 71
material called spacing pieces. A type of spacing piece is
shown in Fig. 38, which consists of brass strips set edge-

wise into slots punched in stout core discs and riveted.
Fig. 37.
This type is commendable because it gives support to the

armature teeth.
Good practice requires the provision of one ventilating
duct for every 2 to 4 inches of axial core length, the width
Fig. 38.
of the ducts varying from three-eighths to five -eighths of

an inch.
Fig. 39 illustrates a Westinghouse armature core partly
assembled on the spider. One of the segments of a disc
and a spacing piece shown leaning against
are that
portion of the spider upon which the commutator is to
be mounted.
Fig. 39.
Two types of armature slots are in general use, the

open slot and the partly closed slot. The former has the
advantage that the armature conductors may be formed
into coils, insulated, and readily inserted into the slots,
Fig. 40.
whereas the latter type simplifies the matter of securing

the windings into place. The open slot is more often
employed on direct-current machines. Fig. 40 shows some
of the styles of open and partially closed slots ; the re-
ARMATURES. 73
cesses at the top of some teeth being provided for the

insertion of fiber or wooden wedges, which serve to retain
the conductors in the slots.
In many machines the windings are held in place by

binding zvires wound around the periphery of the armature.
Grooves are provided therefor by having some of the discs
of slightly smaller diameter. The wire used for this pur-
pose is generally of hard-drawn brass or phosphor bronze,
and, on railway motors, of steel. It is wound over insulating
strips, forming a band of several turns, these being often
soldered together.
41. Armature Coils. — The armature coils are of copper,
in the form of either wire or strips, the former being

usually employed on the smaller machines. For machines
of large output, it is not advisable to use heavy bars as
conductors, because of the eddy currents set up in them
when one side of a coil is momentarily in a stronger field
than the other. Thus, a number of smaller conductors,

insulated from each other and connected in parallel at
the commutator, avoid this condition.
In multipolar armatures the windings consist of a num-
ber of similar and interchangable formed coilsy which are
wound on separate collapsible forming blocks. The several
conductors that constitute one coil are insulated individually
and are fastened together and wrapped with a few layers
of insulating tape. For this purpose cotton or linen tape,
varnished cloth or paper, or micanite are generally used.
The advantage of formed coils is their superior insulation
and the facility with which damaged or burned-out coils
can be removed without disturbing the other coils. Fig.

41 shows some Western Electric Company formed coils,
those on the right being for lap-wound and those on the

left for wave-wound armatures. In Fig. 42 is depicted an
armature core ready for winding, with some formed coils
in different stages of completion.
One-turn armature coils for large dynamos, having con-

ductors of large sectional area, which do not permit of
bending, are composed of two halves individually insulated
and placed in their respective slots. A copper bridge is
then bent over the bare ends at the rear, and soldered,
thus completing the electrical continuity of the coil.
Fig. 41.
Before placing the armature coils in the slots, the latter

are generally lined with insulating material, such as mica-
nit e, and a paper pulp known as presspahn. The
fiber,
thickness of slot insulation depends upon the terminal volt-

age of the machine, and should be capable of withstanding
several times this voltage without puncturing. On the
other hand, the thickness should not be so great as to
materially lower the space factor of the slot, i.e. the ratio
of the copper cross-section to the slot area. This factor
depends upon a number of conditions, but common values
ARMATURES. 75
formachines up to 75 K.W. at voltages from 100 to 600

may be interpolated from the curves of Fig. 43 given by
Hobart.
A partly-wound armature for a 200-K.W., 500-volt gen-

erator manufactured by the Allis-Chalmers Company is
shown in Fig. 44. After all the coils are in place, the
exposed portions of the windings, or the end-connec-
tions, must be firmly bound to withstand the centrifugal
force.
Commutators.
42. —
The segments or bars of a commu-
tator always of drop-forged or hard-drawn copper.
are
They must be properly tapered so that when all the seg-
ments are put together the whole will form a cylindrical
structure. The between segments is always of
insulation
mica. Of the various grades of mica employed for insulat-
ing purposes, the amber-colored mica, which must be free
.•5
.4
^
^ -Too^
5cr-
.3 /^ VOUT
.2
/ 1
1
.1
1
20 40 60
KILOWATTS
Fig. 43-
from be preferred.
iron, is to Besides being a good insu-
lator,amber mica has the additional advantage of wearing
at the same rate as copper; thus after long use it leaves
neither elevations nor depressions on the commutator sur-
face. Not only must the indi\idual segments be well
insulated from each other, but especially good insulation
must be provided between the segments and the spider
upon which they are mounted and the clamping rings
which hold them in position, because the potential differ-
ences at these places are the same as the terminal voltage
ARMATURES. 77
of the machine. The usual thicknesses of mica required

for commutator insulation, in inches, are :
VOLTAGE OF MACHINE 300 VOLTS OR LESS 300-1000 VOLTS
Between adjacent Segments . . . 0.02 to 0.04 0.04 to 0.06

Between Segments and Spider . . 0.06 to 0.12 0.10 to 0.15
Fig. 44.
When the commutator segments and mica strips are

assembled in place, a pair of temporary steel rings is placed
around them, the inner one being split into a number of
sections, as shown in Fig. 45. The screws are tightened
so that the component parts commutator are firmly
of the
pressed together. A groove is then turned therein, and
clamping rings of corresponding shape are fitted. These
are then bolted on, and the steel rings removed, leaving
a completed commutator, such as shown in section in
Fig. 46. Considerable reliance is placed on the clamping
rings, for these must prevent the possible dislocation of the
segments due to expansion and contraction which accom-
pany temperature change, or due to centrifugal force.
Fig. 45. Fig. 46.
To secure successful operation a commutator must be

designed with a sufficient number of bars, so that the
difference of potential between two adjacent bars shall
not exceed 10 volts. This would mean that a lOO-volt

bipolar machine should have at least 20 bars. The poten-
tial between the brushes or around Jialf the commutator
is 100 volts, hence half the commutator must have ten
bars.
ARMATURES. 79
The number of commutator segments to be used depends

upon the style of winding and the voltage of the machine.
According to Arnold, this number should never be less
than 0.037 times the product of the total number of arma-

ture conductors and the square root of the current per
armature circuit. The width of a commutator segment
for good mechanical construction should not be less than
x\ inch at the periphery.
Commutators for turbo-generators or other high-speed
dynamos usually have small diameters, so that the linear
speed is not excessive ; nevertheless speeds as high as
8000 ft. per min. are encountered in practice, which is two
or three times as great as that of the usual low-speed com-
mutators. The ordinary methods of commutator construc-
tion for these high speeds are inadequate because of the
great centrifugal force tending to pull the commutator
apart. To prevent this action, stout steel rings, well in-
sulated from the segments, are shrunk on the outside of

the commutator at several places. High-speed commu-
tators have a great axial length in order to secure a large
radiating surface.
Commutators should be designed with sufficient exposed
area so as to radiate the heat which is communicated to
them without too high a temperature elevation. The total
commutator loss consists of two principal components, the
loss due to resistance, and that due to friction.
The transition^ resistance between the brushes and com-
mutator causes a drop in voltage at each point of contact.
This drop depends upon the quality of the brush, and is
practically independent of the linear speed of the commu-

tator, the current density at brush contacts, and brush
pressure. The drop for different grades of brushes varies
between 0.6 and 1.4 volts for the contacts of one polarity.
Double these values times the current output of the ma-
chine gives the loss represented by the transition resistances.
The pressure of the brushes on the commutator should
be low, thus resulting in a small friction loss. Light pres-
sure does not materially increase the voltage drop at the
brushes. The magnitude of the friction loss in watts is
'^
equal to ( ~^] t™^^ ^^^ product of the following
quantities : the radius of the commutator in feet, the speed

in revolutions per minute, the coefficient of friction between
the brushes and the commutator (0.3 for carbon brushes
and 0.25 for copper brushes), and the sum of the pressures
of all the brushes upon the commutator. This latter should
amount to 1.25 lbs. per square inch of rubbing surface.
Carbon brushes permit a current density of 30 to 70 am-
peres per square inch of rubbing surface, and copper brushes
about eight times as much.
There is an additional loss at the commutator due to the
sparking at the brushes and to the currents in the short-
circuited segments. These losses cannot be calculated
closely, but may be estimated as equal to about six per
cent of the regular commutator losses.
Knowing the total losses in the commutator the tem-
may be estimated by means of empirical ex-
perature rise
pressions, § 68.
The connections from the armature windings to the
commutator segments are made by means of metal strips
called risers, which are firmly clamped and soldered to the
rear ends of the segments. In Fig. 47 is shown a completed
Western Electric Company commutator with the risers
attached.
ARMATURES. 8l
After a commutator has been in use for a time, it becomes

grooved and pitted, a condition which causes further
sparking and wear, and the commutator must be turned
down again to a true surface. The design of a com-
mutator should allow sufficient material for repeated opera-
tions of this kind.
Fig. 47-
43. Brushes and Brush Holders. — Brushes are gener-

ally made of hard blocks of graphitic carbon. These
brushes wear well mechanically and give the commutator
a smooth surface, and further, the greater resistance of a
carbon brush results in less sparking when it bridges two
commutator bars than would the lower resistance of a
copper brush. Carbon brushes are generally set at an
angle, though some makers set them radially, especially in
motors which must be reversed in direction, as in the case
of railway and elevator motors.
On low-potential machines brushes of copper gauze are
sometimes used, because there is less tendency to spark
on low voltages, and because the resistance of carbon
brushes would be too great a portion of the resistance of
the entire circuit. Such brushes are also used on some
turbo-generators.
The number of brush sets necessary depends upon the
style of winding employed on the armature, § 36 ; but
there may be, and usually are, several brushes per set.
That is, instead of broad brushes, a number of smaller

ones are used on all machines except those of little out-
put. This scheme enables the removal of brushes one
at a time for trimming purposes while the machine is in
operation.
Individual brushes are supported in brush holders, as in
Fig. 48, which shows a box-guide type of Westinghouse
manufacture. Brush
holders should provide
adjustment as to posi-
tion and tension of the
brushes, and allow the
latter to follow any ir-
regularity in the com-

mutator surface. The
brush-holder springs
should be arranged so
that the brush pressure
Fig. 48.
is maintained constant
during the life of the brush. The spring should not
form a part of the electric circuit ; flexible copper con-
ductors generally complete the connection from the brush
to the stationary part of the holder. A General Elec-
ARMATURES. 83
trie Company brush-holder arm is shown complete in
Fig. 49.
The brush-holder arms are carried on rings, called
rockers, which are mounted concentric with the commuta-
tor, either on a sleeve at the front bearing or on the field
Fig. 49.
magnet frame. The rocker is capable of being moved

around the commutator by means of a tangential screw
and hand wheel. After the proper brush position has been
found the rocker is securely clamped. All the brushes, both
positive and negative, are usually mounted on the same
rocker, so that their adjustment is simultaneously effected.
Fig. 50 shows such a rocker with the brush gear.
44. Shafts and Bearings. —
As shafts for armatures are
often subjected to sudden large variations in load, it is
usual to construct them somewhat larger than those of
other machines of similar size. The diameter of the shaft
depends upon the output and speed of the armature, and
to obtain practical values the following empirical formula
may be used
V rev. per mm.

Fig. 50.
Fig. 51.
ARMATURES. 85
where Ds is the shaft diameter in inches, and /^ is a con-

stant having the following values for different-sized machines
using mild-steel shafts :
50 K.W. or less, k = 6.5
50 K.W. to 500 K.W., k = 8.4
500 K.W. and over, k = 10.2
This shaft diameter refers to that part under the core and
commutator, the portions within the bearings being some-
what less.
Dynamo bearings should have ample bearing surface and

be rigidly constructed. They are always made in two sec-
tions, thus permitting the removal of the armature. It is
necessary that the bearings be exactly in line, and frequently

a form of self-alignment bearing is used, as in Fig. 5 i. The
shaft revolves in a cylindrical brass bearing having an outer
spherical enlargement at the center which rests upon a cor-
responding bed of Babbitt metal.
Lubrication may be secured by the use of ordinary oil
cups, but generally by the employment of self -oiling devices.
One of these. Fig. 51, consists of two brass rings playing
in semi-circumferential slots in the bearing, which permit
the rings to hang loosely on the shaft. The bearing pedes-
tals are hollow under the rings and serve as oil receptacles.
As the shaft revolves, the rings also revolve at such a rate
as to carry a steady stream of oil up into the slots, thereby
lubricating the bearing.
Recently ball bearings have been applied to bearings
of small dynamos, say up to 50 K.W., and have given
complete satisfaction. One type of ball-bearing is shown
in Fig. 52, where is the outer ring and i the inner ring
with the hardened polished steel balls,
d, between them. A removable piece, /,
somewhat longer than the diameter of a

ball, permits of the insertion of the
balls, and may be held in place by the
screw s. The rings are of hardened steel
and have polished running surfaces. The
inner ring is rigidly fastened to the
shaft.
Fig. 52.
PROBLEMS.
1. The instantaneous E.M.F. induced in a conductor of a
revolving loop at the moment it cuts a certain magnetic flux at
an angle of 60° is 2.5 volts. What electromotive force is in-
duced in this conductor at the instant the angle between the

paths of flux and conductor is 70 degrees ?
2. The maximum E.M.F. induced in each of six similar

loops placed 30 electrical degrees apart, revolving together
about a common axis in a uniform magnetic fiield is 25 volts.
Calculate the maximum and minimum values of the total vol-
tage resulting from the connection of all the loops in series.
Determine the percentage fluctuation.
3. How many magnetic cycles does the armature core of a

i6-pole dynamo pass through per second, if the armature makes
375 revolutions per minute?
4. How many inductors may there be on a 12-pole simplex
wave winding in which the rear winding pitch is 13 and the
front winding pitch is 17 ?
5. There are 122 inductors on an eight-circuit short-chord

simplex winding which is imbedded in 61 armature slots.
Determine the maximum value of the mean winding pitch, the
even-numbered conductors being located in the bottoms of the
slots.
PROBLEMS. 87
6. A six-pole multiplex wave winding has 60 inductors and

a mean winding pitch of 9. What is the degree of multiplicity
and of re-entrancy of the winding ?
7. The armature of a 12 -pole generator makes 250 revolu-

tions per minute. It is simplex lap-wound, and has 180 slots
with 4 conductors per slot. What is the average value of the

induced E.M.F. at no load if the magnetic flux passing through
the armature is 10 megamax wells per pole?
8. A triplex wave-wound armature with 294 inductors, each
of four conductors, is substituted for the armature of Prob. 7,
all other conditions remaining the same. What is the no-load
terminal voltage ? State the degrees of re-entrancy obtainable
in this armature winding.
9. Determine the total commutator losses of a 250 rev. per
min. dynamo when delivering a current of 300 amperes. Two
positive and two negative sets of carbon brushes are employed,
the grade of the brushes being such as to result in a drop of
I.I volts at the contacts of one polarity. A current density of
50 amperes per sq. in. of brush rubbing surface is to be allowed,,
The diameter of the commutator is 18 inches.
8S DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
CHAPTER IV.
FIELD MAGNETS.
45. Field-Magnet Frames. — In the foregoing chapter

was shown the dependence of the electromotive force in-
duced in a dynamo armature upon the total magnetic flux
cut by the conductors. This magnetic flux is produced by
the current in the field coils of the machine. The path of
the flux is called the magnetic circuit, and may be divided
into three main portions, namely: the iron of the field mag-
nets, the armature core, and the air gap between armature
and field-magnet poles. The first of these, which consti-
tutes the field-magnet frame, may, in most machines, be
subdivided into three parts, viz.: (i) the field cores, upon
which the field coils are situated; (2) the yoke, which con-
nects the field cores at the outer ends; and (3) t\\Q. pole
pieces ox pole shoes, which are the enlarged inner ends of
the field cores.
The frames of direct-current generators may be cast in

one piece either of cast iron or cast steel, but it is usual to
construct the field cores separately from the yoke. The
choice of material for the yoke, as also for the field cores,
is governed by considerations of {a) weight, {b) first cost,
and {c) economy and satisfactory regulation in operation.

Cast iron has the advantage over cast steel in cheapness,
but as it is magnetically inferior, more material is necessary
to carry the required magnetic flux; further, if the field
FIELD MAGNETS. 89
poles are also of cast iron, the expenditure for copper will
be greater, because more turns will be required and each
turn would be longer than if the better cast steel were used
In machines having different parts of the field frame of
different materials, wrought iron, which is the best available
magnetic substance, is often employed in the form of punch-
ings for the cores and pole pieces.
For multipolar machines the yoke is generally circular in
shape, of rectangular or elliptical section, and is divided
either horizontally or vertically into two parts to facilitate
the removal of the armature, the two halves normally being
bolted together. It is mounted upon a cast-iron bed plate,
to which are also fastened the pedestals which carry the
armature bearings. The bipolar type of machine is now
restricted to the high-speed smaller units, say 5 K.W. or

less, because of the greater amount of necessary material
occasioned by the longer magnetic circuit. Bipolar field-
magnet frames are made in a great variety of shapes, some

of which are shown in Figs. 21, 22, and 23; and are gen-
erally cast in one or more pieces which are bolted together
after the field coils are in place.
Separate cores for multipolar frames are constructed
of cast steel, laminated wrought iron, or laminated steel.
Solid cores are usually of circular or of rectangular cross-

and laminated cores are of the latter only. A pole
section,
piece, builtup of soft-steel laminations riveted together
between stout end plates, is shown in Fig. 53, which is
representative of Westinghouse practice. Field cores may
either be fastened to the yoke by bolts passing through
the frame and screwed into the core or pole pieces, or be
cast integral with the yoke. The latter method gives es-
pecially good magnetic joints, but the former allows the

go DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
removal of any one of the cores with its field coil for pur-
poses of repair.
The pole tips are generally somewhat larger than the
cores, as shown in Fig. 53, an arrangement which serves
Fig. 53
the double purpose of producing a more uniform flux dis-
tribution in the air gap, and retaining the field coils in

position. In this particular type, one corner of each
punching is cut away and the laminations are stacked with
the beveled corners alternately to one side and to the other,
thus producing a pole with saturated pole tips, which is
advantageous in yielding good commutation. Where solid

poles of cast iron or cast steel are used with separate pole
pieces, the latter are preferablymade of laminated wrought
iron,thereby reducing the detrimental effects of eddy cur-
rents induced in the pole faces by the flux variation occa-
sioned by the slots in the revolving armature core.
In the usual designs of direct-current dynamos, the ratio
of the peripheral length of the pole face to the /ô/e pitchy
FIELD MAGNETS. 91
or distance between adjacent pole centers, ranges from 0.60

to 0.75, and this ratio is known as the polar span; that is,
the polar span is from 60% to 75 % of the pole pitch.
Fig. 54.
Fig. 54 shows the complete field-magnet frame of a

Crocker-Wheeler generator. This frame is of cast iron,
and the round poles are of cast steel provided with remov-
able cast-iron shoes, which are clamped in place after the
field coils have been assembled.
46. Methods of Field Excitation. — Dynamos are classi-
fied according to the five methods of exciting the fields of
the machine. They are : — the Magneto, the Separately

Excited, the Shunt Wound, the Series Wound, and the
Compound Wound. The last three methods refer to self-
exciting machines, that is, generators which supply their

own field current.
The magneto generator. Fig. 55, is one in which the
field is a permanent steel magnet, generally of horseshoe
form. Because of the low flux densities in this type of
MAGNETO DVNAMO SEPARATELY EXCITED DYNAMO

Fig. 55- Fig. 56.
machine necessitating more iron, its use is limited to small

dynamos, such as those used in gasolene engine ignition
work, or for telephone signaling.
The separately excited dynamo. Fig. 56, has, as its name
implies, its field coils traversed by a current other than
that produced by the machine. It is produced by an aux-
iUary generator called an excitei^. Alternating-current ma-
chines are nearly always of this type.
The shunt-wound machine, Fig. 57, has a large number
of turns of fine wirewound on its field core, and the ends
are connected to the terminals of the machine, thus being
FIELD MAGNETS. 93
in shunt with the outside circuit. The ampere-turns requi-
site for excitation are obtained by passing a small current,

say from 2 to 8 per cent of the total current output, through
a large number of turns.
/ {
>
<
> (
y^4f^/
SHUNT WOUND
\i
SERIES WOUND
DYNAMO DYNAMO
Fig. 57. Fig. 58.
The series-wound generator, Fig. 58, has all the current

that is produced by the armature passing through a few
turns of large wire wound around the field cores. The
exciting coils are then in series with the external circuit.
The ampere-turns required for excitation are obtained by
passing a large current through a small number of turns.
Series generators are practically only used for series arc
lighting and in the Thury system of direct-current power
transmission at high voltages.
The compound- wound machine, Fig. 59, is one in which
there are both shunt and series coils on the field magnets.
This method of winding is used for purposes of regulation
under varying loads, as will be explained later. Compound
windings are of two classes, the long shunt and the short
shunt. In the former, the current used in the shunt wind-
ings is also passed through the series windings along with
the main current. In the latter, the current from the
shunt coils passes directly back to the armature, avoiding
m
,
COMPOUND WOUND COMPOUND WOUND

DYNAMO LONG SHUNT DYNAMO SHORT SHUNT
Fig. 59. Fig. 60.
the series turns. Figs. 59 and 60 clearly show the con-

nections of the two types. The short-shunt compound
winding is generally preferred.
Shunt-wound and compound-wound generators find their
principal utilization in constant-potential systems of elec-
trical distribution for lighting and power.
47. Magnetic Leakage. —
Since air is not an insulator
of magnetism, but is simply much less permeable than
iron, it is evident that some of the lines of force generated
by the field coils will not follow around the desired path
through pole pieces and armature, but will take a path
through the air and be of no utiUty in creating E.M.F. in
the revolving armature. Fig. 61 roughly represents some

of the paths such lines may take.
FIELD MAGNETS. 95
If ^t be the total flux set up by the field coils, and <J>a be

that portion of it which passes through the armature and
is cut by the conductors, then the coefficient of magnetic
leakage, or dispersion coefficient, is
d =
^;
and is always greater than unity.
Fig. 6i.
In practice, the value of d ranges from 1.25 to 1.5 in

bipolar dynamos, depending upon the design. For multi-
polar machines, the values of the dispersion coefficient
vary from 1.3 in small dynamos of about 2 K.W. to i.i
in large machines of about 500 K.W. output.

Increasing the field excitation of a generator results in
more magnetic flux, not all of which is useful in developing
a greater voltage. Further, the leakage flux increases
faster than the useful flux ; for as the flux density of the
magnetic circuit becomes greater its permeability drops,
whereas the permeability of air is constant and unity at
all flux densities. The dispersion coefficient is therefore
dependent upon the load on the machine.
The dispersion coefficients of small machines for definite
excitation may be determined experimentally by the use of
test coils in connection with a ballistic galvanometer.
48. Calculation of Exciting Ampere-Turns. — In order
that a generator armature may produce the desired voltage
when revolving at a definite speed, a certain amount of
magnetic flux must be cut by the armature conductors.
This fluxis set up in the magnetic circuit of the machine
by a current flowing through the field coils. The strength

of current necessary and the number of turns of wire to be
provided on the field coils depend upon the length and
reluctance of the magnetic circuit and the dispersion coef-
ficient. As the reluctances of the various portions of
the magnetic circuit are different owing to differences of
dimensions, flux density, or permeability, it is necessary to
calculate the magnetomotive force, or ampere-turns, for
each of the sections; their summation will then determine
the required exciting ampere-turns, after correcting for
magnetic leakage.
In designing the magnetic circuit of a dynamo every
portion of it should have sufficient cross-section to carry
the total flux at a reasonable flux density. It is assumed
in such calculations that all the magnetic leakage occurs
at the pole faces ; hence the total flux which passes through
the armature core and teeth from the air gap is the useful
flux, <!)„, and that which passes through the center of the
field cores is the total flux produced, or <I>y = dâ- This
assumption simplifies the calculation without affecting the
degree of accuracy to any great extent.
In the following table are given the various parts of the
magnetic circuits of ordinary direct-current multipolar
machines, with the usual materials of which they are
FIELD MAGNETS. 97
constructed, and the common values of flux density

therein.
PORTION OF FLUX DENSITIES

MATERIAL KILOMAXWELLS PER
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT SQ. IN.
Armature Core Soft Laminated Iron 70 to I ID

Armature Teeth Soft Laminated Iron ICG to 140
Air Gap Air 40 to 60
( Cast iron 30 to 50
Field Cores } Cast steel 70 to ICO
( Soft Laminated Iron 70 to no
Cast iron 27 to 45
Field-magnet Yokes -j
Cast steel 70 to 90
Having decided upon the dimensions and material of

each portion of the magnetic circuit, the ampere-turns
required to drive the flux through them is calculated from
the expression
10 (R<^ /(B
nl = 0.313 §§ 23-27
4 TT
where for a given portion (R is the reluctance in oersteds,

/ is the length in inches, (B is the flux density in maxwells
per square inch, (|> is the total flux in maxwells, and /i is
the permeability of the material. In multipolar machines

it is only necessary to consider one complete magnetic
circuit, that is, for one pair of poles. The resulting ampere-
turns are those necessary for two field coils.
As an example determine the ampere-turns per pole

required to send a flux of 20 megamaxwells through the
armature of the 350-K.W., 500-volt, 8-pole generator
shown in part in Figs. 62 and 63, in which the dimensions
are expressed in inches. The mean path of the flux is
shown by the closed dotted line.

Armature Core. To allow for the insulation between
the armature laminations it is usual, in practice, to con-
-"A"
FIELD MAGNETS. 99
sider that it occupies io% of the gross length of iron.

The presence of ventilating ducts further decreases the
net iron length. The cross-sectional area of the armature
core is
Ac = (14 - 1.2) X 0.9 (15 -4 X 0.5) = 150 sq. in.
In multipolar machines of the usual construction there

are two paths for the flux per pole through the armature
core and field yoke ; hence only one-half of the flux per
pole passes through these parts. The flux density in the

armature core is
20,000,000 ^^ ^
(Be = = 11
00,000 maxwells per sq. m.
150x2
The permeability of the core at this flux density, as
determined from Fig. 10, is fic = 1650.
The mean length of path traversed by the flux is
approximately 33 inches.
Therefore the ampere-turns required to overcome the
armature core reluctance are
1650
Armature Teeth. The accurate determination of the

ampere-turns necessary to send the magnetic flux through
the armature teeth is very complicated, but the following
practical method, involving a few assumptions, leads to
good results. The number of teeth under a pole piece is
00 _
21 -= — =18.2. Owing to the fringing of the flux at the
240
pole tips, not merely the teeth immediately under the pole
face carry the flux from that pole, but one or more addi-
tional teeth may assist. Making an allowance of 10 per
lOO DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
cent for this flux fringing, a value frequently taken, then

the number of armature teeth receiving flux from one pole
is 18.2 X I.I = 20.
As the teeth are wider at the periphery than at the bot-

tom of the slots, their sectional area will be different at
various distances from the axis of rotation. It is usual to

employ the sectional area at one-third the tooth length from
the narrow end. The width of the tooth at this place is
J88 - (^-AA X 1.2)]

_i ^^ iJ — 0.56
^
= 0.57
^^ inch.
240
The net cross-sectional area of the flux-carrying teeth per

pole is
At = 20 X 0.57 X 0.9 (15 — 4 X 0.5) = 134 sq. in.
Armature teeth are worked at high flux densities, and

at these densities the permeability of iron is not very high.
Consequently the permeance of the copper or air between
the teeth cannot be neglected, and a correction must be
made therefor. The terms apparent and corrected flux
densities are to be distinguished in this connection. Thus,
the apparent flux density in the teeth is
_ 20,000,000 ,,
(Sita = = 149,000 maxwells per sq. m.
134
The corresponding corrected flux density may be obtained
from the curves of Fig. 64 given by Hobart. The differ-
ent curves refer to different ratios of tooth-width to slot-
width. For the dynamo under consideration, in which the
tooth-width and slot-width are practically equal, the cor-
rected tooth flux density is
(B^g = 138,000 maxwells per sq. in.

FIELD MAGNETS. lOI
150
T J TOOTH-WIDTH
wj= SLOT-WIDTh
^ - = 1
^^
'"^
/ /^ V
^^
u. j130 / ^
y
>"
9. 5
^
^
^120 #
yX
^^
110 ^^ 120 130 140
APPARENT FLUX DENSITY
150
IN
160
KILOMi^XWELLS PER SQ.IN.
Fig. 64.
23.3
150
\
\\ ^
*
^
140
\ y y SH EET IB ON
21.7
>K \
r— 20.2
/
/H
.^
\.
/ 18.6
/
/
110 / 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 nl
20 40 60 80 100 120 f*
Fig. 65.
I02 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
The permeability of the iron at this flux density, as
determined from Fig. 65, is /it = 30.
The length of two teeth is /^ = 2 x 1.2 = 2.4.
Hence the ampere-turns required to overcome the re-
luctance of the armature teeth are
(„,),
= 0.313x2.4^x138.000 ^ ^^^^
Air Gap, The usual practice in computing the flux

density in the air gap is to divide the total flux per pole
entering the armature by the area of the pole face, thus
20,000,000 ^ „
(S>„ = = ^ 6,000
c; maxwells per
^
sq. m.
17 X 21 ^
The radial length of the air gap is 0.3 inch.

Since the permeability of air is unity regardless of flux
density, the ampere-turns required to overcome the air-gap
reluctance are
{nl)^ = 0.313 X 0.3 X 2 X 56,000 = 10,500,
which is the principal component of the total number of

ampere-turns to be provided on the machine.
Field Cores. Taking a value of 1. 15 for the dispersion
coefficient, the total flux traversing a field core will be
20,000,000 X 1. 1 5 = 23,000,000 maxwells. The sectional
area of the poles is
^p = 17 X 14 = 238 sq. in.
Therefore the flux density in the poles is
(Bp = 23,000,000
— = , ^
96,600 maxwells per
,-
sq. m.
238
The permeability of cast steel at this flux density, as
determined from Fig. 12, is /ip = 480.
FIELD MAGNETS. 103
The length of two field cores, including pole pieces, is
35.4 inches.
Therefore the ampere-turns required to overcome the
reluctance of the field poles are
^ a3i^X15_^_X9M2? = 2230.
40O
Field Yoke. The cross-sectional area of the yoke is

12x25 = 300 sq. in., and the flux traversing it is 1 X 23,000,-
000= 11,500,000 maxwells. Therefore the flux density is
(B,,
^
—
^ = 11,500,000 = o
300 ^ ^
n
Sojôo maxwells per sq. m.
The permeability of the cast-iron yoke at this flux den-

sity, as determined from Fig. 11, is /x^=253.
The mean length of path traversed by the flux is approxi-
mately 54 inches.
Hence the ampere-turns required to overcome the yoke
reluctance are
0.313x54X38,300 ^
(,j)^^
253
Summary. The ampere-turns per pair of poles neces-

sary for overcoming the reluctance of the entire magnetic
circuit and the various parts of it are as follows :
—
Armature Core, 420
Armature Teeth, 3,450
Air Gap, 10,500
Field Cores, 2,230
Field Yoke, 2,560
Total, 19,160
Therefore 9580 ampere-turns must be provided on each
pole in order to set up the required flux. This is true only
when the flux distribution through each section is uniform,
which condition exists when no current flows through the
armature, that is, at no load. Additional ampere-turns must
be provided when the generator delivers energy so as to
neutralize the effects of demagnetization and distortion,
which will be discussed in Chapter V.
49. Field Coils. - In a shunt-wound machine, the am-
pere-turns necessary for excitation are obtained by a rela-
tively small current flowing through many turns of wire,
whereas in a series-wound machine the required ampere-
turns are obtained by sending the entire current, or a definite
part of it, through but a few turns of wire. In a compound-
wound machine, the shunt winding supplies the ampere-
turns required to produce the definite magnetic flux through
the armature at no load, and the series winding supplies the
additional ampere-turns necessary for full-load operation.
Knowing the necessary ampere-turns per field pole at
no load, the size or cross-section of the wire to be used
for the shunt-field winding may be calculated as follows :
Let Tsh = current in the shunt-field winding in amperes,

E = terminal voltage of machine at no load,
and Erk = voltage allowance in regulating rheostat
then the resistance of each shunt-field coil in ohms is
J-sh ^P
where / is the number of pairs of poles.
The temperature rise of the field coils under full-load
operation should not exceed 50° C. above the usual engine-

FIELD MAGNETS. 105
room temperature of 25°C. At a temperature of 75° C.

the resistance between opposite faces of an inch cube of
'^^
copper is ( i + 0.0042 x 75) = 0.825 microhms (§ 4.)
2.54
Representing the number of turns on one shunt coil by
fish, the mean length of a turn in inches by Lgj^, and the

section of the conductor in square inches by Ash, then the
resistance of each shunt-field coil in ohms is
0.825 ,.,,^,,
10 Ash
Equating (i) and (2) it follows that the conductor cross-

section of the shunt winding is
If circular conductors are to be employed the proper size

may be determined by reference to a wire table.
As an example on the foregoing, calculate the section
of the shunt-field conductor necessary to provide 9580
ampere-turns on each field pole of the 350-K.W., 8-pole,
500-volt generator of § 48.
Assume 15% of the generator voltage to be taken
up by the adjusting rheostat, and that the depth of the
field winding is 3 inches. The mean length of a turn is
then 74 inches. Therefore the conductor area of the
shunt winding is
Ash
.
=
0.825
-.—
X 74
~- X 9580
(500 — 75)10^
v^-1
X 8
= o.oii sq. m.
The space occupied by the conductors depends upon the

number of poles, voltage, and speed of the machine, and upon
I06 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY
Fig 66.
Fig. 67.
FIELD MAGNETS. I07
the shape of the conductor section. As a rule, from 40%

to 70% of the total cross-sectional area of a field coil is
occupied by copper, the remainder being taken up by

insulation. The ratio of the total copper section to the
gross section of the coil is called the space factor of the
coil.
Having determined the space factor of a proposed shunt^s-

field winding, the length of the coils may be computed,
and the available space for the series winding, if any, may
be obtained. Then the calculation of the number of turns
and the size of conductor on the series winding follows,

the method of procedure being similar to that for the
shunt winding.
Shunt coils are usually made of cotton-insulated round
or rectangular conductors, wound on metal frames or on
removable molds and held in shape by paper and rope
bands, the exterior of the coils being coated with moisture-
proof insulating varnish. The coils of series machines
and the series coils of compound-wound dynamos are very
often of forged copper conductors insulated with tape,
the individual turns being separated by spacing pieces.
Typical Westinghouse series and shunt-field coils are
shown in Fig. 66. The current density in shunt coils of
the usual construction is about 1000 amperes per square
inch, and in series coils it may be 20 % greater because
of the superior heat-radiating facilities.
A completed and assembled field winding of a 250-
K.W., 250-volt, compound- wound generator is depicted

in Fig. 6j, in which are shown the connections of the
series field coils at the end of the machine away from
the commutator.
PROBLEMS.
1. The resistance of the field winding of a 15-K.W., 220-
volt shunt-wound generator is 60 ohms. What percentage of
the full-load power output is the power consumed in field
excitation ?
2. A series-wound generator supplies current to five arc

lamps connected in series, each taking 9.6 amperes at 47 volts.
The resistance of the field winding is 1.2 ohms, and the drop in
the external circuit is 15 volts. Calculate the percentage of the

total power expended in exciting the field magnets.
3. The flux density in the field-magnet cores, which are
6 inches in diameter, of a bipolar dynamo is 80 kilomaxwells per
sq. in., and the dispersion coefficient of the machine as deter-
mined experimentally is 1.35. Calculate the magnitude of the
flux passing through the armature.
4. Calculate the number of no-load ampere-turns to be pro-
vided on each field pole so that a flux of 6 megamaxwells per
pole may be sent through the armature of a loo-K.W., 6-pole,
iio-volt, compound-wound dynamo having the following con-
stants and dimensions
Armature outside diameter = 32 in.
Armature internal diameter = 20 in.
Armature gross length = 9 in.
Two ventilating ducts, each 0.4 in. wide.

125 armature slots, each i in. X 0.4 in.
Armature core of laminated iron.

Radial length of air gap = 0.2 in.
Dispersion coeflicient = 1.20.
Diameter of field cores = 9.5 in.
Polar span = 70%.
Field structure of cast steel.
Internal diameter of yoke = 54 in.
Outside diameter of yoke = 62 in.
Yoke width = 10 in.
PROBLEMS. 109
5. Allowing 20% of the voltage of the generator of Prob. 4

to be lost in the adjusting rheostat, determine the size of cir-
cular copper wire to be used in the shunt winding. The outside

diameter of the field coils is 13 inches, and the net length of
the winding is 9 inches.
6, Calculate the total resistance and number of turns of the
shunt winding of the generator of the two foregoing problems,
the space factor of the field coils being 0.60.
no DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
CHAPTER V.
ARMATURE REACTION. COMMUTATION.

50. Armature Reaction. —
When an armature revolves
in a magnetic field an electromotive force is developed in
its conductors, and this is available at the brushes of the

machine. If, therefore, the brushes be connected through
an external circuit, a current will flow through it, and the
current strength will depend upon the resistance of the cir-
cuit. This current, in flowing through the armature wind-

ing, will exert a magnetizing action on the core independently
of the field magnets ; thus there are two coexistent mag-
netic fields with directions at an angle to each other. As
the resultant field differs in direction from that caused
only by the current in the field coils, it is frequently said
that the current in the armature conductors causes a dis-
tortion of the flux in the magnetic circuit, and this effect
of the armature current is called the cr'oss-magnetizing
effect. Because of cross-magnetization, it is necessary, in
order to secure good commutation, to shift the position of
the brushes away from the geometrical median line be-
tween radii to two adjacent poles. A shifting of brushes

from this neutral plane results in a weakening of the mag-
netic field, due to the armature current in some of the
conductors, and this effect is called the demagnetizing
ejfect. These two effects of the armature current, i.e., the
cross-magnetizing and demagnetizing effects, when consid-
ered together, are called armature reaction or armature
interference.
ARMATURE REACTION. Ill
51. Cross-Magnetizing Effect of Armature Current. —

Consider a drum armature revolving in a bipolar magnetic
field, and let the brushes be placed midway between the
poles, that is, in the neu-
tral plane. When the
field magnets are excited
and the armature is run-
ning on open circuit,
the magnetic flux which

passes through the arma-
ture core may be repre-
sented by dotted lines in
Fig. 68, and it is seen
to be quite uniformly distributed. Upon interrupting the
exciting circuit, and sending a current from some outside
source through the gener-
ator armature, the resulting
magnetic field may be de-
picted as in Fig. 69. This
is called the cross flux
because its axis is across
that of the main field flux.
In operation, however, both

of these fields exist simul-
taneously, and the resultant
Fig. 69.
flux through the armature
is obtained by combining these two conditions as in Fig. 70.
The flux distribution through the generator field poles and
armature is thus non-uniform, and the distortion takes place
in the direction of rotation, resulting in the crowding of
lines of force in the trailing pole tips. This distortion of
the magnetic flux occasions a loss in the operation of a
generator because it increases the reluctance in two ways,
— {a) by saturating the iron at the pole pieces and thus
reducing the permeability, and {b) by lengthening the paths,

both in air and in iron, that the lines of force follow.
Fig. 71-
The composition of the two apparent magnetic fluxes in

the air-gap of a bipolar dynamo is illustrated in Fig. 71,
which shows rectified curves of magnetic distribution under

the pole pieces and in the air-gap of the machine, ordinates
ARMATURE REACTION. II3
of the curves representing flux density. Curve a represents

the symmetrical flux distribution occasioned by the current
in the field magnets, and curve b shows the flux distribution
in the air-gap due to the armature current. Adding the
ordinates of these curves yields the resultant flux dis-
tribution actually existing in the air-gap of dynamos under
load when brushes are in neutral plane, as indicated in
curve c.
52. Demagnetizing Effect of Armature Current. — The

effect of the cross flux is to produce with the main flux
a resultant magnetic field in the air-gap of a dynamo the
direction of which is inclined to the direction of the field
flux, asshown by the arrows in Fig. 70. Since the brushes
should be at those points where they may short-circuit coils
whose conductors begin to cut magnetic lines of force in a
reversed direction, the position of the brushes should not be
midway between the poles (or in the neutral plane), but at
right angles to the direction of the resultant flux. Therefore
the plane of the brushes through the armature axis, known
as the commiitating plane, should be shifted away from the

neutral plane for a generator in the direction of rotation.
This shifting of the commutating plane causes a further
distortion of the flux, necessitating a continued shifting
of the brushes until the commutating plane is displaced
90 electrical degrees from the final resultant flux. In
the foregoing, the armature conductors are supposed to
be connected to commutator segments lying on the same
radius.
For generators, the commutating plane is in advance of
the neutral plane, and for motors, behind the neutral plane.
The angle between these planes is termed the angle of brush
lead or brush lag.
In Fig. 72 is shown a generator armature revolving in a
bipolar field, the brushes being given a forward displacement

of 6 degrees. The armature conductors may be divided into
two separate groups by the two vertical lines ab passing
Fig. 72.
through the brush contacts, each group being considered as

forming a number of complete turns. The current flowing
in the turns which lie outside of these lines sets up the
cross flux as shown in § 51, and the current flowing through
the turns included between the lines ab produces a mag-
netomotive force opposing that of the field-magnet coils,
and thus exerting a demagnetizing effect on the magnetic

circuit. The product of the number of turns between aa
and the current flowing in them is called the demagnetizing
or back ampere-turns^ since it produces a weakening of the
magnetic field.
The current flowing in the armature conductors of a

multipolar dynamo similarly exerts distorting and demag-
netizing effects upon the magnetic field, and the armature
turns may also be divided into two belts, namely cross turns
and back turns.
53. Compensation for Armature Reaction. To neutral- —

ize the effects of cross-magnetization and demagnetization
produced by the current flowing in dynamo armatures, it is
necessary to provide additional magnetomotive force by in-
creasing the ampere-turns of the field-magnet coils. Com-

pensation for demagnetization is easily calculated, since the
number of back turns times the current flowing through them
at any load, multiplied by the dispersion coefficient at that
load, gives the additional number of ampere-turns necessary
at that load for compensation. The additional field ampere-
turns per pole necessary to overcome the demagnetizing
effect of the armature current at full load may be repre-
sented by
where /9 = brush lead in electrical degrees (angular distance

between centers of like-named poles = 360
electrical degrees),
5 = number of armature conductors in series be-

tween two brushes (§ 39),
/= full-load current of dynamo, leaving or enter-
ing at the brushes,
and ^ = dispersion coefficient.
The additional field ampere-turns necessary to neutralize

the distortional effect of the armature current are difficult to
determine, but the following method of calculation, based
upon experimental data, yields a good estimation. The
ampere-turns of the armature producing the cross-magneti-
zation, being due to the current in the cross turns only, are
D' ^(i
V
)
180/4^
—/ per pole.
ii6 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
The ratios of this quantity D' to the number of ampere-
turns per pole on the field magnets required for compensa-
tion of distortion,(z?/)^,^, are the ordinates of Fig.
73; and
the abscissae represent the no-load ampere-turns per pole
on the field-magnet coils. This ratio, for values of D' be-
tween 1000 (lower curve) and 10,000 (upper curve), lies
between the two curves, its magnitude being determined by
interpolation. Knowing the no-load field ampere-turns, and
having calculated the value of D' from the above equation
at full-load current, the number of ampere-turns per field
spool, {nr)cra, uccessary to compensate for distortion due to
\
\
V
D' . \ \, "",
\ ^^^
(nl),„,
N^^
^^^
4 8 12
NO-LOAD FIELD
KILO-AMPERE-TURNS
Fig. 73.
cross-magnetization at this load, may therefore be obtained

from Fig. 73.
As a numerical example of the foregoing, calculate the
field ampere-turns per pole necessary to compensate for
armature reaction at full load in the 350-K.W., 500-volt
generator of §48, when the angle of brush lead is 5 degrees.
ARMATURE REACTION. I17
The armature has an eight-circuit winding embedded in
240 slots, there being 6 conductors per slot. The number

of armature conductors in series between positive and nega-
tive brushes is 240 X 6
S = = 180.
2x4
The full-load current of the dynamo is
/ "^ X 1000 = 700

= 350 amperes.
500
Therefore the field ampere-turns necessary to neutralize de-
magnetization at full load are
/ 2X5
rx 180
(«/U„=-^^x^3^gX 700x1.15= 500.
The ampere-turns of the armature producing cross-magneti-

zation are ,; >
X 5\ 180 ^
D' =(i - —-^ X
^, / 2 .
X 700 = 7430.
V 180 / 4 X 4 Â
The field ampere-turns per pole at no load = 9580 (§48).
With this value as abscissa, the ordinate corresponding to
/^' = 7430 would be 2.8. Hence
-J^ = 2.S,
{nl)cm
from which the ampere-turns per field pole required for

overcoming effect of distortion at full load are (nJ)cm =
The total ampere-turns, then, to be provided on each field
pole are 9580+ 500-1-2650=12,730. When a dynamo de-

livers current there is a resistance drop in the machine
itself, so that the actual induced voltage must be somewhat
larger than the rated terminal voltage. The additional
Ii8 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
ampere-turns required for producing the greater magnetic
flux necessary to obtain the higher internal voltage have
not been considered in the foregoing.
54. Devices for Reducing Armature Reaction. — The
distortion of the magnetic field may be diminished by
lengthening the air-gap and working the armature teeth at
high flux densities, thereby increasing the reluctance of the
path of the cross flux. This, however, also increases the
reluctance of the main flux path and necessitates the pro-
vision of a greater number of ampere-turns on the field-
magnet coils.
ii A
in
D
1
Fig. 74.
Magnetic field distortion may be reduced by slotting the

field poles longitudinally. This considerably increases the
reluctance of the path of the cross flux by introducing in it
an air-gap, whereas the reluctance of the main flux path is

very slightly altered. Fig. 74 shows a Lundell split -pole
type of generator in section and illustrates the construction
of the pole piece. The magnetic flux which enters the

pole piece divides between the two paths a and b. Owing,
however, to the greater span covered by the shoe belonging
to the part marked b, the magnetic reluctance of that part
is much smaller than that of the part marked a. As a result,
the flux does not divide itself equally between the two paths.
The marked b under increasing
part of the pole piece exci-
tation becomes saturated before the part marked a. At

normal excitation, the flux density at b is above 16,000 lines
per square centimeter, while the flux density in a is but
about 10,000 lines per square centimeter. In other words,
b is well saturated, while the magnetization of a is still below
the knee of the magnetization curve. This saturation of
half of the pole piece is effective in preventing a skewing
of the field by the cross turns as the load on the machine
increases. is shown in the flux distribution curve of
This
Fig"- 75 wherein
> the arrows show the direction of rotation
Fig. 75-
of the armature. The dotted line represents the distribu-

tion at no load, and the heavy line the distribution at full
load. This small distorting effect of the cross turns permits

the employment of a small air-gap without causing serious
sparking.
Ryan compensates for the magnetizing effects of the
armature winding by surrounding the armature with a sta-
tionary winding, which passes through perforations in the

pole faces. These stationary windings carry the whole
current of the machine, being connected in series with the
external circuit. The current in these windings produces
a magnetomotive force equal and opposite to that due to
the armature current. The number of ampere-turns on the
compensating winding is about one and one-quarter times
the armature cross ampere-turns. This arrangement is not
much used in direct-current practice because of construc-
tive difficulties and increased cost.
Distortion of magnetic field is further decreased by prop-
erly shaping the pole pieces. The distribution of flux
should be such that an armature coil at first enters a weak

field and then gradually comes to the strongest part. If
the lines of force are allowed to crowd into the trailing-pole

tips, this gradual transition is impossible. If the horns are
farther from the armature surface than the body of the pole
face, then the air-gap, and consequently the reluctance at
the horns, is increased, and the lines of force are dis-
tributed more symmetrically. The poles may have cham-

fered corners or be non-concentric with the armature,
the radius of the latter being less than that of the pole
faces.
The use of auxiliary poles between the main field poles
of dynamos is also effective in reducing armature reaction.

The coils on the auxiliary poles are connected in series
with the armature, and the entire current, or a definite part
of it, traverses the auxiliary winding. This arrangement
yields perfect commutation at all loads for various speeds
with a definite setting of the brushes. The field structure
COMMUTATION. 121
of a dynamo with auxiliary poles manufactured by the

Electro-Dynamic Company is shown in Fig. 76.
Fig. 76.
55. Commutation. —The electromotive force induced in

the armature conductors of practically all direct-current
generators is alternating, and in order to obtain a unidirec-
tional E.M.F. at the terminals of the machine it is necessary
to reverse the connections at the moment the induced elec-
tromotive force changes its direction. This process is called
is accomplished by means of a commutator,
commutation, -^nd
whose segments are connected to the armature windings,
and brushes which collect the current from the commu-
tator. During the process of commutation, the armature
conductors connected to the commutator segments covered
by a brush are momentarily short-circuited. In this inter-
val of time, the current flowing in a coil must be changed
from a maximum value in one direction to zero, and from
zero to a maximum value in the other direction.
The current in an armature coil, at the beginning of a
short-circuitby a brush, is responsible for the existence of
a definite amount of magnetic flux which is linked with the
turns of the coil. This flux would disappear if the current
were suppressed, or would be built up in a reversed direc-
tion upon the reversal of direction of the current. The
product of this flux and the number of turns in the coil
divided by the lo^ times the current in amperes flowing

through the coil at the beginning of short-circuit, gives a
quantity which may be termed the commutatiojt self-induc-
tance of the coil. this quantity by Z, the
Representing
number of turns of the coilby n, and the number of mag-
netic lines of force accompanying a current of /^ amperes
flowing in the coil by then the commutation self-induc-
<!>,
tance is
L = henrys.
The magnetic flux surrounding a coil carrying a current

represents an amount of energy the magnitude of which is
equal to ^LI^-. This energy must be disposed of and an

equal amount, due to reversed current, must exist before
the coil is in condition to be transferred from one side of the
armature to the other at the brush. The magnetic energy
may be by the introduction of resistance
dissipated either
to reduce the current flow or by a counter-electromotive
force, which may be obtained by so placing the brushes
that the short-circuited coil will cut some of the flux from
that pole corner of the field magnet toward which the coil
COMMUTATION. 123
is moving. That is, the commutating plane is shifted so

that, during the time a coil is short-circuited by a brush,
the coil will traverse a magnetic field of opposite direction
having such intensity as to produce an E.M.F. in it sufficient
to reverse the direction of the initial current. If, during

the time of short-circuit, the intensity of the current after
reversal be identical with its original intensity, then spark-
less commutation will ensue with this particular brush set-
ting. At any other position of the brushes, the magnitude

of the induced E.M.F. will be such as to result in a larger
or smaller current value in the coil after reversal than its
initial value, consequently sparking will occur during the

process of commutation at such positions of the brushes.
The greater the current output of a machine the greater
must be the induced E.M.F. to effect current reversal, and
consequently the field in which the coil is situated during
commutation must be more intense, and therefore the brush
position should change with the load. The present practice,
however, is to have a definite brush position which is the
same at all loads upon the machine. Therefore the com-
mutating plane should be shifted forward in generators until
no sparking occurs in the final position at full-load and also
at no-load operation.
There are thus two E.M.F.'s active in producing a current
through the short-circuited armature coil: first, the electro-
motive force induced in the coil by cutting the magnetic
lines of force set up by the currents in the field magnet
and second, the E.M.F. occasioned by the varying

coils,
fluxdue to the changing current in the coil. The latter

E.M.F. is independent of any action of the field-magnets,
and is called an electromotive force of self-induction or re-
actance voltage^ and it tends to prevent any increase or de-
crease in the strength of the current flowing. Sparkless
commutation is dependent upon the magnitude of the re-
sultant E.M.F. of these two opposing components. Were

the resultant E.M.F. zero at every instant, perfect commu-
tation might be obtained. But this ideal condition cannot
be realized, since the component electromotive forces con-
stitute different time functions. The induced E.M.F. de-
pends upon the intensity of the field and speed of the
armature, whereas the E.M.F. of self-induction depends
upon the rate of current change in the coil. An approach
to perfect commutation, therefore, is obtained by an adjust-
ment of conditions whereby a number of instantaneous
values of these opposing E.M.F Js are equal during the
time the coil is short-circuited by the brush or while it
undergoes commutation.
The current reversal in the armature coils is accelerated
by the use of high-resistance brushes because the initial
current is more quickly reduced to zero. Consider a coil
of low resistance to be short-circuited by a high-resistance

carbon brush, as shown in Fig. yy, the brush having the
same width as the commutator seg-
ments. Let i^ and i^ be the currents
flowing in the taps to segments I
and 2 respectively, and let /^ be the
Re rJ.
current flowing through each arma-
.
R 1 ture path between brushes. At the
)JSlÎ}uJSI^^ instant when commutator segment
^
* ^ I is completely under a brush, the
Fig. 77. .
currents from both sides of the

armature unite and pass through the corresponding tap;
then
z\ = 2 /j and i^ = o.
COMMUTATION. 125
A moment later, the brush will be in contact with both

segments ; then, if F be the short-circuited current,
i^ = I^ + r and i^ = /, — V.
In this position, the high transition resistance between the

brush and commutator will be less at segment i than that at
segment 2, because of the greater contact area of the for-
mer ; therefore the voltage drop across the contact at seg-

ment 2 will be greater than that at the other segment.
Because of this difference of voltage drops across the two
segments, there is a tendency for a current to flow in a
direction opposite to the direction of i^. This condition
results in quicker reversal of the current.
Continuing the cycle of commutation, a little later the
brush contact area on both segments will be the same ;
then, if the short-circuit current be zero,
The next moment the direction of current F will be re-
versed, and
i^=I^-F and i^= I^-\- F,
Finally, when the brush rests only on segment 2,
i^ = o and i^ = 2!^.
The current density in the brushes varies considerably at

different parts of it, and is not proportional to the E.M.F.
because of the exceedingly variable transition resistance
between brushes and commutator. This increases very
rapidly if there be even minute sparking under the brushes.
56. Commutation.
Time of The time interval during —
which the current changes from a maximum value in one
direction to an equal value in the opposite direction is the
time that elapses from the instant that one commutator
segment reaches a brush to the instant the preceding seg-
ment emerges from the other side of the brush. This time
is evidently dependent upon the speed of the commutator
and upon the width of the brushes, and is the time required
for the strip of insulation between two successive segments
to pass under the brush. If w^, represent the breadth of
the brush in inches, and m the thickness of mica between
adjacent commutator segments in inches, then the time of
the short-circuit is
= {wb — m) ,
tc seconds,
V
where v is the peripheral velocity of the commutator in

inches per second. Representing the commutator diameter
in inches by D^ and the number of revolutions per minute
of the armature by V, then
v = —
TtDcV
60
Therefore
_ 60 (wb — m)
" ~ nDcV
The reciprocal of this time gives the number of commu-

tations per second, or what
termed \h^ frequency of com-
is
mutation. The frequencies found in practice lie between

200 and 800 per second. The breadth of a brush may be
equal to the width of a commutator segment, but usually
the brush is sufficiently broad to bridge over several seg-
ments. For a definite brush width, the frequency of com-
mutation is much higher for multiplex windings than for
simplex windings.
COMMUTATION. 127
Let + /j be the current flowing in a coil just entering

under a brush. After the time 4, the current value in that
coil for perfect commutation should be — /^. What the in-
stantaneous values of the current during this short interval
of time 4 will be, or how they may vary in a particular
machine under certain conditions, cannot be foretold, yet
Fig. 78 shows a possible time variation of the current in a
Fig. 78.
Fig. 79.
coil undergoing commutation. It represents a sinusoidal

current change. Numerous
curves, such as Fig. 79, have
been obtained showing the actual current variation during
the period of short-circuit based upon experimental obser-
vations, but such curves differ widely among themselves,
and consequently no one of them may be taken to represent
the general conditions occurring during commutation.
57. Calculation of Reactance Voltage. — The reactance
voltage of a short-circuited armature coil is occasioned by
the varying flux which surrounds that coil when the current
in it is changing. Its value depends upon the time rate
of current change, and its instantaneous value may be ex-
pressed as
dt
where L is the commutation self-inductance of the coil and

r is the value of the current at the instant t seconds after
the beginning of the short-circuit. It cannot be predeter-
mined exactly how the successive values of I' are related to
each other during this interval, and it becomes necessary,
in order to estimate the reactance voltage, to assume that
the values of the short-circuit current follow some simple
law. It is usual to assume a simple harmonic variation, as
shown between the dotted lines of Fig. ySy in which case

the instantaneous value of the current may be expressed as
r=L cos 2 71
— t,
where I^ is the current per armature path, and tc is the
time of short-circuit (there are -
2
— complete
t(.
variations per
second). By substitution
^»' = ~- dt
whence
Eg = LL -
It.
sin —
It.
•
The maximum value of Eg occurs when — is 90° ; then the
reactance voltage of the short-circuited coil is
E,=LI,f- (I)
COMMUTATION. 129
The time of commutation, 4, was obtained in the foregoing

article ; thus for the determination of the reactance voltage
there still remains the calculation of the self-inductance of
the coil.
To calculate the magnitude of L for a short-circuited

armature coil or element, consider each coil side to lie in a
slot, a typical form of which is shown in Fig. 80. The flux,
Fig. 80.
which is due to the current flowing through the n turns of

this element, may number of paths across the slot,
take a
as shown by the numbered lines. Some lines of force also
encircle the coil where it projects beyond the slots. The
total inductance of a coil will be the sum of the inductances
due to the flux through these various paths linking with the
turns of the coil. All dimensions shown in the diagram
will be expressed in inches.
Consider an element of the conductors in the slot dx
wide and at a distance x from the bottom of the 'slot. The
magnetomotive force which produces the flux in this element,
X
due to the current /.
^
amperes flowing in -of the n con-
a
ductors of this coil side, is
M.M.F = Anl-' n\~^ gilberts.

\a / lo^
Since the permeability of the iron is very much greater than
that of the air, the reluctance of the iron portion of the flux
paths may be neglected. Then the reluctance of the ele-
mentary path throuo:h the coil itself is <^(Jl, =

•" ^ ^
2.54 ladx
oersteds, where 4 is the gross axial length of the armature
core in inches. Hence the flux through this small area in
maxwells is
X I,
47r- n-—^
a 10 471 2.54 nljgxdx
d^.
Ws 10 aws
2.54 Wx
X
— 71
These lines of force are linked with turns, and there-
a
fore the elementary inductance in henrys, being 10^ times
the number of linkages per ampere, is
dL^= 4712. S4 J^ y ^
^''^^'
Integrating over the full width of the coil, the inductance

due to the flux through path i in henrys is
1% rr.. .^.nHaa
Wo 10"
Above the upper surface of the conductors, the magne-

tomotive force is constant, and the lines of force through the
COMMUTATION. I3I
upper portions of the slot are linked with all the conductors
"W
of the coil-side. The reluctance of path 2 is ^, and the
2.544^
M.M.F. sending the flux through it is /{nn—^ ; therefore

10
the flux is
= AI±M . 'lIM maxwells.

10 Ws
The inductance due to this flux is
nHab
Similarly the inductances due to the magnetic flux through

paths 3 and 4 linking with the n turns of the coil are
and
For two surfaces, w^ inches apart, in the same plane,

the paths of the magnetic lines of force may be taken as
quadrants joined by straight lines of length w^. Represent-
ing the width of a tooth at the air-gap by t^, and consider-
ing only the flux outside the slot between two adjacent teeth,
then the reluctance of the mean path 5 is
Wq -f- n-
(S^r
-"
=
2. 54 IJ,
—2
;;
oersteds.
There is additional flux, also occasioned by the current in
the coil under consideration, which passes through adjacent

teeth up to the limit of the interpolar gap. Because of its
lesser influence, it will here be neglected. It is approxi-

mately compensated for by the overestimation of the induc-
tance of the coil as thus far calculated, due to neglecting
the reduction of effective iron area occasioned by the pres-
ence of air ducts and insulation between laminations. The
flux passing through path 5 is
4712.54 nl.lgt^
^ ^ _
.
10 t^
^0 +^2
hence the resulting inductance is
nHot.
L,= 31.9
+ .^):o»
7r^
Therefore the total inductance of the embedded portion of

one coil-side, being the sum of the terms L^ to L^, in hen-
rys, is
'a±lh ^ 6c _^ld^ 3h
Le= 10.61 nHa lO-\ (2)
'
2
Toobtain the inductance of a complete winding element,

i.e.,two coil-sides, twice this value Le must be taken, and
to it must be added the inductance of the end-connections,
or parts of the coil extending beyond the slots. It is usual
to assume a magnetic flux of 2 maxwells per ampere-inch

of conductor as linking with the exposed portion of a wind-
ing element. The length of the end connection at one end
of the armature core in machines of the usual type may be
taken as 1.5 times the pole pitch, or i.^X^ inches. The
inductance of the "free" portion of an armature coil of
n turns would then be
i/=(^^^^|^=6;,»îo-». (3)
COMMUTATION. 133
Generally, two or more armature coils are simultaneously

undergoing commutation, and since the coil -sides of two or
more elements are usually in the same or adjacent slots,
there is a mutual inductive action between them. In Fig.
81, one coil-side of the winding element, short-circuited by
Fig. 81.
the positive brush, lies in the same slot with one coil-side
of the element short-circuited by the negative brush. The
mutual inductance with such an arrangement is very nearly
equal to the inductance of the embedded portion of a coil.
Thus little error will be introduced by taking double the
value of Ley as previously calculated, to include the effect
of mutual inductance. Since the end connections of the
two coils of Fig.81 do not coincide but are widely sepa-
rated, no mutual inductive action between these portions of
the winding elements need be considered.
The total inductance of a short-circuited coil is therefore
LÂU+Lf. (4)
The values of tcy I^y and L now being known, the reactance
voltage of a coil undergoing commutation may be deter-
mined from equation (i).
In dynamos having lap-wound armatures the above value
of L would be that for a coil between two adjacent com-
mutator segments, or, as sometimes stated, the inductance
per segment. In dynamos having wave-wound armatures
with only two brushes, the foregoing value of coil induc-
tance is that for one winding element. For one coil of
this type of armature with / elements terminating at two
successive commutator segments, the inductance would
be / times as great. Consequently the employment of as
many brushes as there are poles is desirable from the
commutation viewpoint.
A quick method of estimating the inductance of the
embedded portion of an armature element, due to Hobart,
isbased upon the assumption that a flux of lo maxwells
surrounds each inch of conductor length per ampere of
current which flows through it. Then
Le = ^ = ^^^n 10-' henrys, (5)

jq8j
where In is the net axial length of the armature core.

Combining with equation (3), the total inductance of a
short-circuited coil in henrys is
Except for the large slow-speed dynamos, the reactance

voltage should not exceed 2 volts per segment in order to
obtain fair commutation. For these large machines the
value of the reactance voltage may reach 5 volts, but the
aim of the designer is to obtain a lower value.
58. Conditions for Good Commutation. — There are two
E.M.F.^s active in producing a current through an arma-
COMMUTATION. 135
ture coil undergoing commutation, namely, (i) the electro-
motive force of self-induction, which is equal to — Z dP —

dt
and (2) the electromotive force induced in the coil due to
its cutting lines of force, the value of which may be ex-
pressed as some function of the time, or f{t). To com-
plete the electromotive force equation of a short-circuited
coil, the various resistance drops must be inserted. Let
R, Fig. J J, be the resistance of the coil undergoing com-
mutation, and Re be the resistance of each connection tap
to the commutator. Then the resistance drop across two
adjacent segments (§55) is
VR + i^R,^ i,Re = VR + Re [I, + r+I,~ n = rR + 2 I^Rc.

To include the voltage drop from the brushes to the
commutator, let R^ be the transition resistance of one set
of brushes, having a breadth equal to the width of a com-
mutator segment, when resting on only one segment. At
the time f seconds after the beginning of the short-circuit,
the transition resistance of segment i, Fig. 77, is - — R^,

and that of segment 2 is-i?^. The corresponding resist-
ance drops are respectively
and
*jRj,=-^-^{i,-n.
The complete E.M.F. equation of a coil undergoing spark-

less commutation may then be expressed as
An analysis of this equation has shown that for spark-
less commutation in the neutral plane —i 4 must be equal
to or greater than unity. This implies that the transition re-
sistance of brushes should be great, that the inductance of

the short-circuited coil should be small, and that the time
of commutation be comparatively large. As the width of
the brushes is generally such as to short-circuit several coils
simultaneously, the above general equation must be modi-
fied accordingly. However, --i/c remains practically un-
altered, since both R^ and L are multiplied by the number

of coils simultaneously short-circuited by one brush.
Because of the great transition resistance between cop-
per commutator segments and carbon brushes, these are
more generally used than copper brushes, although the latter
find application in high-speed turbo-generators as well as

in low-voltage generators or motors. For a fixed brush
position at all loads there is a tendency to spark when the
machine is subjected to wide variations of load, but the use
of carbon brushes counteracts this tendency to a great extent
because of their high transition resistance. With copper
brushes, a fixed brush position for all loads can rarely be
attained. The value of —^ 4 usually exceeds 2 with car-
bon brushes, but may occasionally fall below J for copper

brushes.
As the inductance of a short-circuited coil depends upon
the square of the number of turns, it is desirable to have
few turns per coil, so that the reactance voltage may be low.
Good practice limits the number of turns of a coil in moder-
ate-sized machines to 2 or 3. An inspection of equation (2)
COMMUTATION. 137
of § 57 shows the desirability of having the axial length of

armature core small so as to reduce L^ ; this implies that the
armature diameter be large for the same output. Large

diameters permit of the employment of large commutators
having many segments, consequently there will be fewer
armature turns per segment than would be possible with
smaller commutators having bars of equal width ; this con-
dition, as already stated, is conducive to a lower reactance
voltage.
The time of commutation could be raised by increasing
the width of the brush, but if the brush bridges over more
than a few segments, the inductance of each short-circuited
coil will be much greater because of its turns linking with
lines of force produced by the current in other coils as well.
A further limitation to increasing the time of short-circuit
by the use of wide brushes is the lowering of the tran-
sition resistance R^ due to the greater contact area of the
brush.
There are a number of purely mechanical conditions upon
which depend the quality of commutation. A rough commu-
tator surface causes vibration of the brushes, which results
in a widely varying transition resistance and subsequent
sparking. A further source of sparking, more especially in
high-speed machines, is loose commutator bars. Such spark-
ing produces local blackening of the commutator surface.
An open or discontinuous armature winding and a reversed
coil occasion severe sparking. The limit of the capacity of
a machine may be excessive sparking instead of excessive

heating,and therefore the suppression of sparking by proper
design of the machine is of utmost importance.
PROBLEMS.
1 Compute the field ampere-turns per pole necessary to com-
pensate for demagnetization in a 15-K. W., 125-volt, 4-pole
dynamo having a wave-wound armature, the winding being con-
tained in 121 armature slots, with 4 conductors per slot. The
commutator has 121 segments, and the commutating plane is
shifted 3 segments ahead. Dispersion coefficient = 1.25.
2. Calculate the field ampere-turns per pole necessary to neu-

tralize the distortion al effect of the armature current of a 6-pole
generator with a triplex lap-wound armature having a total of
1086 conductors. The rated current of the machine is 500
amperes. The angle of brush lead is 8 degrees. No-load field
ampere-turns per pole = 7200.
3. For the dynamo of Prob. 4, Chap. IV, calculate the addi-

tional ampere-turns required to compensate for armature reac-
tion. The armature has a simplex wave winding with two con-
ductors per slot ; the angle of brush lead is 5 degrees.
4. Determine the time of short-circuit of an armature coil
undergoing commutation of a 12-pole, 350-K. W., 250-volt, 70-

rev.-per-min. generator having a commutator 56 inches in diam-
eter with 448 segments. The brushes exactly cover two seg-
ments with the intervening insulation, which is .03 inch thick.
5. The generator armature of the foregoing problem has a

simplex lap winding, and the inductance of a short-circuited
coil is 0.000030 henry. Compute the reactance voltage per
segment.
6. Determine the reactance voltage per segment of a 12-pole

300-K. W., 500-volt generator making 200 rev. per min., the
constants of which follow
Diameter of armature =75 in.
Gross length of armature =18 in.
Diameter of commutator =50 in.

PROBLEMS. 139
Number of commutator segments = 489.

Thickness of insulation between segments = 0.04 in.
Number of armature slots, as per Fig. 82 =489.

Size of armature conductors =|''Xi"«
Armature is lap wound ; two conductors per slot.
Brush width =f in.
A 1"
J: ^^^0^4^$$^^"^:$^ I
k$>&?»!ggi^$?^Sgg?^»?g^
Fig. 82.
CHAPTER VI.
GENERATORS.
Efficiency of Operation.
59. Capacity of a Dynamo. — The capacity of a genera-

tor is measured by the power it can develop, that is, the
capacity varies as the product of the terminal electromo-
tive force and the current supplied to an outside circuit.
The E.M.F. of a dynamo depends upon the speed, the

number of conductors, and the number of magnetic lines
of force passing through the armature, § 39. The allow-
able current output depends primarily upon the size of the
armature conductors, so that these may carry the required
current without excessive heating. The larger the con-
ductors, the larger must be the armature core, other things
remaining the same. Sometimes, however, commutation
difficulties limit the output of a machine rather than tem-
perature elevation.
The E.M.F. of a generator may be raised by increasing
the speed, the number of conductors, or the magnetic flux
through the armature. The speed of a machine is limited
by considerations of mechanical strength and economy of
material. It is frequently specified in that the generator
is to be directly connected to a steam engine, turbine, or
other prime mover, or, in the case of a motor, by direct-
coupUng to the machine it operates. The speed of small
machines is greater than that of large ones, but the periph-
eral velocity for nearly all sizes lies between 25 and lOO
feet per second for belt-driven machines, and between 25
GENERATORS. 141
and 50 feet per second for direct-connected machines. In

turbo-generators the speeds may be as high as 250 feet
per second. The speed Hmits of modern direct-current gen-
erators, in revolutions per minute, are given in the follow-
ing table :
GENERATOR SPEEDS.
K.W.
DIRECT-CONNECTED BELT-DRIVEN.
5 400-800 650-2000
lo 350-500 600-1800
20 250-400 550-1600
50 180-350 500-1200
100 120-300 450-900
200 100-250 400-600
500 70-120 300-400
1000 60-90
1500 55-85
2000 50-80
The number of inductors on a given armature can be

increased by decreasing the size of the wire. Sufficient
cross-section must, however, be provided in the conductors
to enable them to carry the maximum current of the
machine without causing them to heat to such an extent
as to endanger the insulation. Good practice calls for from
400 to 800 circular mils for armature conductor cross-sec-
tion per ampere, the proper value depending upon the heat-
dissipating facilities in the machine. The smaller values
are suitable for intermittently operating machines, such as
elevator or crane motors ; whereas the larger values are for
continuously running machines, such as central-station
generators.
The field flux of a generator, for a path of constant reluc-
tance, depends upon the magnetomotive force produced by
the current in the field windingo Increasing the number
of turns on the field coils or raising the current flowing in

them would increase the magnetic flux passing through the
armature. Decreasing the reluctance of the path of the
flux yields a similar result ; hence the desirability of small
air-gaps, magnetic material of high permeability, and short
flux paths of large cross-section.
Because of armature reaction, it is desirable to limit
the current flowing in the armature conductors. This is
accomplished by providing numerous paths between brushes

for the armature current, so that only a small portion of
the total current flows through each coil. This implies the
provision of a suitable number of field poles, which is there-
fore a necessary condition for obtaining satisfactory oper-
ation as regards sparking. The usual limits as to the
number of poles on commercial direct-current generators
are given below :
K.W. NUMBER OF POLES.
I-I5 2-4
15-100 4-6
100-200 6-8
2OO-3CO 6-10
303-500 8-12
5CO-IOCO 10-16
IOCO-2COO 12-24
60. Heating of Dynamos. — When a generator delivers

current, there is a continuous production of heat in the
armature and field magnets, which represents the conver-
sion of some electrical energy into heat. This production
of heat is occasioned by eddy current and hysteresis losses
in the iron, copper losses in both armature and field wind-
ings, bearing friction and windage, pole-face losses, and
commutator losses. The temperature of the machine,
GENERATORS. 143
therefore, continually rises until a temperature is reached

at which as much heat will escape per unit of time as is
generated in an equal period. The dissipation of heat

takes place by conduction, air convection, and radiation.
The ultimate temperature of any part of an operating
machine depends upon the emissivity and area of the radi-
ating surface and its temperature elevation over the sur-
rounding atmosphere. Hence it is necessary to design each
part of the dynamo so that its temperature rise during
continuous full-load operation shall not exceed a certain
prescribed limit.
The ultimate constant temperature is usually acquired
after from 6 to 18 hours of full-load operation, accord-
ing to the size and construction of the machine. The
temperature of the armature of a 300-K.W. generator
operating under constant full load, in terms of time, is
^^ —
X^
60
50
D
S 40
H
/
iso /
f
20
10
HOURS
Fig. 83.
shown in Fig. 83. It is obviously possible to obtain a

greater output for a short time without excessive rise of
temperature ; for example, a machine may yield 25 per cent
overload capacity for two hours without undue temperature
elevation. Fig. 84 shows the ultimate temperature of the
armature of the same 300-K.W. generator under different
loads, a constant temperature being attained at each load.
inn
^^y
y
y^'
^
^^
75
50
25
150
LOAD IN KILOWATTS
Fig. 84.
Two methods for obtaining the rise of temperature are

in common use : <^, by a thermometer ; b, by increase of
electrical resistance. The latter method is to be preferred,
and should be used wherever practicable. In taking the tem-
perature of a surface of the machine by the first method,
the thermometer bulb should be laid flat against that sur-
face and be covered by a pad of cotton sufficiently small to
allow normal escape of heat from the surface. The use of
the cotton pad prevents radiation of heat from the bulb of
the thermometer. The determination of the temperature
rise of a winding by the second method involves the meas-
urement of its resistance at room temperature and at the
ultimate temperature assumed under full-load operation.
Knowing the temperature coefficient of resistance of the
material at 0° C, the rise in temperature may be com-
puted, § 4.
The temperature elevation of a part of a machine as

GENERATORS. 145
determined thermometrically by applying a thermometer to

the hottest accessible portion, may frequently be less than
70 % of the temperature rise as computed from the re-
sistance measurements, this difference depending upon
the construction of the part under test. If, however, a
thermometer appHed to a winding indicates a higher tem-
perature elevation than that obtained from resistance
measurements, then the thermometer indication should be
accepted.
At rated load and under normal conditions of ventilation,
the maximum temperature rise, referred to a standard room
temperature of 25° C, should not exceed 50° C. for field
coils and armature, as measured by resistance increase ;
55° C. for commutator and brushes, and 40° C. for bearings

and other parts of the machine, as thermometrically deter-
mined.
61. Output Coefficients. — The capacity or rating of a
machine depends to a great extent upon its heating. In
the armature, the conductor cross-section must be such
that the full-load current may flow through the winding
without producing an undue temperature rise. The em-
ployment of large conductors requires large armatures.
Therefore an approximate estimate of the capacity of a
machine can be obtained if the dimensions and speed of
the armature be known.
An empirical expression, given by Kapp, for the rated
output of a generator in kilowatts is
P == ^D\V,
where <f = a factor called the output coefficient,
D= armature diameter in inches,
/^ = gross axial length of armature core in inches,

and V= rev. per min. of the armature.
The value of the output coefficient depends upon the arma-
ture diameter, and may be obtained from the curve of Fig.
85, which yields results typical of good practice. The fore-
going equation is useful
for rough preliminary de-
6 sign purposes, the decision
as to final dimensions
being subject to consider-
5
ations of commutation
and voltage regulation.
62. Losses in Armature
4
Cores. — The loss of en-
ergy which attends the
rotation of an armature
in a magnetic field is due
to hysteresis and eddy
currents in the armature
core. In order to reduce
these losses, and thereby
to prevent an excessive
temperature rise, arma-
ture cores are composed
01
50 100 150 of a series of thin disks
ARMATO.RE DIAMETER IN INCHES
Fig.
or laminations, insulated
85.
more or less thoroughly

from each other. The magnitudes of the hysteresis and
eddy current losses, as shown in §§28 and 29, depend
upon the size of the core, the magnetic flux density
in its various parts, the thickness of the laminations,
and the number of magnetic cycles passed through per
second by the iron. Curves of hysteresis and eddy cur-
rent losses in armature cores, in watts per cubic inch
GENERATORS. 147
and per pound, expressed in terms of flux density, are given

respectively in Figs. 86 and 87, for both 25 and 60 cycles
.84
yy
3.0
q2.5 70
z H YST ERE SIS _OSs 5
<<^y
O2.0
Q.
y .56
ul.5
^ ^ f\ ^""i 42
^1.0
I-
<
^ ^ £YCV::^
cc^ .
$0.5
^
^3456789 10 11 12
14
KILO-MAXWELLS PER SQ. CM,

Fig. 86.
2345 67 8
KILO- MAXWELLS PER SQ. CM.
9 10 11 12
Fig. 87.
per second. These curves are plotted from values calcu-

lated by means of the formulae
P. = 8.3i;^(Rifio-«,
P, = 4.07^fmLio-",
where v = volume of iron in cubic inches,
/= cycles per second,

/ = thickness of laminations in mils (usually 14),
(B^ = max. flux density in maxwells per sq, in.,
and f] = hysteretic constant (taken as 0.0021).
63. Armature Copper Loss. — When a generator deliv-
ers current to an external circuit, this current, in flowing
through the armature winding, occasions a loss of energy,
which appears as heat. The magnitude of this loss at any

load is equal to the product of the armature resistance from
the positive to the negative brushes (excluding brush tran-
sition resistance) and the square of the total current of the
machine at the definite load. If 5 be the number of con-
ductors in series between brushes, that is, the total number
of conductors on the armature divided by ^ ( = number of
current paths through armature from positive to negative
brushes), if L^ be the length in inches of the embedded
portion of one conductor plus the length on one end of the
exposed or free portion, and if A^^ be the cross-section of
an armature conductor in square inches, then the total
resistance of the armature in ohms is
0.825 Z,5
where the constant 0.825 X io~^ is the resistance in ohms

between opposite faces of an inch cube of copper at 75° C.
Values of q for various types of armature windings are
given in the table of § 39.
For preliminary design purposes, in order to save time,
the value of Z^ is frequently taken as the sum of the

embedded length of a conductor, 4, plus 1.5 times the
pole pitch.That is, the quantity 1.5 X^ is an estimation of
the free length of an armature conductor on one end of
the core. Then
The armature copper loss at full load in watts is there-
fore p _ T2 O
GENERATORS. 149
where / is the full load current of the dynamo leaving or

entering at the brushes.
When large armature conductors pass through a non-
uniform magnetic field, such as exists under the field-pole
corners, eddy currents will be produced in them because
of the greater E.M.F. induced in one side of the conductor.
This reduced in large machines by using several
loss is
conductors connected in parallel instead of one large equiva-

lent conductor.
64. Pole-Face Losses. — In dynamos having toothed
armatures the reluctance of the air-gap between the arma-
ture and the field poles is less opposite a tooth than oppo-
site a slot. Consequently more lines of force pass through
portions of the pole face opposite armature teeth than
through those portions opposite the slots in the armature
core. As the armature rotates each point of the pole face
is subjected to a pulsating flux, thus giving rise to eddy-
current and hysteresis losses in the pole pieces. To min-
imize this effect pole pieces are often constructed of
laminated iron or sheet steel.
The magnetomotive force of the eddy currents tends to

equalize the flux density, and therefore the pulsation is
confined to a very thin surface layer of the pole pieces.

An expression for the pole-face loss of a dynamo in watts,
given by Adams, is
where (B is the average pole-face flux density in maxwells

per square inch ; A^ is the total pole-face area of the
dynamo in square inches ; v is the peripheral velocity of
the armature in feet per second ; /i is the permeability of
the pole face ; p is the electrical resistivity of the pole face
ISO DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
in ^.^.i-. units {p equals about 1500); k is, 1.6 times the
square root of the tooth pitch in inches for soHd pole pieces,
and 4.1 times the thickness of the laminations in inches
divided by the square root of the tooth pitch in inches for
laminated pole shoes; k' is a constant depending upon the
ratio of slot opening, w^, to the radial length of the air-
gap, A, and may be taken from Fig. 88. The foregoing

expression has received experimental verification.
X
0.6
/
f
0.4
//
Tc
/
/
0.2
/
/
/
^/
Fig. 88.
The pole-face loss of a dynamo is usually less than one

per cent of the output of the machine. There is another
source of energy loss in the pole face which is due to re-
luctance pulsation of the magnetic circuit of the machine

occasioned by a variation in the number of teeth under a
field pole. Large air-gaps and chamfered pole corners
practically eliminate the flux pulsation. In the case of
laminated pole pieces, there are some additional losses due
GENERATORS. 151
to transverse bolts and screw heads which serve to hold

such shoes on the field cores.
65. Excitation Loss. — The loss of power due to the

current flowing through the field-magnet windings for pro-
ducing the magnetic field of the machine is easily calcu-
lated as the product of the square of that current and the
resistance of the winding. Thus, the excitation loss of a
series-wound dynamo in watts is
Pf-Ise'Rse, (I)
and that of a shunt-wound machine in watts is
Pjîsk'Rsk^^; (2)
where Ig^ and Ig]^ in amperes are the currents flowing in
the series and shunt field coils respectively, R^^ and i?^;^
are the resistances thereof in ohms at the steady running

temperature (§ 49), and E
is the terminal voltage of the
generator. In a compound-wound machine the total excita-

tion loss is the sum of the foregoing expressions, or
Pf=Ise'Rse+Isk'Rsh- (S)
Care must be exercised to apply this equation correctly for

long-shunt and short-shunt compound-wound dynamos.
With separately excited field magnets the power loss in
the resistance of the field-magnet coils alone should be con-

sidered, but with either shunt- or series-wound field coils the
power loss in the accompanying regulating rheostat should
also be included, since this apparatus is considered an
essential part of the machine.
66. Bearing Friction and Windage. — As an armature
revolves, some energy is wasted in bearing friction and
windage, and this loss may be considered independent of
the load on the machine. Its value cannot be determined
accurately, but may be estimated by means of the curve
in Fig. 89, given by Hobart. The loss in watts due to
16C0
y
/^
1200
/
/
y
^fw
/
/
/
/
V =
400 / 1000
/
/ 40CO 120CO
•7X„)
Fig. 89.
friction and windage, Pj^, is plotted against the product

of the square of the armature diameter in inches into the
axial length of the armature over the end connections of
the winding. The latter factor may be considered as the

gross length of the armature plus seven-tenths of the pole
pitch, or 4+ 0.7 Xr, inches. The curve refers to a speed
of 1000 rev. per min. the friction and windage

;
loss at
any other speed is taken in direct proportion.

This loss is usually less than one-half per cent in ma-
chines of over 1000 K. W. output, and may be 2 to 3 per
cent in machines of 20 K. W. or under.
67. Commutator Loss. — The transition resistance be-
tween the brushes and commutator causes a drop in volt-

age at each point of contact, the magnitude of which
GENERATORS. 153
depends upon the quality of the brush, but is practically

independent of commutator speed, brush current density,
and brush pressure, § 42. This drop for both positive and
negative brushes varies between 1.2 and 2.8 volts. There-
fore the product of this drop times the current leaving or
entering at the brushes gives the loss due to the brush
transition resistance.
The pressure of the brushes on the commutator causes
a friction loss. This quantity may be expressed as equal to
746 7zDcV/ F — ^^ „
^^
watts, Q 42
33000 X 12
where Dc = commutator diameter in inches,
V = rev. per. min. of armature,

pf = coefficient of friction (0.30 for carbon brushes
and 0.25 for copper brushes),
F= sum of pressures of all brushes on commuta-
tor in pounds ;
generally 1.25 lbs. per sq. in.
of rubbing surface.
To allow for the additional loss at the commutator due to

sparking at the brushes and currents in the short-circuited
segments, which cannot be determined accurately, six per
cent is usually added to the regular commutator loss.
Therefore the total commutator loss in watts may be ex-

pressed as
P, = 1.06 [(1.2 to 2.8)/ + O.OOS9 DcV/F].
68. Temperature Elevation. — The temperature eleva-

tion of any part of a dynamo is proportional to the watts
expended in that part and inversely proportional to its
radiating surface. The rise of temperature will be influ-
enced considerably by the speed of the armature and by

the effectiveness of the ventilating arrangements. The
temperature rise is considered separately for armature,
field coils, and for commutator.
The total losses in the armature comprise the eddy-
current and hysteresis losses in the core and the copper
loss in the winding. The true radiating surface of the
armature is difficult of determination, since the end con-
nections of the winding and the surfaces on both sides of
the ventilating ducts assist in radiating some of the heat
developed in the armature. It is more convenient to con-
sider a surface to which the cooling effect may be regarded
as approximately proportional, and such is the external cylin-
drical suiface of the armature.
For well -ventilated armatures of modern dynamos, the
temperature elevation in degrees Centigrade as thermo-
metrically measured may be obtained from the following
expression due to Arnold :
r„" = KiPe + A + Pa)

7zD{la + 0.7 Ap) (I + .037;)'
where P^ + P/^ = core losses in watts, § 62,

P^ = armature copper loss in watts, § 63,
D = armature diameter in inches,
la + 0.7 >^p = axial length of armature over end con-

nections in inches, § 66,
V = peripheral velocity of armature in feet
per second,
and /^j = a constant the value of which may be
taken as 55.
The temperature rise of the field coils depends upon the

depth of the winding, the heat emissivity of the bobbins
GENERATORS. 155
upon which the wire is wound, and the effect of the

fanning action of the revolving armature. For multipolar
machines of modern design, the temperature rise in degrees
Centigrade, as obtained from resistance measurements, may
be calculated from the following expression also given by
Arnold,
where P/ is the total excitation loss of the dynamo in

watts, § 65, Af is the area of the exposed surface of all
the field coils in square inches, and k^ is a constant the

value of which may be taken as 90.
For the temperature rise of commutators, the same
authority gives the following empirical equation :
k P
TtDclcii + -osv)
where T^ = temperature elevation of the commutator in

degrees Centigrade,
Pc = commutator loss in watts, § 6y,
Dc = commutator diameter in inches,

4 = length of commutator in inches,
V = peripheral velocity of commutator in feet per
sec,
and >^3 = a constant depending upon degree of ventila-
tion ; its value may be taken as 20.
69. Efficiency. — The efficiency of a machine is defined

as the ratio of its net power output to its gross power
input. It may also be defined as the ratio of the net
power output to the sum of the net power output and the
total losses. If Pq be the output in watts, and P^^^ be the
156 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY,
input to a dynamo in watts, then the efficiency is
Po Po
e =
Pin Po + {Ph + Pe + Pa + Pp + Pf+ Pfw + Pc)'
the various losses being determined as in §§ 62 to 6y.

The efficiency of a machine at full load should be deter-
mined at the ultimate temperature assumed under con-
tinuous operation at rated load, referred to the standard
engine-room temperature of 25° C.
The electrical power delivered by, or supplied to, a
dynamo should be measured at the terminals of the
machine, and is given by the product of the terminal volt-
age and the ampere output. The mechanical power should
be measured at the pulley, gearing, coupling, etc., thus
excluding the losses in these devices, but including the
bearing friction and windage. If, however, a generator be
mounted directly upon the shaft of a prime mover so that
it cannot be separated therefrom, the frictional losses in the
bearings and in windage may be disregarded in determining
the efficiency of the dynamo, owing to the difficulty in appor-
tioning these losses between prime mover and generator.
Where a machine has auxiliary apparatus, such as an
exciter, the power lost in the auxiliary apparatus should not
be charged to the machine, but to the plant consisting of
machine and auxiliary apparatus taken together. In such
cases plant efficiency should be distinguished from machine
efficiency.
The efficiency of a dynamo increases with the size, being

low on small machines, and quite high on the larger ones.
The efficiencies to be expected of modern direct-current
compound- or shunt-wound generators of various sizes at
full load are shown by the curve of Fig. 90,
GENERATORS. 157
200 300
K.W. OUTPUT
Fig. 90.
100
— ____
^ e
/
(
/y
/
/
Pe + \ /y
P/-a.
.^ ^^
X^ ^
^0*^^
^^ "^
fp
1/.
-.— i^ ^j^
l^ >-^
Pc
^
PERCENTAGE OUTPUT
Fig. 91.
The efficiency of a compound- or shunt -wound dynamo

is small at low outputs because the practically constant
core losses, friction and windage loss, and shunt-field exci-
tation loss are then large in comparison with the power

output. Fig. 91 shows how the efficiency of a certain
200-K.W. compound-wound generator increases with the
output. Curves are also given in this figure which show
the variation of the different losses with the output of the
generator. Since the distribution of the magnetic and
electrical losses of a generator lies within the discretion of
the designer, it is possible to so design a machine as to have
its maximum efficiency at full load or at some other
point of
specified load. As a rule, however, the exact location of
the maximum efficiency is hardly considered in designing
a dynamo, since the efficiency near the maximum value is
fairly constant over wide variations of load.
70. Coefficient of Conversion. — The coefficient of con-
version of a generator is the ratio of the total electrical
energy developed in the armature winding to the total me-
chanical energy supplied to the armature. This is some-
times called the efficiency of conversion^ but to distinguish
it from efficiency as defined in the foregoing article, it is
better to use the term coefficient of conversion. This co-

efficient is always less than unity, and is expressed by
F- 1
EinI +Pe + Ph + Pfw + P^
where E^^ is the actual voltage generated in the armature,

i.e., internal E.M.F.^ I is the current of the generator in
amperes leaving or entering at the brushes, and P^^ P^y
Pf^, and Pp are respectively the eddy-current, hysteresis,
friction and windage, and pole-face losses of the machine
in watts.
71. Economic Coefficient. — Some

of the electrical power
developed in a generator armature consumed in overcom- is
ing the resistance of the armature winding, some is wasted

at the commutator, and some is expended in exciting the
GENERATORS. 159
field magnets the remainder being delivered as useful

;
power to the external circuit, or load. The ratio of this

useful electrical energy to the total electrical energy devel-
oped in the armature is known as the economic coefficiefit^
and sometimes as the electrical efficiency. Hence, the eco-

nomic coefficient may be expressed as
_ E,J - (Pg + Pc + Pf)

^
EinI
where P^, Pa and Pf are respectively the armature copper

loss, commutator loss, and excitation loss of the generator
in watts.
The efficiency, or, as it is sometimes called, commercial

efficiencyy of a generator is evidently the product of the con-
version and economic coefficients, or
72. Magnetos. — Magnetos or magneto-generators are

dynamos in which the magnetic flux is set up by perma-
nent magnets. Since the flux density in this type of
machine is necessarily low, for a given flux more iron must
be used than in machines having their fields produced by
electro-magnets. Therefore the application of magnetos
is limited to purposes requiring a relatively small amount
of energy, such as telephone signaling, automobile ignition
work, and testing of electrical circuits.
Magnetos are generally alternating-current machines and

provided with slip rings or contact studs instead of com-
mutators. The armatures are usually of the Siemens

type, wound with many turns of fine wire, and mounted
so that they may be rapidly rotated between the poles of
l6o DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
permanent horseshoe magnets. Fig. 92 shows a telephone
magneto-generator manufactured by the Western Electric
Company. To the armature shaft is affixed a pinion which
meshes with a gear wheel turned by hand. Such machines
are designed to ring a call-bell or telephone ringer through
an external resistance as high as 50,000 ohms. The
armature windings of magnetos have resistances between
300 and 600 ohms depending on the type of service for
which they are designed. These generators are provided
Fig. 92.
with " shunts," which afford a by-path of low resistance

around the armature when not in use, or devices which
normally hold the armature circuits open and close them
when the generators are operated. The air gaps of such
machines may be as low as 0.0 1 inch without introducing
operative difficulties.
73. Constant-Potential and Constant-Current Supply. —
There are in use two systems of electrical distribution :
(a) at constant potential, (d) with constant current. In

the former system, lamps, motors, or other types of elec-
GENERATORS. l6l
trical apparatus are connected in parallel with each other

across the supply mains. To secure satisfactory operation,
it is necessary to maintain a constant voltage between
these mains, so that if some of the load be disconnected,
or more load be added, the current flowing in the remain-
ing lamps, motors, etc., will stay unchanged. This method
of supplying, at any point of usage, current at a constant
potential irrespective of the load which is there or at other
points of the system, is very generally used in the distri-
bution of electrical energy for incandescent electric light-

ing, for operation of constant-pressure motors, and for
electric traction. The great sensitiveness of the light in-
tensity of incandescent lamps to a change in voltage, the

candle power varying perhaps as the fourth power of the
voltage, requires that the voltage across electric-lighting
supply mains vary less than 3 per cent of its rated value.
In electric traction, where the load is exceedingly variable,
particularly in trunk-line operation, constant-potential dis-
tribution can only be approximated. Frequently a drop
of 25 per cent is allowed.
For where considerable energy is
lighting by arc lights
expended and where these
at the points of illumination,
points are separated from each other by considerable dis-
tances, it is sometimes economical and desirable to connect
the lamps in series. For satisfactory operation the current
in the circuit should be maintained constant, so that if
more lamps be put in service, or some taken out, the volt-

age across the remaining lamps will be unchanged. A
lamp connected to such a system may be cut out by short-
circuiting it.
The advantage of constant-current distribution for town

lighting is the economy of copper for the supply mains.
The line can be made of much smaller wire than in the
case of a constant-pressure circuit, for on a constant-current
circuit as the load increases the power or energy trans-
mitted is increased by raising the potential, the current
remaining unaltered ; while in a constant-pressure circuit
an increase of load is met by an increase of current, and
the supply mains must be of sufficient size to safely carry
the required maximum current. The size of wire neces-
sary is dictated, not by the energy transmitted, but by the
current flowing, hence a wire large enough to supply just
one lamp of a constant-pressure circuit can supply all the
lamps of a constant-current circuit.
Constant-Potential Generators.
74. Characteristic Curves of Shunt-Wound Generators.

— The operation of any dynamo can best be studied by
inspection of a curve which shows the relation existing be-
tween the current generated or supplied by the machine
and the voltage under which it operates. Such curves are
called characteristic curves, and they are generally plotted
with current strengths as abscissae and voltages as ordi-
nates. The characteristic curve of a shunt -wound gener-
ator is shown as E in Fig. 93, and it is seen therefrom that
the terminal voltage decreases slightly as the current out-
put of the machine increases, the speed of the generator
being maintained constant.
To obtain the characteristic curve of a shunt-wound gen-
erator experimentally the machine is run at normal speed,
and readings are taken of terminal voltage and current out-
put, the setting of the field rheostat being fixed during the
test. The setting of this rheostat may be that giving rated
GENERATORS. 163
voltage either at no load or at full load. Fig. 93 indicates

the latter condition. In some small machines the voltage
can be reduced to zero without causing excessive sparking
or extreme temperature elevation, but as a rule the com-
plete characteristic is obtained only when the field rheostat
is adjusted for a voltage much below the rated voltage of
the machine.
140
^
-
120
100
-
E ^^^ *V_ 1
•»
•X
80
\
\
60 \
\
40
20
RE! (STANCE DROP —
50 75 100
PERCENT FULL- LOAD CURRENT
Fig. 93.
The characteristic curve of a strictly constant-potential

generator would be a straight horizontal line, since this
indicates that the voltage remains the same at all loads.
The terminal voltage of a shunt-wound dynamo at constant
field excitation and speed decreases slightly as the load in-
creases, because of the armature resistance drop and arma-
ture reaction, § 50. The armature resistance drop, being
the product of the armature current and resistance, is prac-
tically a linear function of
the load (the change in resist-
ance due to heating occasioned by increased current may
be neglected), and may be plotted as a straight line, as in
Fig. 93. The total voltage generated is obtained by add-
ing the armature resistance drop to the terminal voltage.
Thus, the curve of total voltage, Et, is plotted by adding
the ordinates of E and those of the resistance-drop curve.
The difference between Et and the no-load terminal voltage
of the machine shows the effect of armature reaction.
The drop in terminal voltage is at first due chiefly to
the drop resulting from armature resistance. As the cur-
rent increases, the effects of armature reaction and satura-
tion of the magnetic circuit become evident. This soon
becomes the predominating cause of voltage drop, and to
such an extent that the curve turns back toward the
origin. When the resistance in the external circuit is zero,
of course no current flows through the and the few field,
volts then produced are due to residual magnetism. Unless

the field excitation is kept constant in determining the
terminal voltage curve of a generator, it should be re-
membered that the difference between Et and the no-load

terminal voltage is also due to a decrease of the field cur-
rent occasioned by the fall of potential at the terminals
of the field winding.
The voltage of a shunt machine generally increases
more rapidly than the speed. An increase of speed not
only increases primarily the number of volts generated, but
also increases the armature flux because of increased
excitation. The condition of the magnetic circuit as re-
gards saturation determines whether this secondary influ-
ence shall be great or small.

75. Voltage Regulation. — Shunt -wound generators are
so designed that the lowering of terminal voltage from no
load to full load shall be as small as is consistent with
economy and practicability. Such machines are particu-
GENERATORS. 165
larly adapted for constant-potential distribution. The

maintenance of a perfectly constant terminal voltage is
effected by the use of regulating field rheostats.

Suppose the field rheostat of a shunt-wound generator
to be adjusted for obtaining the rated voltage of the
machine at full load. Upon disconnecting the load and
leaving the rheostat setting unaltered, the terminal voltage
of the generator increases. This change of voltage from
full load to no load at constant speed when expressed as
a percentage of the rated full-load voltage, is termed the
voltage regulatiojt of the generator. Thus the regulation
of the generator of the foregoing section at full load, as
obtained from Fig. 93, is
128 - no ^ ^
= 0.103 or 1 6- 3 per cent.
no
The regulation of a separately excited generator should
be determined at constant excitation. The regulation of
a generator unit, consisting of a generator united with a
prime mover, should be determined at constant conditions
of the prime mover ; i.e., constant steam pressure, head,

etc. It would include the inherent speed variations of the
prime mover. For this reason the regulation of a genera-
tor unit is to be distinguished from the regulation of either
the prime mover or of the generator contained in it, when
taken separately.
76. Hand Regulation. — To maintain a perfectly con-
stant terminal voltage at increased load necessitates an
increase in the total E.M.F. generated in the machine.
An inspection of the formula for the electromotive force
of a generator,
1 66 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
shows that the only quantity that it is practical to vary is
the magnetic flux through the armature ^m- This can

easily be accomplished by regulating the amount of re-
sistance in a rheostat, which is in series with the field
coils, and which therefore

HAND
REGULATOR. governs the amount of cur-
rent in them, as in Fig. 94.
o
^^^- ^^'
use
In distributing current for
among
sumers the current
to feeding-points
a
near the locahty they supply,

but
station.
may be
keep the pressure

It
number
distant
is
is
which
of con-
carried
from the
desirable
at
are
to
these
points at a constant value, irrespective of the varying loss of
potential that is going on because of the resistance of the
conductors leading to them. To achieve this end feeders
are employed to carry the current to the feeding-points.
Each feeder is accompanied by a pilot wire imbedded in
the insulation. At the feeding-point the pilot wires are
attached to the feeder terminals, and at the station end are
attached to a voltmeter, so that the station attendant can
regulate the pressure not at the machine terminals but at
the distant distributing point.
77. Field Rheostats. — For varying the current in the
shunt field coils of generators, it is usual to employ field
rheostats which may be mounted on the station switch-
board together with the usual indicating instruments, or
on a separate frame. Such rheostats consist essentially
of high-resistance wire or ribbon with numerous taps con-
nected to a series of contact studs over which moves a
GENERATORS. 167
contact arm. The resistance units may be in the form

of cards, bars, bobbins, or grids, according to the capacity
required.
A field rheostat, manufactured by the General Electric
Company, is shown in Fig. 95. It is arranged to be
Fig. 95.
placed on the back of switchboards with the regulating

handle projecting in front. The resistance units are of the
card form, and are constructed by winding the resistance
ribbon on tubes of asbestos which are subsequently pressed
flat. These cards are then assembled, with interposed
asbestos, in sufficient numbers to make up the required
resistance of the rheostat. Iron plates, somewhat wider
than the cards, are introduced at intervals, and thus
increase the radiating surface. Numerous taps are
taken from the resistance units to the various contact
studs.
Fig. 96 illustrates a rear view of a Westinghouse rheo-
stat with the bottom plate removed. The resistance unit
Fig. 96.
is of the bar type, so called because the resistance wire

is wound on flat iron bars, but insulated therefrom by a
layer of fireproof insulating material. By varying the
size of the wire, resistances may be wound of from .03
to 400 ohms per linear inch of the bar, with a maxi-
mum capacity of 4 watts per square inch of surface on
one side.
Field rheostats for very large generators consist of re-

sistance units in the form of iron grids supported in
frames, which are mounted directly on the floor at some
GENERATORS. 169
convenient point near the 97 shows

switchboard. Fig.
such a rheostat made by the Westinghouse Electric and
Manufacturing Company.
Fig. 97.
Another form of field rheostat, made by the Cutler-

Hammer Manufacturing Company, is shown in Fig. 98.
In this rheostat the heat generated is not radiated directly
from the surface of the wire, but is conducted to a sup-
porting plate, which then becomes the radiating surface.
The resistance wires, contacts and lever are mounted on a
base of insulating material, the whole being carried by an
iron casing, which prevents the possibility of contact with
I/O DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
the heat radiating portion of the rheostat. Owing to the
increased radiating surface thus obtained, a shorter and
smaller wire can be used for a given volt-ampere capacity
than if the wire were merely exposed to the air. No con-
sideration of the mechanical strength of the wire enters
into the design of this resistance, since it is supported and
protected by an insulating compound.
^mmi
1 hm^
Fig. 98.
When large generators, such as are used in railroad

work, have their field-circuits opened, the E.M.F. self-
induced by the disappearance of the flux in the fields is
liable to reach such a magnitude as to pierce the insulation

of the field coils and destroy their usefulness. To obviate
this, before the field circuit is broken, the field coils are
connected (Fig. 99) through a high discharge resistance,
and the current in them is allowed to decay slowly. It is
GENERATORS. 171
thus unattended with any destructive potential differences.

Arc Kghts have in several instances been used for this pur-
pose instead of high resistances.
Field Switch
Discharge
Parallel Resistance Resistance
f^heostat Switch
Pilot Lamp Oo=

rield
jHrmatur-e
Fig. 99.
78. Self- Regulation. — By far the most elegant method

of constant potential regulation is which the main
that in
current of the machine is utilized in maintaining constant
the magnetic flux through the armature. This is accom-
plished by passing all or the greater part of the current
flowing in the armature a few times around the field
magnets, so that an increased load on the armature in-
creases the magnetizing ampere-turns of the field coils.
These series turns, when rightly proportioned, can be made

1/2 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
to compensate for a part, for all, or for even more than all
of the drop. This device can be used in connection with

any other form of excitation, as permanent magnets, sep-
arate excitation, or shunt excitation. In the last case, the
dynamo is said to be compound wound, as described in
§ 46. If the machine is designed to maintain a constant
pressure at some distant feeding-point, instead of at the
machine terminals, the machine is said to be over-com-
pounded, since the potential at the terminals will rise on
increase of load. From 3 to 5 per cent over-compound-
ing is frequent in machines used to supply lighting circuits,
and 10 per cent over-compounding is usual in railway
generators.
79. Characteristic Curves of Compound-wound Gen-
erators. — As a compound-wound machine is essentially
a shunt-wound generator provided with a series field wind-
ing, the characteristic curve thereof would be the resultant
of the sJiimt characteristic and the seines characteristic.
The form shown in Fig. 100, the shunt
of these curves is
characteristic being the same as that for shunt-wound

dynamos. The voltage induced in the armature by the
increase of magnetic flux due to the current in the series
turns is proportional to the current. As the load in-
creases this voltage will increase, and, if the series wind-

ing be properly proportioned, the increase of the voltage
due to the current in the series turns may neutralize the
decrease ofmain voltage occasioned by armature
the
resistance and reaction. The form of the curves of Fig.
100 indicates that such neutralization can occur at only
one load. If the compensation be complete at full load,
the machine is said to \)^ flat-compounded. The compound

characteristic for flat-compounding is shown by the broken
GENERATORS. 173
line, and that for over-compounding is shown by the full
line in the figure.
_-^
^« ..^s^ ^~ Z"
.
— ~- "-^^r
— _OVEF
^
i
'^ FLAT-COMPOUNDEO
X ^
"
^== ^^
-'
== -,-rr= :.=:=
50 ^ 75 ICO 150
PERCENT'FULL-LOAD CURRENT
Fig. 100.
The degree of compounding may be changed by varying

either the current flowing through the series winding or
the number of turns on it. In practice it is usual to pro-
vide m6re Series turns ttian i-equiired, and to place an ad-
justable resistance across the terminals of the series field
coils. The full armature current therefore divides between
this resistance and the series coils, and the amount flowing
through the latter may be adjusted for the required com-
pounding.
In over-compounded machines, the voltage regulation is
the ratio of the maximum difference in voltage from a

straight line connecting the no-load and full-load values of
terminal voltage as function of the current, to the full-load
terminal voltage.
80. Railway and Lighting Generators. — The tendency
of modern engineering practice is to install lighting gener-
ators which are directly connected to the prime mover.
Owing to the inherent speed of steam engines being smaller
than that of generators, direct-connected armatures are
designed to run at a lower speed than belt-driven ones.
Economical construction demands that they be of the mul-
tipolar type. They require less floor space per kilowatt than
the belt -driven machines ; and this is a question of consid-
erable importance in many installations. They have a
higher efficiency of operation consequent upon the elimina-
tion of losses in belting and countershafting. They also
permit of operation of isolated plants in residences and
other places where the noise resulting from belt-driven
machinery would not be tolerated.
In order that standard generators may be easily con-
nected with engines of any make, and vice versa, commit-
tees from engineering societies have recommended the
adoption of the following standard sizes, speeds, and ar-
mature shaft fits :

—
Sizes in K.W.
Capacity .
5 7-5 10 15 20 25 50
Speeds Rev. per Min.
in 450 425 400 375 350 325 290
Armature Fit in Inches .
3 3 4 4 5
Sizes in K. W. Capacity .
75 100 125 150 200 250 300
Speeds in Rev. per Min. . 250 235 220 200 190 180
Armature Fit in Inches . 7 1% 8 9 10 II
Fig. 1 01 shows a 1600-K. W., i6-pole, 100 rev. per

min. General Electric Company direct-connected engine-
driven railway generator. These generators are built in
sizes from 100 K. W. to 2700 K. W., and are designed to
yield the prevailing full-load railway voltages of 550, 575,
or 600 volts. The field-magnet yoke is of cast iron, circu-
GENERATORS. 175
lar in shape and of oval or rectangular cross-section. The

frame is divided, the upper half being fastened to the lower
by concealed bolts. The poles are solid steel castings
Fig. loi.
bolted to the frame, and may be removed laterally without

taking out the armature. Commutating poles are provided
in most sizes, to compensate for armature reaction, thus in-
suring good commutation at all loads. The armature spider
is equipped with vanes which fan air through the ventilat-
ing passages formed through the laminations and wind-
ings and around the poles, thus improving ventilation. The
brush-holder mechanism consists of a ring concentric with
the axis of the armature and attached to the field frame.
The simultaneous shifting of the brushes is accomplished
by the turning of the hand wheel. These generators are
rated on the basis that after a continuous full-load run of
24 hours the temperature elevation of no part of the ma-
chine will rise more than 35° above the engine-room tem-
perature. A subsequent increase of 50 per cent full load
for two hours will cause no more than 55° C. temperature
elevation over the surrounding air.
Fig. i02>
A 400-K.W., 375 rev. per min. generator

belt-driven,
manufactured by the Western Electric Company is shown in
Fig. 102. The pole pieces are of laminated sheet steel, and
are cast into the circular yoke, thus insuring good magnetic
joints. In the larger machines the frames are divided ver-
GENERATORS. i;7
tically, a construction that permits of easy access to the

armature without necessitating the use of heavy hoisting
apparatus. SUde rails are provided upon which the ma-
chines may be moved by means of a screw in order to
tighten the belt. Alignment is maintained by tongues in the
base of the machine which fit into grooves in the slide rails.
The Allis-Chalmers Company manufactures generators
of the belted *'H " type in sizes of 500 K.W.
from 7.5 to
for voltages of 240 and 500 volts, and engine-type
120,
generators from 12 to 1000 K.W. The field poles of
these machines are made up of laminated steel stampings
Fig. 103.
of the shape shown in Fig. 103. In assembling these

punchings to form the poles, they are alternately reversed
with respect to one side. Thus, the face of the pole for a
short depth contains but one-half as much iron as the main
body of the pole. This results, under normal excitation,
in a saturated pole face. It has the same effect in pre-
venting distortion of the field under the influence of arma-
ture reaction as saturation of the teeth of the armature
core. The teeth can therefore be operated at a smaller
magnetic The hysteresis losses in the teeth
flux density.
can accordingly be made smaller. The thinness of the
stampings, and the ideally perfect lamination of the pole
face, permit the use of a smaller ratio of tooth width to slot
width, without the excessive eddy current loss in the pole

1/8 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY
face which would occur m other machines. The possibihty
of using narrow teeth results in a reduction of the induc-
tances of the armature coils. This facilitates effective com-

mutation.
Fig. 104.
Fig. 104 shows a 350-K.W. engine-type generator made

by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company.
GENERATORS. 179
Some of the important features of this design are the use

of conductor retaining wedges in the armature slots, the
arrangement of the series field coil connections, removable
pole pieces, and the arrangement of armature equalizer
rings and of the brush-holder shifting device.
Fig, 105.
Fig. 105 depicts a General Electric Company generator

direct coupled to a steam turbine, and mounted on a com-
mon bedplate. The cut shows the generating unit as
semitransparent so as to reveal the interior parts.
The field-magnet frame of a 6-pole single-coil type of
Lundell generator with its field coil in place is shown in
Fig. 106. The frame is divided in a vertical plane which
is perpendicular to the axis of the armature.
i8o DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
Fig. io6.
8i. Three-Wire Generators. — The adoption of three-

wire systems of electrical distribution, particularly for light-
ing, is due to the saving of copper in the line conductors.
The standard voltage for incandescent lamps is about no
volts. At this pressure large conductors must be em-
ployed on long lines in order to maintain a fairly constant
voltage at the lamps as the load changes. By doubling the
voltage across the mains and connecting the lamps thereto
so that they are joined by pairs in series with each other,
only one-fourth as much copper need be used, since the
GENERATORS. l8l
same power is transmitted at half the current, and for the

same permissible drop the conductors need be but half as
large. But, in order that each lamp may be operated in-
dependently of the others, a balancing wire or neutral
wire must be provided, and this is usually of the same
size as the other conductors. Therefore the weight of con-
ductors on a three-wire system will be {- + |^ = | as much
as on a two-wire system.
The introduction of a neutral wire involves the genera-
tion of the total E.M.F. in two parts so that this neutral
wire may constitute a common conductor for the two com-

ponent voltages. To obtain this
condition, two generators may be
connected as in Fig. 107, but as
this signifies additional expense,
various other methods have been
adopted to obtain three-wire dis-
^^^' ^°^*
tribution. These practical methods
employ: (a) dynamotors, §110, which have two armature
windings upon the same core connected to two separate
commutators, and connected in the same manner as two
individual generators; {b) storage batteries, § 113, of suffi-
cient number of cells connected between the two outside

wires, the neutral wire connecting with the middle point of
the battery; {c) balancers, §111, which are two mechani-
cally coupled dynamos connected across the outside wires,
one of which, if the system be unbalanced, will run as a
motor and drive the other as a generator which supplies
energy to the more heavily loaded side; [d) three-brush
dynamos, and {e) three-wire generators.
The total voltage of a generator could be divided into
two parts by placing a brush midway between the positive
and negative brushes ; but, for satisfactory current collec-
tion, the coil short-circuited by this additional brush must
lie in a weak magnetic field. Such an arrangement was
developed by Dettmar, and is shown in Fig. io8. This
illustrates a four-pole field-magnet
frame wound as a bipolar machine

with two adjacent north poles and
two adjacent south poles. The
yokes of such machines between
oppositely named poles must be
of sufficient cross-section to carry
the total flux per pole at a reason-
able flux density. The tendency
^^^- ^°^- of the armature current is to crowd
the flux toward the leading poles, thus resulting in a some-
what greater voltage between the positive terminal and
the neutral wire than between the latter and the negative
terminal.
Fig. 109.
The three-wire generator designed by Dobrowolsky is well

adapted for three-wire supply circuits. Points of the arma-
ture winding at distances from one another equal to twice
the pole pitch are connected to one slip ring and the inter-
GENERATORS. 183
mediate points are connected to another slip ring. Brushes

bearing upon these collector rings connect with the ends
of a coil wound on an iron core, called a reactor, as shown
in Fig. 109. The middle point of the reactor, D, connects
to the neutral wire of the system, the outside wires being
Fig. no.
connected to the brushes B. The reactor has a low re-

sistance, but a large inductance. The electromotive force
across the terminals C is an alternating E.M.F. ; and, be-
cause of the large inductance of the coil, very little current
flows through it when the loads on the two sides of the
system are equal. If the system be unbalanced, the cur-
rent flowmg in the neutral wire, since it is direct current,
will suffer little impedance in passing through the reactor.
A 150-K.W., 6-pole General Electric Company genera-
tor, provided with two slip rings for connection to a reactor
as just described, shown is in Fig. no. These machines
are usually wound for 250 volts, so that 125 volts can be
obtained on either side of the three-wire system. They
may be flat- or over-compounded to compensate for line
drop.
Three-wire generators having a single slip ring for con-
nection to the neutral wire are manufactured by the Burke
Electric Company. The reactor forms a part of the arma-
ture and revolves with it, the middle point of the reactor
being connected to the slip ring.
Three-wire generators are extensively used in isolated

plants for electric lighting and light power service.
82. Homopolar Dynamos. —A type of direct-current
generator in which the armature conductors move in a uni-
directional and uniform magnetic field, and therefore have
induced in them electromotive forces of constant direction
and magnitude, is known as the homopolar dynamo, some-
times also as the acyclic or tmipolar dynamo. Fig. in
shows a cross-section machine of this type, with
of a simple
one conductor. A, connected to two slip rings B. The
magnetic field of the generator is set up by the current
flowing in the field coils C \ the paths of the lines of force
being represented by the dotted lines. The current is led
from the machine by means of brushes which slide upon
the slip rings and are connected to wires projecting through
apertures in the field-magnet yoke.
GENERATORS. 185
Single-conductor homopolar dynamos are suitable for

supplying a large current at low voltage, and even then the
magnetic flux traversing the air-gap must be large and
the armature must be run at high speed. As there is little
demand for such low- voltage generators, homopolar machines
Fig. III.
for practical purposes must be designed to generate higher

voltages. This may be accomplished by increasing the
number of armatures mounted together to form one ma-
chine, orby employing several conductors insulated from
one another and connected in series. The end of one con-
ductor must be joined to the beginning of another, but this
end connection must not cut the lines of force, otherwise
the resultant E.M.F. would be zero. Consequently the
end connections must be stationary, and this means that
two slip rings must be provided for each conductor. Limi-
tations to increasing the number of conductors are the
available space for the slip rings and the increased brush
friction.
1 86 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
The electromotive force generated by a multi-conductor
homopolar dynamo is
E,,=N^îo-' volts,
60
where iV = number of conductors in series,

$ = total flux entering armature,
and V = rev. per min.
The armature 300-K.W., 500-volt, 3000 rev. per
of a
min., turbine-driven homopolar generator is shown in Fig.
112. It consists of 12 copper conductors mounted on a
Fig. 112.
cast-steel core, the ends of the conductors being connected

to 12 cast-steel slip rings at either end of the armature.
One copper brush is provided for each ring, and access is
obtained thereto through apertures in the cast-steel field-
magnet frame. Compounding is effected by utilizing the

M.M.F. of the currents in the stationary leads which are
connected to the brushes, or that of the currents in the
slip rings from the connection points to the brushes, to aid
the M.M.F. of the field current. The degree of com-
pounding may be varied by shifting the brushes. Homo-
polar generators may be separately- or self-excited.
GENERATORS. 187
As the air-gap of homopolar machines may be very

small, the field current need not be great in order to set
up the required magnetic flux
through the armature. This
90
fact indicates a low excitation
/^
loss. There are practically no 80
iron losses in this
generator because of the con-

type of 70
/
stancy of flux density. The
CO /
brush losses, however, are 50
large. The efficiency curve

50 75 100
of the 300-K.W. generator PERCENT FULL LOAD
Fig. 113.
is shown in Fig. 113. The
voltage regulation is from 6 to 12 per cent.
Consta n t- Cii rreî t Gene rat rs.
83. Characteristic Curves of Series-Wound Generators.

— Fig. 114 shows the characteristic curves of a 15 K.W.
series-wound generator at a speed of 1000 rev. per min.
Curve E indicates the terminal voltage of the machine
when delivering various currents, and is called the external
characteristic. This curve shows that the E.M.F. of the
generator at first increases in proportion to the current
output, but as the load increases the resistance drop of the
field and armature windings and armature reaction cause
the curve to bend back. This is also due to the fact that,
as the magnetic circuit approaches saturation, the magnetic
flux does not increase proportionally to the increase of field
current. To obtain the external characteristic of a series-
wound generator experimentally the machine is run at a
definite and constant speed and observations of terminal
voltage and current output are made at different loads. At

constant load the terminal voltage will vary directly with
the speed.
The total characteristic of a series-wound generator may
be obtained from the external characteristic and the resist-
ance drop of the windings, § 74. Thus in Fig. 114, curve
^ E^
'
^^
/ ^' __ --?
y
//
/
7
Ik
/
/
/ d2°S-
i^^
L —
^0^
/
AMPERES
Fig. 114.
El is plotted by adding the ordinates of the curves of ter-

minal voltage and resistance drop. The curves of both E
and Et start above zero because of residual magnetism in
the cores of the field magnets.

The total characteristic resembles the magnetization
curve of series-wound generators. The latter is a curve
which shows the terminal voltage of a machine at no load

for different values of field current. The difference exist-
GENERATORS. 189
ing between these curves is due solely to the demagnetizing

effect of the armature current on the magnetic circuit.
84. Power Lines. —

Where volts and amperes are used
as ordinates and abscissae, lines can be drawn connecting
points of constant product of the two, representing watts
or power. Fig. 1
1 5 shows such lines drawn for one, two,
100
\K
90
\
^
X\ ^
'
\\
^
\
/
'
AMPERES
Fig. 115.
and three kilowatts. If E be the external characteristic of

a dynamo, then the curves make it apparent that the
machine cannot generate K.W., but that for most values
3
under 3 K.W. there will be two loads under which the
generator can run and yield the same voltage.
85. Series-Wound Generators. — The advantage of con-
stant-current distribution for arc lighting lies in the saving
of conductor material. In this system, as the load increases
the voltage must increase a corresponding amount, so that

IQO DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
the current flowing will be unchanged. An ordinary series
arc lamp, as it is trimmed and adjusted for general use, re-
quires between 45 and 50 volts to force its rated current
through it. A generator supplying a circuit of say 2000
candle-power lamps with n such lamps in the circuit must
be capable of generating a constant current of 9.8 amperes.
It must be able to regulate its pressure between the limits
of 50 and 50 ;/ volts. This is necessary in order that it may
operate all the lamps or any part of the whole number at
proper illumination.
The current of an arc-light machine must not exceed nor
fall below its normal value, no matter how suddenly the
load is varied ; for the slightest change affects the intensity
of the light at the lamps. It is obvious that some mechan-
ical device could be applied to an ordinary shunt-wound
generator to cause it to give constant current, either by
changing the position of the brushes or by varying the
ampere-turns of the field coils. However, any such device
would be slow of operation, and a sudden short-circuit
would cause a destructive current to flow before the reg-
ulator completed its action. It is therefore necessary to
rely on the armature reactions for regulation, since they

vary simultaneously with the current. All successful con-
stant-current machines are constructed on this principle.
The machine is designed with a magnetic field of great
intensity, the armature reactions are very great, and thus
the total flux effective in producing E.M.F. is reduced.
A slight increase of current in the armature materially in-
creases the armature reactions. The effective flux is thus

reduced, and the pressure falls until the current returns to
its normal value. Thus the machine is completely and in-
stantly self-regulating. The field coils are series wound on
GENERATORS. I9I
all arc-light generators, and the cores of the field magnets

are worked at a very high magnetic density, since the mag-
nets are then less sensitive to slight changes in the mag-
netizing force. In commercial machines the densities in
the field cores are from 17,000 to 18,000 lines per square
centimeter for wrought iron or steel, and from 9000 to
1 1,000 lines for cast iron.
In the armature high magnetic density is also required
to prevent a sudden rise of voltage when the circuit is
broken. With no current in the armature, the total mag-

netomotive force of the field magnets would be effective in
producing E.AI.F., and a destructive rise of pressure would
result, since the total M.M.F, of the field magnets is much
greater than the normal effective M.M.F. But a high
magnetic density in the armature core leaves the latter
incapable of receiving such an increase of flux, and there-
fore destructive voltages are avoided. In practice the
armature core is designed to have a density of from 1 5,000
to 20,000 lines per square centimeter at its minimum cross-
section.
A consideration of the foregoing theory of regulation
shows that the following conditions should obtain more or
less completely in a successful constant-current generator
{a) since the current is small, there must be a great number
of armature turns ;
{b) the magnetic field of the machine
must be much distorted ic) the path of the lines of force
;
of the field coils must be long and of small area, so the

M.M.F. cannot be readily changed id) the path of the ;
lines of force due to armature magnetization must be short

and of great area, so that the M.M.F. of the armature will
change with the slightest change of current and {e) the ;
pole pieces must be worked at a high flux density.

Evidently extreme difficulty is found in so designing the
different parts of themachine as to give proper considera-

tion to each of the conditions and yet produce a machine
that will regulate for constant current at all loads. This
leads to the introduction of automatic mechanical devices
for aiding in the regulation. These devices must not be
considered as being the sole regulators, for in every case
they are secondary to the natural self-regulating tendency
of the armature. In general they regulate for the gradual
and greater changes of load, while the armature reactions
take care of the smaller and more sudden fluctuations.
There are two general systems of regulating arc-light
dynamos. The first method is to cause the machine to de-
velop an E.3I.F. in excess of that required for the load, and
then to collect an E.M.F. just sufficient for the load in
hand. This is done by shifting the brushes from the neu-
tral plane (§ 52). In a closed-coil armature this causes a
counter pressure to be devêloped in those conductors lying
between the commutating plane and a similar plane in the
other direction making an equal angle with the neutral

axis. This reduces the pressure to the desired amount.
In an open-coil armature the brushes, when in the maxi-
mum position, connect to the circuit those coils of the

armature which at that instant have the maximum E.M.F.
generated in them. By shifting the brushes either way,
coils can be connected to the circuit which have some
E.M.F. lower than the total E.M.F. generated in them, and
the amount of shifting regulates the pressure on the line.
The second method of arc-light dynamo regulation is to
vary the magnetizing force in the field magnets just enough
to put the required pressure on the line. Since the mag-
netizing force is dependent on the ampere-turns of the field
GENERATORS. I93
coils, it can be varied either by cutting out or short-circuit-

ing some of the turns or by changing the current in them
by means of a variable resistance which is shunted across
the field terminals. In practice both these methods have
been used.
Whether is effected by changing the position
regulation
of the brushes, or by changing the field excitation, sparking
will occur at the points of collection of the current if means
are not provided to avoid it. Sparkless collection could be

obtained were the magnetic field perfectly uniform all around
the armature. In general this condition is impracticable,
since it requires almost the whole armature to be covered
by the pole faces, and it requires the density in the gap
beneath them to be uniform. Considerations of magnetic
leakage and armature reaction render almost impossible the
satisfying of these conditions. Another and more practical
method is to employ for current collection at one terminal
of the machine two brushes connected in parallel. These
are moved in opposite directions, thus giving the effect of a
single brush of varying circumferential contact, the center
of which can always be kept in the neutral plane. This
device avoids excessive sparking, and is used quite success-
fully in practice. There is, however, some question as to
the advisability of resorting to it.
The Brush
86. Machine. — Fig.
116 shows a standard
160-light Brush arc-light generator, made by the General
Electric Company. The armature revolves between the
pole faces of two sets of field magnets. Like poles are op-
posed to each other. The flux, therefore, takes a path out
of the opposing pole faces into the armature core, and then
circumferentially through the core and out into the next
pair of opposing pole faces.
The armature is of the open-coil type and consists of a
number of coils or bobbins placed on a ring core of greater
radial depth than breadth, and the pole faces cover the sides
Fig. ii6.
instead of the circumference. The individual bobbins are

protected by an insulating box, but are not surrounded by
any masses of metal. This fact, together with the fact
that the armature is of such shape as to cause great air
GENERATORS. 195
disturbances, insures exceptionally good ventilation of the

armature. This machine is of relatively slow speed, the
larger sizes running at only 500 rev. per min.
At a given instant of time, the different coils on the
moving armature have E.M.F.'s of widely different magni-
tudes induced in them. The commutator, Fig. 117, is so
designed that it connects the coils of highest E.M.F. in

series with one another to the external circuit, and con-
nects the coils of medium E.M.F. in multiple with one
another to the external circuit, while those of smallest
E.M.F. are cut out entirely from the circuit.
The bearings are self-lubricated by means of rings.
Since the poles are on the sides of the armature, side play
in the bearings must be prevented. The commutator end
of the shaft is turned with thrust collars which are engaged
by corresponding annular recesses in the brasses.
Voltage regulation on these machines is effected by a

variable resistance in shunt with the field coils ; and as the
field current is changed the position of the brushes is also
changed, not to collect current at a lower voltage, as de-
scribed in §85, but to obtain sparkless collection. These
two operations are performed by a regulator, shown in Fig.
1 18, which is attached directly to the frame of the machine.
The mechanism consists of a rotary oil-pump driven by a

belt from the armature shaft, a balance valve of the piston
Fig. 118.
type, and a rotary piston in a short cylinder, which is

directly connected to an arm moving over the contacts of
the field-shunt rheostat. The valve is operated by a lever
actuated by a controlling electro-magnet which is energized
by the whole generator current. At normal current the
valve is centrally placed, and the oil from the pump flows
around the overlapping ports into the reservoir without
GENERATORS. 197
effect. If the current rises above the normal, the armature

of the controlHng magnet is attracted, the balance valve
moves up, and oil enters the cyUnder, moving the rotary
piston in a clockwise direction. The shaft of this piston
moves the arm of the rheostat, cutting out resistance and

thus lowering the field exciting current. At the same
Fig. iig.
time a pinion on the shaft, seen in Fig. 119, actuates a

rocker arm which moves the brush holders to a position
such that the collection of current by the brushes will be
sparkless. When the current returns to its normal value
the adjusting spring returns the lever and balance valve to
the central position. If the current falls below normal
value, these operations are reversed. It is claimed for this
regulator that it can bring the current back to normal from

a complete short-circuit in from 3 J to 4 seconds. The ten-
sion of the adjusting spring can be regulated from the out-

side of the dust-proof case by a hard rubber knob.
87. The Excelsior Arc-Light Generator. — This machine,
Fig. 120, is a closed-coil ring-armature generator, having
pole faces that cover both
the sides and the circum-
ference of the armature.
The interesting feature of
this machine is the method
of regulation. The proper
voltage is supplied to the
Hne by using both methods
of control in conjunction ;
that is, sections of the field

windings are cut in or out
of the circuit, and at the
same time the position of

the brushes is shifted. The
proper motion of the field
regulator arm and of the

brush holder is obtained by
Fig. 120.
means of a small motor
whose field is " sneaked " from the main magnets of the
machine. This motor is operated by a device shown
in Fig. 121. The whole device is inserted in series with
one of the mains from the generator. The right-hand
lever is of insulating material, with the contact blocks a
and b properly placed upon it. The left-hand lever is of
conducting material, and is capable of being attracted by
the electro-magnet which is excited by the main current.
GENERATORS. 199
The magnet and spring are so adjusted that when the nor-
mal current is flowing, both a and b are in contact with the
left lever, and the current flows in the three shunt paths,
R, R^, and R^. There will be no current in the armature
of the regulating motor, since the potential at brush x is
From Dynamo
Fig. 121.
equal to the potential at brush 7. If now the line current

becomes too strong the magnet attracts the left lever to
it and the contact at a is broken. Immediately the current
flowing through d divides at the brush ,r, part going through
R^ and part through the motor armature and R^. The
motor will then revolve in a given direction, and by simple
mechanical devices will cut out sections of the field wind-
ings, and will shift the brushes until the normal current is
flowing, when contact is again made at a and the control-

ling motor stops. If the line current drops below normal,
the spring pulls the lever away from the magnet and the
contact at b is broken. Part of the current then flows from
y to X through the motor armature. It therefore revolves
in a direction opposite to that which it had before. The
brushes on the dynamo are shifted back again, and more
sections of field winding are put into circuit.
When the current is broken at a or b, there is no serious
sparking, since there are always two circuits in shunt with
the break. The whole current of the dynamo does not
exceed ten amperes ; and the resistances i?, i?^, and R,^ are
so proportioned that only a small portion of this current
flows through a or b.
In practice the levers and the magnet are mounted on

the wall or the switchboard, while the regulating motor is
mounted on the dynamo frame.

88. The Thomson-Houston Dynamo. — The Thomson-
Houston arc-light generator is of a type entirely different
from the other machines here described, not only in appear-
ance, but also in method of armature winding and of regu-

lation. A view of this machine is given in Fig. 122. Each
field coil has for its core an iron tube, flanged exteriorly at
each end to form a recess for the windings, and fitted at
the armature end with a concave iron piece that surrounds

part of the armature. This tube, with the flanges and the
cup-shaped end, is cast in one piece. The farthermost
flange of each field core is bolted to a number of wrought-
iron connecting-rods which hold the magnets in place, pro-
tect the field windings, and take the place of the yoke of
GENERATORS. 20I
Other machines in completing the magnetic circuit. The

magnets are mounted on a frame, including legs and bear-
ing supports for the armature shaft.
The armatures of the older machines of this type are
spheroidal in shape, while the more recent ones have ring
Fig. 122.
armatures ; these are more readily repaired or rewound.

The winding of either form of armature is peculiar in that
only three coils are employed, set with an angular displace-
ment from one another of 120 degrees. The inner ends
and are not at-
of the three coils are joined to each other,
tached to any other conductor, an arrangement unique in
direct-current dynamos. The outside ends are connected
to the segments of a three-bar commutator, from which the
current is collected by four copper brushes connected in
multiple.
Regulation is obtained by shifting the brushes in the
following manner. Fig. 123 shows the two possible rela-
tions between brushes and commutator that may exist at
any instant. Both brushes of each set may rest on one
commutator bar, or the brushes of one set may span the
gap between the other two bars. These conditions are re-
peated three times at each brush for each revolution. If
Fig. 123.
the dotted line shows the position where the maximum

E.M.F. is generated in the coils, then in Fig. 123 (2 the two
most active coils are connected in series with the outside
circuit, while the coil near the position of least activity is
out of circuit. In Fig. 123 <^ the two less active coils are
in multiple with themselves and in series with the most
active coiland the external circuit. In practice the brushes
of a set are 60 degrees apart, leaving 1 20 degrees between
the leading brush of one set and the following brush of the
other set; and since 120 degrees is the angular measure
GENERATORS. 203
of the length of a commutator bar, there is no coil out of

circuit at normal load, two being always in parallel and in
series with the third. If the current rise above the normal
the leading brushes move a small angle forward, while the
following brushes recede through three times that angl^.
This will shorten the time that a single coil gives its whole
E.M.F. to the circuit, and will place it more quickly in par-
allel with a comparatively inactive But such a move-

coil.
ment will reduce the angular distance between the nearest

brushes of the opposite sets to less than 120 degrees, hence
the machine will be short-circuited six times per revolution,
since one brush of each set will touch one segment of the
commutator at the same time. If the current in the line
falls below normal, then the brushes close together, and

the time that a coil is in series is lengthened, and the time
that it is in parallel with an inactive one is lessened.
A
B
B 0.
<^
J-^
Uaaaaaa-I
1
Line
^ ^ (\(\
Coils
Fig. 124.
The arrangement for moving the brushes is shown in

Fig. 124. The leading brushes are shifted forward on an
increase of current merely to help avoid sparking. The
brushes are moved by levers actuated by a series magnet
A. This magnet is normally short-circuited by the by-
pass circuit. On an undue rise of current this circuit is
broken by the series magnet B. A then becomes more

powerful, and the levers separate the brushes. While the
machine is in operation the circuit-breaker C is constantly
vibrating, the brushes adjusting to suit the load. A high
carbon resistance is shunted across C to prevent sparking
at that point.
As might be expected, with but three parts to the com-
mutator and collection made with small regard to the
neutral point, the sparking of this machine is such as speed-
ily to ruin the commutator and the brushes, if means
are not taken to suppress it. A rotary blower is mounted
on the shaft, and is arranged to give intermittent puffs of
air, which at the right moment blow out the spark. The
insulation between the segments is air, considerable gap
being left between them, and through these gaps the sparks
are blown.
89. Western Electric Arc -Light Dynamo. — Fig. 125
represents a Western Electric Company generator, which
isregulated by means of shifting the brushes. The brush
and rocker are connected by means of a link and a ball-and-
socket joint with a long screw, the latter being held in posi-
tion by a nut. When the current is normal, both the nut
and screw revolve at the same rate, and consequently there
is no axial movement of the screw, and the brush, there-
fore, remains stationary. An electro-magnet, energized by

a coil which is in series with the main circuit, attracts an
armature whose movement toward the magnet is opposed

by the action of a spring which is susceptible of adjust-
ment. When the current has too high a value, the electro-
GENERATORS. 205
magnet more strongly than ordinarily.

attracts its armature
The latter moves toward the magnet, and by its movement
catches a stop on the revolving nut, and thereby prevents
the revolution of the nut until the resulting longitudinal
movement of the screw has shifted the brushes sufficiently
Fig. 125.
to bring the current to its normal value. If the current be

too weak, the spring which is attached to the electro-magnet
armature overpowers the magnetic attraction. The result-
ing movement of the armature stops the rotation of the
screw and permits the rotation of the nut. This results in
a longitudinal movement of the screw and a shifting of the

2o6 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
Fig- 126.
PROBLEMS. 207
brushes in the opposite direction. The stopping and start-
ing of the nut and screw are accomplished through the

medium of small triggers controlled by the armature of
the series magnet. The triggers are fastened to the gear
rotated from the main shaft by a belt, and they engage with
stops on the nut and screw respectively. Fig. 126 gives
a sectional view of the regulator. The trigger which
engages with the screw isshown at n^ and the one which
engages with the nut is shown at m.
PROBLEMS.
1. The resistance of the field winding of a generator which
has been standing idle for a considerable time in an engine-room
at a temperature of 25° C, is 22.1 ohms. The resistance of
this winding when the generator is in operation at full load for
several hours is 25 ohms. Determine the temperature elevation

of the field coils.
2. Estimate the output of a generator the armature core of
which is 18 inches in diameter and 13 inches in length ; the
speed of the machine being 500 rev. per min.
3. From the following data of a 350-K.W., 250-volt, 90 rev.
per min., i6-pole, shunt-wound generator, determine the arma-
ture core losses:
Armature diameter 108 inches
Gross length of armature 15 inches
Net length of armature 12 inches
Number of slots (open type) 576
Depth of slot i.o inch
Width of slot 0.3 inch
Radial core depth back of slots 7 inches
Conductors per slot 2
Size of armature conductors 0.3 X 0.2 inch

Flux per pole at full load 16 megamaxwells
Type of armature winding simplex ; lap
Peripheral length of pole face ^ 15 inches
Radial length of air-gap 0.3 inch
Number of field turns per pole 600
Mean length of a field turn 59 inches
Cross-section of field conductor 0.03 sq. in.
Drop at the carbon brushes 2.4 volts
Current density at brushes 40 amperes per sq. in.
Diameter of commutator 72 inches
Axial length of commutator 9 inches
Exposed surface per field coil 1250 sq. in.
Field pole shoes are of laminated steel.
4. What is the armature copper loss at full load of the gener-

ator of the foregoing problem ?
5. Compute the pole-face loss of the 350-K.W. generator,

the data of which are given under Prob. 3.
6. Calculate the excitation loss of the generator of Prob. 3 at
full load.
7. Find the total commutator losses at full load of the

350-K.W. generator of Prob. 3.
8. Determine the temperature elevations of the armature,
field coils, and commutator of the generator discussed in the
foregoing problems, when operating continuously at full load.
9. A motor-generator set consists of a direct-current generator

coupled to an alternating-current synchronous motor [power-fac-
tor = i]. When the generator delivers a current of 600 amperes
with 250 volts across the machine terminals, the motor takes
26.4 amperes at 6600 volts. Determine the efficiency of the
motor-generator set.
10. The E.M.F. of a shunt-wound railway generator rises
from 550 volts at full load to

645 upon disconnecting the
volts
load. What is the percentage regulation of the machine ?
11. A shunt-wound generator, rated at 50 K.W., supplies
current to an external circuit with 550 volts across the machine
PROBLEMS. 209
terminals. To produce this voltage 6280 ampere-turns per pole

are required at no load, and 7640 ampere-turns at full load.
How many series field turns per pole must be provided for flat
compounding ?
12. A three-wire system supplies current to 110- volt lamps

and to a 220-volt motor which is connected to the outside wires.
It is found that the lamps on one side of the system burn more
brightly than those on the other, while the motor operates as
usual. What is the trouble ?
13. Find the flux density in the air-gap of the 300-K.W.,

500-volthomopolar generator mentioned in § 82 ; the armature
diameter being taken as 20 inches and its net axial length as
12 inches.
14. When a series-wound generator is driven at 1200 rev.
per min. its terminal voltage is 150 volts, with a current output
of 20 amperes. Compute the terminal voltage of the machine
when it delivers a current of 50 amperes at a speed of 1500
rev. per min. ; the resistance of armature and field windings
together being 0.125 ohm. The increase in magnetic flux
accompanying the increased current is 60 %.
2IO DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
CHAPTER VII.
MOTORS.
90. Principle of Action of a Motor. — Any direct-current

generator will operate as a motor and deliver mechanical
energy if supplied with current from some external source.
This source may be a constant-potential system or a con-
stant-current system of electrical distribution. Structur-
ally generators and motors are identical, but as motors are
generally placed as near as possible to their loads, they may
frequently be exposed to severe weather conditions, dirt,
etc., and for this reason motors for electric railways, for
rolling mills and for machine tools are of the enclosed
type.
When a current flows through a conductor which is situ-
ated in a magnetic field, a force will be exerted upon that

conductor tending to move it perpendicularly to itself and
to the magnetic flux ; the magnitude of this force in dynes
being F= — -, (§ 22)
where /= current flowing in conductor in amperes,
/ = length j}f conductor in centimeters,

and (B = flux density of magnetic field in gausses.
Irrespective of the multipolarity of the field magnets or of

the method of armature winding, the force actions between
the magnetic field and all the currents in the inductors will
conspire to produce rotation in one direction.
MOTORS. 211
Consider a single armature conductor, Fig. 127, to carry

a current flowing away from the observer. The Unes of
force which surround the con-
ductor due to the current in it
will have a clockwise direction.

Thus, to the right of the con-
ductor these lines will have the
same direction as the lines of
force from the field magnet N,
and to the left of the conductor
Fig. 127.
they will be opposed to the latter.
The resultant field, therefore, will be stronger on the right-

hand shown and consequently the armature carrying
side, as ;
that conductor will be pushed to the left and will rotate

counter-clockwise.
91. Direction of Rotation. — To determine the direction
of movement of a conductor carrying a current of definite
direction in a magnetic field of known direction, one may
""EcnoN CUBBEHt
FIELD MAGNET
DYNAMO RIGHT HAND.

•
MOTOR LEFT HAND-
Fig. 128. Fig. 129.
employ a modification of Fleming's rule. Thus in a gen-

erator the thumb and first two
hand fingers of the right
determine the direction of the induced E.M.F. as shown
in Fig. 128. But in a motor the thumb and first two
fingers of the left hand may determine the direction of
rotation as shown in Fig. 129.
If in a dynamo the direction of the field flux remain
unaltered, and the armature be suppUed with a current
flowing in the same direction as when the machine was
operated as a generator, then the direction of rotation will
be opposite to that while driven as a generator. Thus, if
the positive brush of the generator be connected to the

positive terminal of an external source of supply, and if the
negative brush be connected to the negative terminal, then
the direction of current flow in the armature will be
reversed. The connections of shunt-wound and series-
Fig. 130. Fig. 131.
wound dynamos are shown respectively in Figs. 130 and

131, in which the full arrows represent generator condi-
tions and the dotted arrows represent motor conditions, the
connections to the circuit remaining unchanged. In shunt-
wound, separately excited and magneto machines, since the
magnetic fields in these dynamos are not reversed, the
direction of rotation will be unaltered. The direction of
rotation of the armature of series- wound dynamos, since
the field flux also has its direction changed, will be re-
versed. Compound-wound machines will have the same or

reversed direction of rotation, depending upon whether the
magnetizing effect of the shunt coils is stronger or weaker
MOTORS. 213
than that of the series coils. In a compound-wound gen-

erator the actions of the shunt coils and the series coils are
cumulative, i.e., in the same direction ; but when used as a
motor the actions are differential, i.e., opposed to each other.
Motors are also wound so as to have cumulatively acting
series coils.
To reverse the direction of rotation of a motor one must
not change the connections with the supply mains, for this
would reverse the current directions in both armature and
field windings, and thus leave the direction of rotation unal-
tered. It is necessary to change the connections of either
field or armature winding, but not of both.
92. Torque Exerted by a Motor. The force which — is
exerted upon each conductor carrying a current / and

situated in a uniform magnetic field of flux density (B is
//(B
dynes, § 90. The total number of conductors on the
armature which are under the 2/ poles may be represented
as kSq,
where k is the ratio of the circumferential length of the

pole face to the pole pitch, 5 is the number of conductors
in series between brushes, and q is the number of current
paths through the armature between brushes. Let It be
the total or external armature current in amperes, and D
be the diameter of the armature in centimeters. Then the
total torque exerted by the armature in dyne-cm. is
r= - ^
2
.
q
. /(B . ^
10
= 0.05 kDKs.SIt.
But the total flux per pole is
2/
Therefore the total torque in dyne-cm. is
T= 5 .05 pS^h = -^ SÎt,

n \07z
which shows that the torque exerted by the motor is pro-

portional to the magnetic flux and to the armature current.
Since there are 980 X 453-6 X 30.48 or 13,549,000 dyne-
centimeters in one pound-foot, the torque in pound-feet may
be expressed as
T= 2.35 /5$/< I0-^
The effective torque available at the pulley of the motor

is somewhat less than that given by the foregoing equation,
due to the mechanical and iron losses.
When load is placed upon a motor, such as machinery in

one form or another, a certain torque must be exerted which
is With greater
equal to the torque-reaction of the load.
load more torque must be exerted, and therefore the prod-
uct 4>/f must become larger. As a result a motor takes
more current when operating under heavy load than when
running light.
93. Counter Electromotive Force. — The armature of a

motor revolving in a magnetic field under the influence of
supplied electrical energy differs in no respect from the
same armature revolving in a magnetic field under the in-
fluence of supplied mechanical energy. There is an E.M.F.

generated which is determined by the speed and quan-
in it
tity of flux. For the same speed and the same flux there
would be generated the same E.M.F. in the case of a motor
as in the case of a generator. The direction of this E.M.F.
is, however, such as to tend to send a current in a direction
opposite to that of the current flowing under the influence

of the external supply of E.M.F., according to § 91.
MOTORS. 215
Therefore this pressure which is induced in the armature

of a motor is called counter electromotive force. The cur-
rent which will flow through the inductors of an armature
is therefore equal to the difference between the supply
E.M.F. and the counter E.M.F. divided by the resistance
of the armature, or
L = E- Er
R.
For example, an unloaded i-K.W. shunt-wound motor

having an armature resistance of i ohm, when connected
to a source of constant-potential supply of 100 volts, would

not take a current of 100 amperes as dictated by Ohm's
law, unless itsarmature were clamped so as to prevent ro-
tation. If undamped, its armature would assume such a
speed that it would have induced in it a counter E.M.F. of
say 97.5 volts. The current then flowing in the armature

would be
100 — 97.5
^^-^ =2.5 amperes.
The power represented by this current, viz., 2.5 X 100

watts, would all be expended in overcoming the losses of
the machine.
The magnitude of this counter E.M.F. in volts is
£c = 2/>*5îo-«, (§39)
where $ is the flux per pole in maxwells, and V is the

speed in rev. per min.
If the load upon a motor be increased, its torque is no
longer sufficient to overcome the load and consequently its
speed drops. A lowering of speed implies the generation

of a lower counter E.M.F., and thus permits a greater
2l6 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
current to flow through the armature. The greater cur-
rent results in a greater torque.
94. Armature Reactions. — Since in a motor, for a given
direction of rotation and of flux, the current in the arma-
ture flows in a direction contrary to that which it would
have as a generator, therefore the
effect of the motor armature cross
turns is to distort the magnetic field
against the direction of rotation, as
in Fig. 132. This increases the flux
density in the leading pole tips, and
decreases it in the traihng tips. This
necessitates, for sparkless operation,
a backward lead, or a lag, of the
brushes. If the brushes were in the
same place as when the machine was
operated as a generator, the direction
of armature current having been re-
versed, then the demagnetizing or

back turns of the generator would
Fig. 132.
become magnetizing turns for the
motor ; but with the brushes shifted to a position of lag,
then the motor has also demagnetizing or back turns.

95. Power of Motors. — The mechanical power of a
motor when running at V rev. per min. and exerting a
torque T dyne-centimeters is equal to the product of the
angular velocity in radians per second into the torque
2-V
P= ojT
60
T.
But the torque exerted, in dyne-centimeters, is
10- (§92)
MOTORS. 217
Therefore P= ["2 p^S ~\ — •
But the quantity m the brackets is equal to 10^ E^. (§93)

Whence
dvne-cm. „ .,
P= EJt lo^ -^ = EJt watts.

sec.
Thus, the rate at which a motor does mechanical work is
equal to the product of the counter electromotive force gen-

erated, in volts, into the total current flowing through the
armature in amperes.
Shunt Motors.
96. Speed of Shunt Motors. — In shunt-wound motors
connected to constant-potential supply circuits the field
current is constant and consequently the magnetic field is
of unvarying intensity. Solving the equations of § 93 for

speed, there results
2p^^S
and therefore if (b is constant the speed of the motor will

be practically constant. It will not be absolutely constant
because the small resistance drop occasions a slight lower-
ing of speed with increased load on the machine. On the
other hand the effect of the armature current is to weaken
the magnetic field, if the brushes be displaced backward
from the neutral plane, and thereby tend to increase the
speed. This partially counteracts the lowering of speed
due to resistance drop. The speed variation of shunt
motors from no load to full load ranges from 2 to 10 per
cent of the speed at no load, the lower value representing
that for large machines.
An inspection of the foregoing equation suggests the fol-
lowing possible ways of controlling the speed of a motor:

(i) changing the exciting current in order to change the
magnetic flux passing through the armature, (2) changing
the resistance of the armature circuit, and (3) changing
the impressed electromotive force. A slight change of
speed can be effected by shifting the position of the
brushes, for at a given load the speed is a minimum with
the brushes in the neutral plane, and it will be increased
by a lag of the brushes ; commutation difiQculties limit the
speed variation by this method.
(i) A rheostat placed in the field circuit of a shunt
motor may be used to vary its speed, Fig. 133. By
increasing the amount of
resistance in this rheo-
stat the current in the
field coils will be de-
creased ; this results in
a weaker magnetic field,
and consequently the

motor will run at a
higher speed. If the
Fig. 133- .
r ^1 ^- •
iron of the magnetic cir-

cuit is well saturated, a considerable change in resistance
is necessary materially to alter the field intensity. A large
exciting current is then required to increase the magnetic
flux, and this may occasion excessive heating of the field
coils. Again, if an attempt be made to reduce the fiux to

a considerable extent by introducing more resistance to
obtain a high speed, the demagnetizing effect of the arma-
ture current will be greater upon the weakened magnetic
field, and consequently serious sparking will result. Thus
MOTORS. 219
armature reaction limits speed variation. A shunt motor

of the usual type which operates at a speed of V rev. per
min. when the iron of its magnetic circuit is near saturation
will operate satisfactorily at any speed up to say 2 F revolu-
tions per minute. Field rheostats are described in § 77.
In order to vary the speed of a shunt motor over a wide
range by this method it is necessary to neutralize the effect
of armature reaction. This neutralization is accomplished
by the provision of a reversing magnetic field obtained by
the insertion of auxiliary poles, called commiUating-poles
or inter-poles^ between the field-magnet poles. The coils
on these auxiliary poles are connected in series with the

armature, as shown in Fig. 134, and therefore the magnetic
Fig. 134.
flux from them is practically proportional to the armature
current. The
reactance voltage (§57) generated in a short-
circuited armature coil due to its rotation in the main mag-
netic field is also proportional to the current flowing in it.
The M.M.F. of the interpoles is adjusted so that a magnetic

field is producedin the commutating zone of such magnitude
that an E.M.F. is generated in the short-circuited coils by

their rotation which is equal but opposite to the reactance
voltage. The action of the interpoles is therefore entirely
automatic and enables sparkless commutation at all loads
and speeds. Interpole motors are particularly adapted for
individual motor drive of machine tools and for elevator
operation, where large speed variations are essential. The
Electro-Dynamic Company manufactures such motors, Fig.
Fig. 135.
135, which operate at a speed of from 100% to 600% of

theminimum speed.
The data of a 5-H.P. interpole motor follow :
Resistance of shunt field 175 ohms.

Resistance of armature 1.18 ohms.
Resistance of interpolar windings 0.2 1 ohm.
Armature current at full load 22 to 24 amperes,
Field current 0.15 to 1.26 amperes.
Speed 200 to 1200 rev. per min.,
Weight 1200 pounds.
MOTORS. 221
A change in magnetic flux can also be accomplished by

varying the reluctance of the magnetic circuit, the field
current remaining unaltered. The reluctance may be in-
creased by lengthening the air-gap of the motor ; this

decreases the flux and consequently produces a higher
speed. A variable-speed motor depending upon change
of reluctance for speed control is shown in Fig. 136,
Fig. 136.
which depicts a 4-pole machine of the Stow Manufac-

turing Company. The field cores are hollow and are
provided with movable iron poles, the positions of which
are simultaneously shifted by means of hand wheel and
gears. Large air-gaps are conducive to sparkless com-
mutation.
(2) The speed of a shunt-wound motor with constant
excitation may be varied by introducing a variable resistance
in the armature circuit. The use of this method of speed
control is not to be advised save for experimental purposes,
since it is very vâsteful of energy. The PR loss in the
regulating resistance at certain speeds is considerably more

than the power required by the motor. Further, the speed,
v^hen reduced in this way, changes very considerably when
the load on the motor is altered.
Changing the electromotive force impressed upon

(3)
the armature of a shunt motor will cause a corresponding
change in speed. Speed control by this method may be
accomplished by subdividing the generator voltage into
two or more components, and by supplying current at these
different voltages over a number of line wires to the motor.

A controller is provided by means of which the motor
armature may be connected to any pair of supply mains,
the field winding of the machine being always connected
to a definite pair of them. The main generator voltage
is subdivided by a set of generators, called a balancer
Fig. 181 illustrates a three-element balancer for a 4-wire
multivoltage distribution system. The connections of a
motor to such a system through a controller are shown in
Fig. 137. Six different voltages are obtainable, namely,
40, 80, 120, 160, 200 and 240 volts, by moving the con-
troller handle. The motor speeds under these voltages are
approximately proportional to the voltages themselves, so
that this method of speed control gives a number of defi-
nite and widely different speeds. Intermediate speeds may
be obtained by weakening the magnetic fields of the motors
using field rheostats as described. Controllers designed
to perform both of these functions are also employed. This
system is extensively used in machine shops for driving
lathes, planers, and similar machines.
MOTORS. 223
Speed control of shunt motors by varying the voltage

impressed upon the armature is also the principle of the
Ward Leonard system, which differs from the foregoing
multivoltage system in that a finely graded variation of
speed is made possible by the employment of a separate
generator which supplies current to the motor. This gen-
erator, G, Fig. 138, is driven at constant speed by any type
Fig. 137.
of prime mover, S, or by an auxiliary shunt motor which

takes current from the supply mains. An adjustable resist-
ance in the generator field circuit regulates the voltage
which is impressed upon the motor armature, M, from prac-
tically zero to its maximum value. The field winding of
the motor is connected directly to the supply circuit, so
that the intensity of its magnetic field is constant.
When it is desired to start the motor, the rheostat is ad-

justed so that a high resistance is in circuit with the field
winding of the generator; thus current at low voltage will
be supplied to the motor. The latter then starts to revolve

slowly. To accelerate the motor, more resistance is cut
out of the generator field circuit and consequently the volt-
age across the motor armature terminals increases, thus
resulting in higher speed.
^-u^
^ Fig. 138.
^CZjq
This system of motor control is especially advocated for

operating guns and turrets on battleships, where thorough
control is essential. For the latter, the field rheostats are
designed to yield seventy or more speeds, the maximum
speed being usually 100 degrees per minute. The turret-
turning motors are rated at 25 and 15 H.P. respectively
for 12-inch and 8-inch turrets. The gun-elevating motors
are rated at 8 and 5 H.P. for 12-inch and 8-inch guns
respectively.
Of the various methods of speed control just described,
method is perhaps the most used. It is
the field rheostat
simple, cheap, and enables the speed to be kept at definite
value under changes of load. Its range is limited in shunt
motors of the usual type, but the interpole motor removes
MOTORS. 225
this difficulty. The change of reluctancemethod does not

require a field rheostat, but this is offset by the increased
cost of construction of such motors. Both the multivolt-
age and Ward Leonard systems are very practical but ex-
pensive, since the former requires a balancer, a number
of line wires, and individual controllers ; and the latter sys-
tem requires a motor-generator set and rheostat for each
motor.
97. Starting of Shunt Motors. When the armature of
a motor is at rest there is no counter E.M.F. ; and at the
instant of closing the circuit a destructive current would
flow if a resistance were not first inserted in the circuit,
except in the case of very small motors whose armatures
have small moments of inertia. As the speed rises the
counter electromotive force increases and the current is
reduced, thus permitting the resistance to be gradually

lessened without causing an excessive current to flow
through the armature. When the speed approaches its
ultimate value this resistance is entirely cut out of circuit.

In order that the counter E.M.F. may be generated the
shunt field circuit must be closed, so that the armature
conductors cut lines of force. An arrangement for con-
veniently performing these functions is called a starting
box or starting I'Jieostat.
The connections of a simple starting rheostat are shown

in Fig. 139. main feature is a contact arm capable of
Its
rotation so that one end may move over a series of contact

studs. As the arm is slowly turned around, it touches
the first contact stud, thereby completing the field circuit
and closing the armature circuit through all the resistance
of the rheostat. As the speed increases the revolving arm
cuts out more and more of the resistance, until finally the
armature is operating on the full voltage of the supply
circuit.
A shunt motor may have its armature coils destroyed

by an excessive rush of current resulting from a dropping
or interruption of the supply voltage followed by a sudden
renewal after the speed of the armature has fallen. These
conditions may arise through accidents to supply mains or
because of an extremely heavy load on mains of insuffi-
Release Magnet
Armature
Fig. 139.
cient cross-section. An armature may also be burned out

by an excessive current due to overloading the motor.
The resulting lowering of its speed is accompanied by a
corresponding lowering of the counter E.M.F. Again, an
abnormal voltage, which might result from some cross or
other accident, might cause a destructive rush of current.
To meet these conditions, starting rheostats are often pro-
vided with attachments for opening the circuit on no volt-
MOTORS. 227
age or low voltage, and others with attachments for open-

ing the circuit on overload. Some have both attachments,
but it is modern practice to place the overload device upon
the switchboard rather than on the starting rheostat. Fig.
139 is a wiring diagram of a shunt-motor starting box with

automatic release and no- voltage attachment.
A view of a motor-starting panel with both no-voltage
and overload attach-
ments is given in Fig.
140. When the handle
"
is placed in the "on
position, the magnet in
the field circuit holds

it there, although a
spring tends to throw
it back. If now, be-
cause of low voltage,
the current in the field
winding and magnet

becomes low, the mag-
net is no longer able to
retain the handle, and
the spring throws it to
the '' off " position,
where it stays until the
motor is again turned
on by an attendant.
The overload coil is
^^^- ''*°*
connected in series with the motor armature, and on over-
load becomes strong enough to attract an iron piece. This

operation places a short-circuit on the release magnet,
which therefore permits the starting arm to spring back
to the ''off " position. This panel is provided with a main
switch and enclosed fuses, although the latter are fre-
quently replaced by circuit breakers.

A combined starting and field-regulating rheostat made
by the Cutler-Hammer Manufacturing Company is shown
in Fig. 141. This type
of apparatus is designed
for 2 to I up to 5 to I
speed variation. The

movable a r m consists
of two parts which wipe
over separate sets of
contacts. To start the
motor the handle is
moved to the extreme

right, in which position
the magnet will hold the
lower portion of the arm.
The upper arm is then
free to move back and
make contact with the
studs joined to the field-
regulating resistance.
Fig. 142 depicts a
Fig. 141.
General Electric Com-
pany controller for 5-H.P. shop-tool motors. There are
three starting points, 2 1 forward and 1 1 reverse running
points. Speed control is effected by field regulation.
A self-starter for shunt motors made by the Ward

Leonard Electric Company is shown in Fig. 143. It con-
sists of an electromagnet with a movable core carrying

wipers which make contact with a series of studs as the
MOTORS. 229
Fig. 144.
core is attracted by the magnet. The rapidity with which

this operation may be performed is controlled by a dash-
pot. Thus the starting and stopping of the motor is
accomplished simply and effectively by means of a main
line switch.
Fig. 144 shows a Westinghouse Type G automatic

motor-starter which cuts out one portion of the starting
resistance after another by means of magnetically-operated
switches. This device is designed so that the time of
motor acceleration from standstill to full speed varies with
the load on the machine.
98. Design of Starting Rheostats. — The design of a
starting-box for a shunt motor under constant excitation is
governed by the
permissible start-
ing current
through the mo-
torarmature,
'-
This maximum
current value is
usually specified
in terms of the
full-load current
Fi3- 143.
of the machine.
Let 7 be the ratio of maximum starting current under load
to the full-load current ; this ratio is always greater than
unity. Let r^, r^, 7^3, . . . , r„ be the resistances respec-
tively of the starting-box when the rheostat arm is on con-
tact studs I, 2, 3, ... , 71, Fig. 145. At the instant when
the arm touches stud i, the current flowing through the
armature is ^
7/ = (0
n + r:
where E is the line voltage and R^ is the resistance of the
motor armature. When the motor runs at constant speed
MOTORS. 231
with this rheostat setting, the current flowing through the

armature is
where Ec-^ is the counter E.M.F. generated at this speed.

The rheostat arm may then be turned to contact stud 2,
and this results in a momentary increase of current,
This causes the motor to exert a greater torque than that

necessary to overcome the load and consequently the motor
is accelerated and will assume some higher speed. The
current will then diminish to
where Ec2 is the E.M.F, generated at the increased speed.

Similarly, when the arm makes contact with stud 3, the
current flowing through the motor armature will again
increase to
From equations (2) and (3) and equations (4) and (5)
there result respectively
r = "^^^ and , = ^^±A. (6)
There are n such equations, the last one being

r^ + Rg
^ '
Ra
The number of steps into which the total resistance r^ is to
be divided, so that the starting current shall not exceed the
specified value of yl amperes, may be determined from the
product of these 7i equations, which is
But from (i)
fj-â'. (7)
consequently
log
r^Ro
logy
If the motor is to be accelerated from rest to full speed

without any load on it, fewer steps are required, because
the no-load current is much less than the full-load current.
The resistance of each of the various steps may then be
computed ; thus for the first portion between studs i and
2 the resistance is, from (6),
and similarly the resistance of the next part is
r^ -r3= {R^ + r,) (i- '). etc.
The resistances of the various steps of a starting rheostat

will be found in examples to differ from one another. Some-
times additional steps are provided, so that the maximum
permissible current will not flow through the armature
when the rheostat arm touches the first stud, but only
when contact is made with the second or third stud.
99. Speed Regulation. —A shunt -wound motor under

constant impressed terminal voltage will have an approxi-
MOTORS. 233
mately constant speed. It will decrease somewhat as the

load on the machine increases. The principal cause of this
speed variation under varying load is the change of the
armature resistance drop, and it is therefore desirable that
the resistance of the armature be small. The change of
speed, with a fixed setting of the field rheostat, from full

load to no load, expressed in terms of the speed at full load,
is called the speed regulation of the motor. For example,
the speeds of a shunt motor at no load and at full load are
860 and 825 rev. per min. respectively. Consequently its
speed regulation is
860-825 =
.0425, or 4j per cent.
8 25
The maintenance of a strictly constant speed necessitates

the manipulation of a field rheostat, that is, the adjustment
of a device external to the motor itself. Speed regulation
is to be distinguished from speed control. The former in-
dicates the speed changes inherent in the machine, whereas

the latter means adjustment for various desired speeds.
100. Characteristic Curves of Shunt Motors. — The char-
acteristic curves of a motor include curves of speed, effi-
ciency, current input, and torque, in terms of the H.P.
output of the machine. Such curves for a 7.5-H.P., 230-
volt General Electric Company Type CQ motor are shown
in Fig. 146.
A shunt motor when started cold on no load quickly
arrives at a speed which Xkx^Vi. gradually rises to a maximum.
The gradual heating of the field coils increases their resist-
ance. This allows less current to flow in them, and the

resulting magnetic flux is less. Therefore the armature
must rotate faster to generate the same counter E.M.F.
The efficiency of a motor is the ratio of the mechanical
output to the electrical input. The determination of the
output may be made directly by experiment, or it may be
//
^
/ 50 1000
^»» "
7^ CZ.
EFFICI ;ncy
2 A ^
SPEED
~7 7^ — ^
/
/
/ I
'/
4' \°
/ A
/Y
/
t 40
y '/
/ ^
/
/
V
H. P. OUTPUT
Fig. 146.
found from the measurement of the losses. The latter

method is to be preferred because of its greater accuracy.
The various losses may be obtained as in Chap. VI. Thus,
the efficiency is
746 H.P.
^-
(§69)
746 H.P.+(A+P,+/â+/^p+/^/ + /^/.+P.
The any load should be determined at the ulti-

efficiency at
mate temperature assumed under continuous operation at
MOTORS. 235
that load, referred to the standard engine-room temperature

of 25° C.
In the direct determination of motor output, any con-
venient load may be placed on the machine. For the
smaller motors a Prony brake may be used, the strap-brake
being a convenient form. Fig. 147. The power absorbed
in watts is expressed as
2 7irV{P-P')7A,6
Output
33000
where r is the radius of the pulley m feet, V\^ the speed

in rev. per min., and {P —P') is the difference of the two
scale readings m pounds.
For large motors the load usually consists r^
of generators, the output of which may be
absorbed by suitable resistances. If the
--
generator be of proper voltage the current
therefrom may be returned to the sup-
ply circuit. This method of loading a
motor, called the loading -back method,
results in a considerable saving of power,
since the net
is
of the
power taken from the mains
only that required to supply the losses
two machines. The amount of
K^
Fii. 147.
load is regulated by changing the field current of the

generator.
The efficiency of a shunt motor at full load can be esti-
mated from the data stamped on the name plate of the
machine. Thus, for the following data :
H.P. 20 Amp. 150

Volts 120 R.P.M. 925
the efficiency at full load is
= 746 X 20 =
£ .83, or 83 per cent.
120 150
loi. Industrial Applications of Shunt Motors. — The

design of motors differs frequently in many details from
that of generators, especially if the motors are to be di-
rectly coupled to the machines they drive. These points

of difference are principally in the construction of the
frame, bearing supports
and shafts. Often motors
must be placed out of
doors or where they are
exposed to dust, chips,
etc.; in such cases they
should be of the enclosed
type.
F'ig. 148 depicts a back-
geared motor driving a
Hamilton drill press. This
type of motor is desirable
for slowly moving ma-
chines, since it permits of
the usual high armature
speeds. A protecting
guard surrounding the
gear and pinion is usu-
ally furnished to prevent
Fig. 148.
accidents.
A Crocker -Wheeler adjustable-speed motor directly
geared to a 36-inch lathe is shown in Fig. 149. Motors
so situated are usually of the open type, but they are
MOTORS. 237
Fig. 149.
Fig. 150.
sometimes provided with gridiron covers and gauze to give
better protection against dirt.
The costs per hour of operating machine tools driven by
individual motors are given in the following table, the data
representing conditions such as obtain in large machine
shops. Fixed charges include interest and insurance on
investment in buildings and equipment, variable charges
include repairs and renewals, and salaries include cost of
management, engineering, labor, etc.; these charges are
apportioned among the various machines.
Hourly Operating Expense in Dollars.

H
2
8
Type of SIZE.
Machine, < i §
I total.
u <
< i§
H
u
H i
z
4o"-6o" 02 25 15 •05 .01 053

Vertical •
Boring
72"-IOO" 04 •25 .08 2 .01 0.91
lo' -14' 05 -40 15 15 .02 1-57
Mills 16' -24'
•
08 2.00 I .00 •30 30 •03 371

Radial 5' 02 •30 .20 .03 03 .01 0.59
Drills 10' 04 .60 .35 .09 09 .01 1. 18
Engine 3o"-4o" 02 • 25 .12 .04 04 .01 0.48
Lathes 40 "-60" 03 50 •25 . 10 10 .01 0.99
36"-56" 04 •55 •05 05 .01 1 .00
Planers 7' -10'
12' -14'
06 1
2.60
.10 z
.40
• 15 15 .02 2.08
4.68
15 1 25 25 03
Power for machine tool operation may be furnished

eitherby individual motors or from a line shaft. The ini-
tial investment for line-shaft drive is usually less than for

individual motor drive, but the latter is conducive to in-
creased production. Heavier cuts are possible and the time

for a given operation is shorter with individual motors.
Fig. 150 illustrates the operating mechanism of the Otis
MOTORS. 239
Traction Elevator, which consists essentially of a slow-

speed shunt-wound motor, a sheave, and a brake pulley, the
latter enveloped by a pair of powerful spring-actuated and
electrically released brake shoes, all compactly grouped
on a heavy iron bedplate. The armature shaft serves as a
support for the elevator car and counterweight, and on
it are mounted the sheave and brake pulley, the drive
between the armature spider and sheave being effected
through the engagement of projecting arms on each cush-
ioned by rubber buffers. A controller is used for accel-
erating and retarding the car. The control equipment is
so designed that the cars are automatically and gradually

retarded and brought to rest at the upper and lower termi-
nals of travel, an operation which is entirely independent
of the position of the car controller. Apparatus of this
kind is installed in the Singer and Metropolitan towers in
New York City, and enables one to reach the fortieth

floors of these buildings from the street level in less than
one minute.
Series Motors.
102. Series Motors. — As the current traversing the field
windings of a series-wound motor is the same as that which

flows through its armature, the field strength of such a
machine will vary with the load placed upon it. Torque,
being proportional to the product of the magnetic flux and
the armature current, § 92, will vary approximately as the
square of the current taken by the motor. This is true for
a series motor with an unsaturated magnetic circuit, but in
practice the magnetic circuit is designed to approach satu-
ration near the rated output, and consequently the torque
exerted varies to a smaller extent than the square of the
current.
The speed of a series motor in revolutions per minute is
,^ {E - IR) 60 3
,^ ^
where E is the impressed E.M.F., R is the combined re-

sistance of armature and field windings, / is the number of
pairs of poles, $ is the total flux per pole, and 5 is the
number of armature conductors in series between brushes.
An inspection of this expression shows that with increased
load the numerator will be but slightly altered because R
is small, and that the denominator will be considerably-
increased since $ varies with the current. Consequently
the speed of the motor decreases as the load increases.
The speed of the armature of a series motor will be such
that the counter E.M.F. generated at that speed will re-
duce the current to a proper value, so that the total power

consumed will be equal to the sum of the motor output
and the losses. In a shunt-wound motor, a very small
variation of speed is sufficient to compensate for a wide
variation of load. With decrease of load both shunt and
series motors speed up and generate a higher counter
electromotive force. The resulting decrease of current
causes, in the series machine, a weakening of the magnetic
field, and as a consequence additional speed is required to
maintain this E.M.F. Thus a small variation in load on a
series machine results in a wide change of speed.
The exertion of a large torque at low speeds and a small
torque at high speeds results in a rather uniform energy
consumption, for power output equals the product of torque
and angular velocity. For this reason the series motor is
particularly suitable for traction and for the operation of

cranes and of rolHng mills. A series-wound machine can
MOTORS. 241
be used on either a constant-current circuit or on a con-

stant-potential circuit ; but a series motor is seldom run on
a constant-potential circuit unless it is directly or very
solidly coupled with its load. If connected by means of a
belt, and if the belt should break or slip off, the motor
would speed up indefinitely and cause the armature to fly
to pieces. The series motor, therefore, cannot be run at

no load and rated voltage. This difficulty does not pre-
sent itself when series motors are operated on constant-
current circuits, a practice no longer in vogue.
103. Characteristic Curves of Series Motors. — The char-
acteristic curves of a 5-H.P., 220-volt, back-geared, series-
wound motor are shown in Fig. 151, and include curves of

current input, torque, speed and efficiency, plotted in terms
of the horse-power output. The high speeds attained when
the motor is under light loads are clearly indicated by
the speed-output curve. Frequently curves of torque in
terms of speed are used, especially in the selection of motor
capacity for electric cars or locomotives.
Fig. 152 depicts
such a curve for the 5-H.P. motor mentioned above.
If a series motor be at rest and the circuit be closed, an
enormous rush of current will occur, giving a tremendous

torque. Destructive heating and sparking would probably
result. To prevent damage it is therefore necessary, in
the operation of these motors, to insert at the start a series
resistance which may be cut out after the speed has risen
enough to give a sufficient counter E.M.F. In practice
controllers are used for this purpose.
104. Railway Motors. — Series motors operating on con-
stant-potential circuits of from 500 to 600 volts furnish a
very satisfactory motive power for the propulsion of trolley
street cars and electric railway motor cars. This type of
\
V
\ \ EFFIC ENCY
_/
f
\ ^^^ ~
"7^-
/ \ /
/
/
/ H\ 4 y 30 2
^. ><- >
^^
/ %^
{4^
>
/^
^
/
/
,/
1
H. P. OUTPUT
Fig. 151.
1A
\
)
V
20
\ \
\\
10 V V
"~^
^
1200 1600
REV. PER MIN.
Fig. 152.
MOTORS. 243
motor has been developed to a high degree of perfection

during recent years, and is reasonably well fitted to meet
the many and severe requirements of railway service. Re-
cent improvements are directed to reliability rather than to
increased efficiency. It is not unusual for modern railway
motors to be in service for a year or more or to have trav-
eled 60,000 miles without overhauling,
A railway motor must be mechanically strong to with-
stand the continual strains to which it will be subjected
when in service. Poor roadbed, defective switches, snow-
covered tracks, etc., are conditions met with in railway ser-
vice. Railway motors are also subject to abuse at the

hands of the motormen. The series resistance is often cut
out too rapidly, before the car has an opportunity to accel-
erate. As a result there is an enormous current flow and
a large torque exerted with little speed. This severely
strains the motor and is particularly liable to disturb the
armature windings. Railway motors are of weatherproof
construction, being totally enclosed to guard against the
intrusion of water, slush and mud.
Fig. 153 illustrates the box-type frame of a No. 134
Westinghouse railway motor for the heavier class of inter-
urban service. There are four poles built up of soft steel
punchings assembled and riveted together between wrought-
iron end plates and bolted to the motor frame. The field
coils are straight and are formed of copper strap wound on

edge, the individual turns being insulated from each other
by asbestos. The coils are insulated by several tapings
and impregnated with an insulating compound to render
them impervious to moisture. They are held in place
independently of the poles by brass hangers which are
bolted to the motor frame.
The armature bearings of this motor are carried in hous-
ings which are firmly clamped into bored seats in the frame.
The bearing at the commutator end is 3| inches in diame-
ter and lo inches long. One end of the motor frame con-
tains bearings which run on the wheel axle and keep the
Fig- 153.
pitch circle of the armature shaft pinion always tangent to

the pitch circle of the gear which is mounted on the axle.
These bearings are 1

1
J inches long and are furnished for a
maximum axle diameter of 6 inches. The bearings, both
for armature shaft and for axle, consist of solid bronze shells
lined with babbitt metal soldered to the bronze, and are
MOTORS. 245
arranged for oil-saturated waste as lubricant. Large pock-

ets are provided for the waste which is in contact with the
shaft, and the oil is led up to the waste from below. The
openings in the bearing shells are usually 60 % of the total
length of the shell and 80 degrees wide.
The armature is built up of thin soft-steel laminations
mounted on a spider together with the commutator. Open-

ings in the laminations and spaces between groups of them
provide for thorough ventilation by means of the air drawn
in at the ends and passing out against the field windings.
The winding consists of formed single-turn coils made in
two parts, the lower and upper halves being connected at
the rear of the armature by soldered copper clips. The

winding is insulated with mica and sealed by linen tape
followed by dipping in varnish to render it oil-proof. The
winding is firmly secured in place by steel wire wound around
Fig. 154.
the core and over the end connections. Fig. 1 54 shows the
armature and commutator mounted on the shaft. The
diameter of the armature is lyh inches and that of the
commutator is 14J inches. Brush holders, Fig. 155, for
thismotor are supported by two steel studs which are
secured to the motor frame by means of clamps, as
shown.
The railway motor described in the foregoing has a
nominal rating of 160 H.P. based on a one-hour run with
a temperature rise not exceeding 75° C, as thermometri-
cally measured, in any part of the winding above the sur-
rounding air taken at 25° C. An equipment comprising
Fig. 155.
two such motors would propel a car weighing, without pas-

sengers and electrical equipment, 25 tons, over a level
track, and maintain a schedule speed of 30 miles per hour
with stops two miles apart. These figures are based upon
a gear ratio of 24-53 ^'^^^ 33-inch car wheels.
The performance curves of this railway motor at 500
volts are given in Fig. 156. The usual torque and rev.-
per-min. curves of motors are replaced in railway work by
curves of tractive effort (i.e., force exerted at the base of
the car wheels) and speed in miles per hour. Knowing
the gear ratio, gear efficiency, ^3, and car-wheel diameter,
MOTORS. 24;
D inches, this conversion can be effected by means of the

following expressions :
Lbs. Tractive Effort =

no. gear teeth
%—. . —^ X ^
24 /?
Torque
•
iu
in lbs. -ft.
r^
no. pinion teeth D

2 TT 60 Rev. per min. X Torque in lbs. ft.
Miles per Hour =
5280 X Lbs. Tractive Effort
The continuous capacity of this motor is given as 120

amperes at 300 volts and 1 10 amperes at 400 volts.
600U
-
G LAR RA 10 24 53
33"w HEELS
\
\ }
\ /
/ /
5000
\
kT
EFFIC ency"'
WITH EARS 7~ 4000
/
\ r /
\ /
v fel50
>^ / .SPEED
\/ 2CC0 100
/^
/ >
J
20 10
J
/ V '^
1000
/
AMPERES
Fig. 156.
A motor for railway service, very similar in design to

the one just described, is the GE-216 made by the Gen-
MOTORS. 249
eral Electric Company, and shown in Fig. 157. It is a

4-pole motor provided with an equal number of commutat-
ing poles, the latter being conducive to better commutation
during the acceleration period. The one-hour rating of
this motor is 50 H.P. at 600 volts.
The gear case rides with the motor and is fastened to the
magnet frame at three points in order to eliminate vibra-
tion. The case is made of malleable iron and constructed

with strengthening ribs to prevent cracking.
Some operating characteristics and constructive data of
550-volt railway motors are embodied in the curves of Fig.
158. Curve A represents the efficiency of the various sizes
.80 ICO
>:
\
\ — C^
3000 80 10000
V ^2 ^ —
z
B^
zo fw
^^ s^— A 2500 => 60 . 9000
i-
z
^ ^"^S,
E
^
/T^Z ><
i
10 80
Y ^ r:;;^
D^
1500 20 7000
H. P. OUTPUT
Fig. 158.
of motors at normalload, curve B shows the radial length

of the air-gap between armature and field poles, curve C
gives the peripheral speed of the armature in feet per
minute, curve D indicates the weight of the motor per
horse-power, and curve E shows the number of ampere-
turns per field coil at normal load current.
MOTORS. 251
The manner of suspending the motors from the trucks

is a matter of considerable importance. One end of the
motor frame contains bearings which run on the wheel

axle,and the other end or the sides are provided with lugs
for attachment to a heavy barwhich is supported by springs
on the truck frame. Figs. 159 and 160 show two methods
of motor suspension.
At present a few interurban railways are in operation
in this country upon which 1200- and 1400-volt series
motors are used. The design of these motors is not mate-

rially different from that of the 600-volt type, but particu-
lar attention is directed to the avoidance of commutation
difficulties.
105. Railway Motor Control. — The function of a rail-
way controller is to allow the motors to start from rest and

to accelerate to full speed, this operation being performed
with moderate uniformity, due consideration being given to
the durability of the apparatus and to the comfort of pas-
sengers. Two general methods for accomplishing this
result are in use : the rheostatic, and the series-parallel
method.
-o 1 o-Lo 2 J_o 3 o_Lo 4 cJ ^

GROUND
Fig. 161.
In the rheostatic method for use with one or more motors,

resistance is placed in the motor circuits, which can be ad-
justed to regulate the impressed electromotive force. A
scheme of connection for a rheostatic railway controller is
given in Fig. 161. The change of the resistance in the
motor circuit is accomplished by short-circuiting successive
portions of it by closing switches i, 2, 3 and 4 in the order
named. This method is infrequently employed although
simple, because the loss in the regulating resistance does
not permit of economical operation.
The series-parallel method of motor control is exten-
sively used for equipments with two (or any multiple of
two) motors. The speed of the car is regulated by first
placing the two motors and a resistance in series, and then

cutting out the resistance step by step until the motors
are operating in series on full voltage. Since, with all the
resistance cut out, there is no unnecessary PR loss, this is
called a running connection, and the controlling mechanism

is said to be upon a nmning point. To further increase
the speed, the motors are placed in parallel with a resist-
ance in series with both. This resistance is then cut out
step by step until the motors are each operating on full
voltage. This, again, constitutes a running connection.
The connections of a series-parallel controller are more
complex than those of the rheostatic type, since the mat-
ter of transition from the series to the parallel positions
demands attention. During this period one motor may
be shunted or short-circuited, the motor circuit may be
opened, or the full current may be maintained through all
motors. A scheme of connections illustrating the latter

type of series-parallel control is shown in Fig. 162. The
controller performs the following operations : switches
A and B are closed, thus placing both motors and all the
resistance in series ; switches i to 7 are closed consecu-
tively and then switch 6^ is closed; followed by the opening
of switches 2 to 7 and B switches a and b are closed thus
; ;
two currents will flow through switch C'vcl opposite direc-

tions, one from the trolley through the motors to ground
MOTORS. 253
and the other through the resistance to ground. If the

resistance be properly proportioned no current will pass
through switch C, and this may be opened, thus placing
both motors with resistance directly across the line.
Switches 2 to 7 are then closed progressively as before,

after which the motors are operating in parallel without
resistance. This scheme is therefore desirable in that
no motor is subjected to sudden increased voltage nor is
the circuit opened at any time.
Lo 5 oJ-o 6 o-J-o 7 0-1 ,
Fig. 162.
When four motors are installed on a car, they may

first be connected in series, then each pair in parallel
with the two groups in series, and finally all connected in
parallel ; this is known as the series, series-parallel, parallel
method.
The manipulation of the various switches may be accom-
plished directly by hand or through the intervention of an
auxiliary control. In the former system the connections
are made by a motorman who moves a handle at the top of
the controller on the car platform. This causes the rota-
tion of a vertical cylinder and permits of the successive
connection of various contact studs thereon with stationary
fingers. Such a controller, made by the Westinghouse
Electric and Manufacturing Company, is shown, with the
cover removed, in Fig. 163. In this controller for series-
parallel operation there are seven controlling points in the
series position and six in the parallel position ; during the
transition from one position to the other one of the motors is
short-circuited. The wires frorr* the trolley, from the
Fig. 163.
motors, and from the different terminals of the resistance

grids are brought up under the car to the proper fingers.
A smaller cylinder, moved by a reversing lever, is situated
to the right of the main cylinder. This has contact
pieces which are arranged so as to enable the motorman
to reverse the direction of rotation of both motors or
to cut them out entirely. Interlocking devices are sup-
MOTORS. 255
plied so that the reversing handle cannot be moved unless

the controlling handle is in such a position that connec-
tion with the trolley is broken. The controlling handle also
cannot be moved if the reversing handle is not properly
set either to go forward or to go backward. The reversing
handle cannot be removed from the controller, save when
the smaller cylinder is in the position that cuts out both
motors. As upon break-
serious arcs are liable to develop
ing a circuit of 500 volts, the contact pieces and fingers are
separated from adjacent ones by strips of insulating mate-
rial which are fastened to the inside of a separate cover.
Such arcs are effectively disrupted by the field of an electro-

magnet, which is an essential part of controllers for motors
of large size.
In operating an electric
car, the power should never be
turned by a slow reverse movement of the controller

off
handle, as destructive arcs are liable to occur upon a slow

break. To lower the speed of a car, the power should be
completely and suddenly shut off. Before the car has
slackened its speed too much the controller handle can be
brought up to the proper point.
The system of motor car control in which the various
switches are operated by an auxiliary circuit is called the
multiple-unit control, since it is designed primarily for
the operation of several cars coupled together in a train
from any controller on it. The control apparatus for each
motor car consists essentially of a series-parallel motor con-
troller and two master controllers. The motor controller
is composed of a number of electrically operated switches
or contactors which close and open the various motor and
resistance circuits, and a separate electrically operated re-
versing switch which governs the direction of movement
of the car. This apparatus is usually placed underneath
the car. Both the contactors and the reverser are operated
by solenoids, the current to which is varied by the master
controller. The latter is considerably smaller than the
ordinary street-car controller, but is similar in appearance
and method A
cable which connects each
of operation.
master controller with the motor controllers runs the en-
tire length of the train, the connections between cars being
made by suitable couplers. Current for the master con-
trol is taken from the line through whichever controller
the motorman operates, the amount being about 2j am-
peres for each equipment of 400 H.P. As the motor
controller is connected to the train auxiliary circuit, any
master controller on the train will simultaneously operate
corresponding contactors on all the motor cars and estab-
lish similar motor connections on them. The connections

of the Sprague-General Electric multiple-unit control sys-
tem are shown in Fig. 164.
If the current supply be momentarily interrupted, the
motor control switches automatically return to the "off"
position, and upon the restoration of the power supply
the same connections are again progressively made that
existed immediately preceding the interruption. To
avoid accidents which may occur through the physical
disability of a motorman, master controllers are sometimes
arranged with a button on the handle which must be
kept down in order to keep the auxiliary control circuit
closed.
The multiple-unit control system of the Westinghouse
Electric Company differs from the preceding method
in the
of actuating the contactors and reversers. Compressed
air is used for this purpose, the necessary valves being
MOTORS. 257
mmm
^Mim
operated electrically by a master controller from a storage
battery.
106. Motors for Automobiles. —
For electric automo-
biles the series-wound motor is invariably employed. A
storage battery of 40 or 44 cells is the customary source
of power for these motors. The use of these cells affords
a convenient and economical means of speed control. In
the case of a single motor, for the first controller notch,
the cells may be connected in four-series groups of 10 or
1 1 each, giving about 22 volts, the four groups being con-
nected in parallel. Other notches would correspond to
other series-parallel combinations, and finally the last and
highest speed notch would correspond to a connection of
all the cells in series. By this arrangement one cell is
used just as much as any other, and they are discharged

at equal rates. As the voltage supplied to the motor is
varied without recourse to a series regulating resistance,
there is no resistance loss in starting or running at less
than full speed.

Frequently two motors are used, one on each of the
two driving wheels ; this arrangement allows independent
rotation of the wheels on turning curves, while if only one
motor be used some form of differential gear must be em-
ployed to allow the vehicle to make sharp turns. But the
efficiency of one motor is in general greater than the effi-
ciency of two motors of half the rating, and the gain in

efficiency by using one motor more than balances the cost
and complication of a differential gear in the case of light
vehicles.
It general practice to rate automobile motors at 75
is
volts, or at 37 J volts if two are used in series and con-
trolled as a single motor. Since the voltage of 40 or 44

MOTORS. "
259
cells of battery in series can fall to 75 volts without injury,

this is the lowest pressure on which the motors will be
expected to run for any length of time at full speed.
Hence this voltage is used as the basis for rating. For
the best motors the rating is such that a temperature rise
of 50° C. will not be exceeded on an indefinite run. A

motor so rated will carry 100 per cent overload for a half
hour without overheating or damaging the insulation.
Although the voltage of these motors is somewhat low
for the use of carbon brushes, the necessity of reversal of
direction and the liability of sparking on overload make
their use desirable. Soft carbon brushes of low resistance
can, however, be obtained, and they are to be recom-
mended.
Fig. 165.
Fig. 165 illustrates a motor which is used on automo-

biles and manufactured by the Eddy Electric Manufactur-
ing Company. The armature winding consists of formed
coils which are cross-connected, and therefore only two
brushes are required. These brushes are made accessible
by providing a window in the end plate. A pinion which
is mounted upon the armature shaft meshes with an inter-
nal gear on the wheel of the vehicle.

107. Motors for Rolling Mills. — For many kinds of
mill work requiring great torque, reversibility, and wide
variation of speed, the series motor is well adapted. The
shocks and jars which such motors must withstand are
very severe because the load conditions are heavy and
intermittent, and therefore they must be of particularly
strong construction. Mill motors must be totally enclosed
to guard against dust and small particles of metal, and con-
sequently must be amply designed so that their tempera-
ture elevation will not be excessive. These motors usually
operate in both directions and therefore the brushes can
have no lead. Sparkless running is insured by employing
large air-gaps.
The Crocker-Wheeler Company manufacture form W
motors for rolling mills in sizes ranging from 7J to 200
H.P. for 220 volts, one of which is shown in Fig. 166.
They are four-pole machines, and the frames are divided
horizontally, the upper half being provided with two hand
holes for access to the commutator and brushes.
o
TWO
MILL
HIGH
THREE HIGH
' ' MILL
Fig. 166. Fig. 167.
A rolling mill may be two high or three high, as indi-

cated in Fig. 167. In the latter the center roll rotates
MOTORS 261
constantly in one direction, while the other two rolls revolve

constantly in the opposite direction. Thus a piece of steel
can pass through the lower set to the right, then be raised
on a table and pass through the upper set of rolls to the
left, and continuing in this way. In the two-high mill the

steel must pass through the rolls in both directions and
consequently the motor driving such a mill must be capa-
ble of reversal. Difficulty is encountered in designing
motors which are to reverse their direction quickly because
of the large moments of inertia of the armatures and
rolls. Sometimes two or three armatures of smaller
diameter than an equivalent single armature are placed
upon one shaft, thus obtaining a smaller radius of gyra-
tion.
A mill motor has been built by Messrs. Siemens weigh-

ing 235 tons, the armature weighing 74 tons, and it is
capable of exerting a torque of 650,000 Ibs.-ft. up to a

speed of 60 rev. per min., thus corresponding to over 7000
H.P. output. This mill has been in operation for some
time, and it is found possible to reverse its direction 28
times per minute from a speed of 60 rev. per min. in one
direction to an equal speed in the other direction.
The coupling between a motor and a rolling mill should
be such that if the roll breaks obliquely the resulting end
thrust will not damage the motor. Some form of shell
coupling should be used between the spindle and the motor
shaft.
108. Crane Motors. — Series motors for operating cranes

or hoists are generally equipped with a brake attachment
so that the load may be held after raising it. Brakes are
of two types, friction brakes and dynamic brakes. Fric-
tion brakes are made in a number of ways, one type of
which is depicted in Fig. i68. This shows a spring-actu-
ated shoe brake which is kept normally in engagement but
is released when current is supplied to the solenoid. An-
other form is the band brake, but this is mostly used with
non-reversing motors, although some forms are applicable
to reversing motors.
Fig. i68.
Dynamic braking is accomplished by connecting the

motor to operate as a generator which will deliver energy
to some local circuit or return it to the supply circuit.
Such brakes are generally supplemented by friction brakes
which become operative when the motor comes to rest and
the dynamic braking ceases. The controller for dynamic
braking is arranged to connect the armature in a closed
circuit containing an adjustable resistance, or to the line.
It is desirable first to connect the series field with resist-

ance across the line wires to insure the motor building up
as a series generator. Then the motor is disconnected
MOTORS. 263
from the line, leaving the motor armature and field in cir-
cuit with the resistance. In Fig. 169 these connections

are shown respectively at a and b.
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE
Fig. 169.
A controller for crane motors made by the Cutler-

Hammer Manufacturing Com-
pany, intended for either hoist
or travel duty, is shown in Fig.
170. The resistances are of

the cast-iron grid type and are
supported by iron rods over
which mica tubes are previously
placed. Controllers for hoist
duty are provided with higher
resistance than those for travel
duty so as to insure good
speed control under light
loads.
109. Compound-wound Mo-

tors. — In a compound-wound
motor the magnetomotive force
of the shunt winding may as-
sist or oppose the magneto-
motive force of the series
winding, depending upon the
manner of connection. In the
first case the machine is called ^^g- ^70.
a compound motor and in the latter a differential motor.

The magnetic field of a compound motor becomes more
intense with increasing load, and consequently the speed
decreases ; the amount of speed decrease will depend upon
the relative magnetomotive forces of the two windings.
At always a definite field strength, due
light load there is
and therefore the speed of the motor

to the shunt winding,
cannot exceed a predetermined value. For heavy inter-
mittent loads, such as in operating rolling mills, hoists, ele-
vators, etc., compound motors are much used, because they

can exert a powerful starting torque and yet the speed will
not be excessively variable under changes of load. Such

motors may be safely belted to machine tools in operating
them.
Differential motors may be designed to run at almost con-
stant speedby properly proportioning the series and shunt
windings so that the magnetic field becomes weaker as
the load increases. A powerful starting torque cannot be
obtained from this motor inasmuch as the large starting
current in the series winding greatly decreases the field
strength. If such motors be suddenly started under load
their direction of rotation may reverse because the series
winding has a lower inductance than the shunt winding ;
hence in starting differential motors the series winding at
first should be automatically short-circuited. These motors

are rarely used in practice, as improvements in the design
of shunt motors have given the latter good speed regula-
tion, so there is no need of resorting to differential motors
with their objectionable features.
PROBLEMS. 265
PROBLEMS.
1. The armature core of a 4-pole motor has 41 slots, each
containing 24 conductors. At full load the wave-wound arma-
ture takes 20 amperes at 500 volts, and a flux of 2,100,000
maxwells enters the armature core per pole. What torque is
developed at full load ?
2. If the armature mentioned in the preceding problem

revolve at 640 rev. per min,, determine the horse-power devel-
oped at full load.
3. The armature resistance, including that of brushes and

brush contacts, of a 250-volt, 6-pole motor is .0079 ohm. The
armature is lap-wound and has 570 conductors. What is the
flux per pole entering the armature when the latter runs at 400
rev. per min. and takes 660 amperes at full load ?
4. A 25-H.P., 220-volt shunt-wound motor takes a current

of 98 amperes at full load. The armature resistance is 0.090
ohm. With a maximum allowable current intake of 1 40 amperes,
calculate the number of steps required in a starting rheostat for
this motor.
5. What are the resistance values of the various steps of the

starting box mentioned in the previous problem ?
6. From the following name-plate data of a shunt motor

determine its regulation and full-load efficiency
H.P. = 50, Volts = 250, Amperes = 170,
R.P.M. = 420 at no load, R.P.M. = 400 at full load.
7. What is the average pull in pounds on each of the 372

armature conductors of the motor cited in the foregoing problem
at full load if the conductors are situated 9 inches from the axis ?
8. The motor of an electric car having 33-inch wheels, when

traveling at 25 miles per hour, exerts a torque of 550 pounds (at
one foot radius from the center of the armature shaft). If the gear
ratio is 26 to 60, and the efficiency of the gears is 97%, determine
the tractive effort at the base of the car wheels, the horse-power,
and the number of revolutions of the motor per minute.
CHAPTER VIII.
DYNAMOTORS, MOTOR-GENERATORS, BOOSTERS, AND

STORAGE BATTERIES.
110. Dynamotors. — Dynamotors are transforming de-

vices combining both motor and generator action in one
magnetic field, with two armatures or with an armature
having two separate windings. They are generally supplied
with commutators, one at each end, which are connected to
the two windings respectively. Either winding of the ar-
mature may be used as a motor winding, and the other as
the generator winding. These machines occupy the same
position as regards direct-current practice as is occupied
by transformers in alternating-current practice. That is,
they enable one to take electrical energy from a system of

supply at one voltage, and deliver it at another voltage to
a circuit where it is to be utilized. They cannot, however,
be constructed so as to operate with the same high
efficiency as a transformer does. As the currents in the
two armatures flow in opposite directions, and the machines
are so designed as to have practically the same number of
armature ampere-turns when in operation, there is practi-
cally no armature reaction. The field, therefore, is not

distorted so as to require a shifting of the brushes upon a
change of load.These machines are more efficient than
motor-generators, which will be described later, as they
have but a single field magnet. They cannot be com-
pounded so as to yield a constant E.M.F. at the dynamo
end, for, while a cumulative series coil would tend to raise
DYNAMOTORS. 267
the E.M.F. at the generator end, there would be a

corresponding decrease of the speed of the armature,
due to the increase of magnetic flux. To generate the
same counter E.M.F. in the motor winding as previously
existed without the series coil, requires a lower armature
speed.
Dynamotors are used in the so-called Teaser system oi
variable speed control of motors which are intended to re-
ceive energy from supply circuits, that are at the same time
giving energy to lighting and similar load circuits. For
instance, they are used in connection with large printing
presses whose parts have large moments of inertia, and which
demand an unusually large starting torque to be exerted by
the driving motor. Sometimes this is as much as six times
the torque which the motor is called upon to exert at nor-
mal speed and full load. Since the torque which is exerted
by a motor is dependent upon the current which flows
through its armature, while the speed at which this torque
is applied is dependent upon the pressure impressed upon
it, it is desirable that the large starting current should be
taken at a low voltage from some transforming device, such
as a dynamotor, rather than at the higher and constant volt-
age of the supply mains. The dynamotor for instance
may be so designed that the counter E.M.F. of its motor
winding is five times the E.M.F. induced in its generator
winding. Consider the dynamotor and main motor to be
connected to the supply mains as indicated in Fig. 171, the
field winding of the former being excited by current taken
directlyfrom the mains, and the negative brush of the

motor end being connected with the positive brush of the
generator end. The two armature windings are connected
in series with a regulating resistance to the supply mains.
At starting, the main motor, which drives the press and
which is generally a cumulatively compound-wound motor,
is supplied with current from the generator end of the dyna-
mo tor. The voltage with
which it is supplied is some-
what less than one-fifth that
main supply, depending
of the
upon the magnitude of the

resistance in series with the
dynamotor. This low voltage
permits of the application of a
proper amount of torque at a
low speed. Furthermore, the
drain of current from the sup-
ply mains is about one-fifth
^^^' ^^^*
that which passes through
the main motor. By manipulating the dynamo regulating
resistance, the electromotive force supplied to the main
motor is raised, and with it the speed. The highest
speed of the main motor which can be attained by this
arrangement is such that, when attained, the motor's
connections may be transferred to the supply mains
through another series regulating resistance without any
excessive drain of current from those mains. The amount
of current which is taken by the main motor as compared
with the amount of current which is drawn from the supply
mains may be represented as in Fig. 172. Regulation of
the resistances and changes of connection are accomplished
through the aid of a controller. The different speeds are
secured by the manipulation of a single hand-wheel on the
controller, and thus the pressman has at his command a
simple means of manipulating the printing press.
DYNAMOTORS. 269
Dynamotors are also used as equalizers^ in connection

with 3-wire constant-potential distribution circuits, to
equalize the potential differences between the two outer

and the neutral wire when one side of the system is carry-
ing a larger load than the other. For instance, with simi-
Fig. 173.
larly wound windings upon its armature, the dynamotor

would be connected as indicated in Fig. 173 to a system
supplied by a 2 20- volt generator. When the system was
unbalanced the side having the smaller load would have
the lesser drop and therefore the higher pressure. The
winding of the dynamotor which is connected with this
side would act as a motor winding and drive the armature,
while the other winding would be the seat of generated
E.M.F.'s which would tend to raise the pressure of the
more heavily loaded side.
Consider that each of the equalizer armature windings

has a resistance of R ohms and generates Eg volts, and
that the power losses due to hysteresis, eddy currents, and
friction are Pi watts. Then, with E
volts between the
outer wires, and the load on the two sides balanced, that
is, no current flowing through the neutral wire,
E = 2Ee+2l^R, (I)
and
Pl = 2EJ^ (2)
where /^ represents the current in each armature winding.

If, however, the load be not balanced, and the neutral wire
carry a current /^, and if the armature windings carry
Sf
Fig. 174-
currents /^ and /^ respectively, their directions being as

indicated in Fig. 174, then
E = 2E, + Ifi hR, (3)
(§5) In — ^l ^ ^2' (4)

DYNAMOTORS. 2/1
and, as the iron and friction losses remain unaltered upon

the changed conditions of load, and since the power ex-
erted by the motor element equals the power output of
the generator element plus the frictional and iron losses,
£/, = EJ, + P, (5)
Dividing by Ee and using (2),
h = h+^^=h+2l,. (6)
Substituting (6) in (4) and solving
and i^ ^ ^+ /^. (8)
From (3), (7), and (8)
E = 2E^ + 2 I^R, (9)
which is the same as equation (i). Therefore the E.M.F.

generated by each armature winding is not altered by the
application of the load, under the conditions assumed.

Half of the unbalanced portion of the load In is supplied
by one equalizer armature winding, while the other half
comes from the main generator after passing through the
other equalizer armature winding, which at the time is
operating as a motor winding. The EM.F.^s generated

in the equalizer windings are not altered by the applica-
tion of the load, nor is the speed of the armature. The
capacity of the equalizer armature, if the losses be disre-
garded, should be equal to the power represented by the
maximum unbalanced load, for each armature supplies a
voltage approximately equal to that of either side of the
distribution circuit, and carries a maximum current of
approximately half the maximum carried by the neutral
wire. The employment of an equalizer enables one to
dispense with the neutral wire between the point where
it is located and the main generator, and makes it possible
to use a 3-wire distributing system in connection with a
single generator instead of a 2-wire system.
Assuming the normal pressure per side to be half that
between outer wires, and since with the maximum unbal-
anced load the side pressures are respectively
Eab= Eg + I^R,
and Ebc = E,- I,R,
then the pressure regulations, under this condition, are
ÎJijEg and —I^R/E^. The pressure on the loaded side
of the system therefore drops and that on the unloaded side
rises, as is the case with two main generators.
Dynamotors are used in telegraph stations, the motor
windings being designed for connections to lighting cir-
cuits, while the generator windings yield pressures suitable

for telegraphic service. This is often different in the case
of different machines. These machines are designed to
take the place of batteries of a large number of gravity cells
such as were used, in large quantities, a few years ago. The
cost of operation of a dynamotor for this service is about
one-fifth of what it is in the case of the gravity cells. The
space which the machine occupies is much less than that by
the cells. Dynamotors are to be preferred to batteries also
on the ground of cleanliness. Their reliability, when supplied
with electric energy from large city service mains, is equal to
that of the cells, but this cannot be said in the case of
small towns. The telephone companies sometimes employ
MOTOR-GENERATORS. 273
dynamotors for the purpose of charging storage cells.
Such a machine is shown in Fig. 175. With some forms,

the charging of the cells can go on continuously, they
being at the same time used for telephonic communication.
Dynamotors also furnish a convenient and satisfactory
Fig. 175-
means of heating surgeons' electro-cauteries. Cautery

knives take from 3 to 8 amperes at 5 volts, while dome
cauteries take from 15 to 20 amperes at the same
voltage.
III. Motor-Generators. — A motor-generator is a trans-
forming device consisting of a motor mechanically connected
to one or more generators.
A form in which both the motor and the generator are
direct-current machines is extensively used in connection
with 3-wire distributing systems, under the name of bal-
ancer. If the shunt field coils of the two halves of the
balancer be connected in series with each other and to the
outer conductors of the system, and if the armature wind-
ings be alike, the balancer will operate exactly as would a
dynamotor when used for this purpose and in the manner
described in the preceding section. The balancer, however,
as well as the motor-generator in general, is to be preferred
to the dynamotor from an operating viewpoint, because the
absolute independence of the two field magnets and of their
exciting coils makes possible a considerable variation in the
speed of the motor element as well as in the voltage of the
generator element. If the field windings of the two ele-
ments of the balancer and their armatures be reciprocally
connected with opposite sides of the system, as indicated
in Fig. 176, the regulation of the voltage on the two sides
of the system will be
improved. The E.M.F.'s
produced in the two ar-
matures when one side

y. y. )l of the system is carry-
bJ ing a greater load than
Fig. 176.
the other will be unlike,
the motor flux will be reduced and the generator flux will be
increased. The motor will therefore increase its speed
and the generator will produce a greater E.M.F. not only
because of the increased speed of the armature but also
because of the increased flux from its field magnets.
With such reciprocal field excitation perfect voltage regu-
lation cannot be obtained, for the method postulates a
voltage difference as a basis for its operativeness. Perfect

regulation may, however, be obtained by the use of com-
pound-wound elements in
the balancer. The direc-

tions of the currents in the
system and in the exciting
coils are indicated in Fig.
177, where the motor and
generator armatures of the
Fig. 177.
balancer are marked re-
spectively with M and G. The iron of the magnetic cir-
cuits of the two elements of the compound balancer, under
normal operation, should not be fluxed to near the point of
saturation.
Fig. 178.
A balancer, for use on 3-wire circuits having a pressure

of 125 volts per side is shown in Fig. 178.
2^6 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
Motor-generators having the armatures of their elements
wound for unlike voltages are used for maintaining con-
stancy between the various conductors of multivoltage
circuits as used in connection with the operation of variable-
speed shunt motors. Consider such a balancer to be con-
nected to a circuit and the currents to be as indicated in Fig.
179 and the armature of the lower element normally to gen-
erate an E.M.F. of E' volts, to have a resistance of R ohms,
Fig. 179.
and the armature of the upper element to generate {ji —i)E'

volts and to have a resistance of (n — i) R ohms resistance.
Then when the load is so balanced that the middle wire
carries no current, both elements will act as motors and
will carry a current I^, and the following relations will hold :
E- nE' - I^nR = 0. (i)
£' = ? LR. (2)

n
When, again, the middle wire carries a current /„, as indi-
cated in the figure,
E-nE' - I^{n - i)R + I'R = o, (3)

and (§5) h+ I' (4)
and, since motor-element output equals the sum of power

generated and of the frictional losses,
(m -!)£'/, = £'/' + £/„; is)

but, since nE' is practically equal to E, dividing by E',
solving for /', and substituting in (4), there results
7 = ^+7 .
(6)
Substituting (6) in (4),
'-(- 3'- -h' . (7)
and therefore, as in (2),
(8)
^'-f-^»^-
Therefore the main generator supplies approximately
i/«th the unbalanced load current at full voltage, whereas
the local mains supply this load current at E/;^ths the pres-
sure between outer conductors.
Fig. 180.
In the case of a 4-wire multivoltage distribution circuit,
using a 3-element motor-generator as a balancer, with cur-

rents and voltages as marked and directed in Fig. 1 80 the
preceding equations apply when the symbols are properly
interpreted.
Let Et equal the sum of the voltages generated in the
armature windings of all the elements of the balancer, and
assume that the different armatures generate AEt, BEt,
and CEt volts and that their windings have resistances
of AR, BR, and CR ohms, where A+B+C
= i. Then
all the armatures carry the no-load current 7^, and each
armature carries a portion of the unbalanced load-current
of every other branch than the one to which it is directly
connected, as well as a portion of the unbalanced load-cur-
rent of the branch to which it is directly connected. The
last will flow in a direction opposite to that indicated in the
figure. According to the foregoing discussion, (6) and (7)^
the apportioning is as follows :
—
A= /„ + (4 - +
1)7.1 BIb + CIc.
/, = /„ + +
--
and AIa + (B i)Ib CIc,
I. = h+ AIa + BIb + (C - i)Ic- (9)
The pressures between successive distribution conductors

are, therefore,
Eab = A{Et + I,R),
Etc = B(Et + I,R),
and Eed = C{Et + I,R). (10)
Fig. 181.
The equations of (9) and (10) can be extended to embrace

any number of branches. Balancers having three elements,
however, satisfactorily meet the requirements of multiple-
BOOSTERS. 279
voltage systems for speed control of motors. Common

branch pressures are 40, 80, and 120 volts respectively.
By use of such a system a very wide range in speed is
economically possible. A four-wire balancer for this pur-
pose is shown in Fig. 181.
112. Boosters. —A booster is a machine inserted in

series in a circuit to change its voltage. It may be driven
by an electric motor, in which case it is termed a motor-
booster, or otherwise.
In the distribution of electric energy from a central sta-
tion, at constant potential, it often happens that excessive

currents must be supplied at a considerable distance from
the station or that currents of ordinary magnitude must be
furnished at very distant points. If the supply potential is
to be the same at the distant points as at those near by, and

if the current at all points is to come from the same gen-
erators, then the cross-section of a feeder to a distant point
needs to be very great, unless some means be taken to com-
pensate for the drop in pressure caused by its resistance.
Series boosters are frequently employed for this purpose.
The generator element of the booster, in such a case, is
connected, at the station or at any other point, in series

with the feeder, the voltage-drop in which is to be compen-
sated. As the drop is equal to the current, /, carried by
the feeder times its resistance Rj, the voltage generated in
the booster, E^, should be such that
—= constant,
a condition which is by a generator whose charac-

satisfied
teristic is a straight line. Fig. 182, making an angle a with
the abscissae whose tangent is EÎL Such a characteristic

cannot be obtained, but, if the iron of the magnetic circuit
be not fluxed above the knee of the magnetization curve by
the maximum current to be carried by the feeder, a curved
characteristic may be obtained which
Hes sufficiently close to the straight
line to yield satisfactory results.
The curve lies above the straight
line and is concave towards it if the
compensation is perfect at full load.
LOAD cuRRE~ I With boostcrs to be used on ordinary
^^^" ^^^'
railroad circuits, the maximum vari-
ation of voltage from that indicated by the straight line, is
generally considered to be permissible, if it does not exceed

io% of the maximum voltage supplied by the booster.
As the field flux increases with the load, sparkless commu-
tation is and therefore copper
easily obtained at full load,
brushes may advantageously be employed for the purpose
of increasing the efficiency.
The series booster is also frequently used in electric
railway systems, which use the grounded rails for returning
the propulsion current to the generating station. It is used
to reduce the portion of the return current which would
otherwise pass through the earth and its substructures. It
is then termed a negative or track-retitrji booster. Consider

a point on the track rail to be at a potential above the
grounded terminal of the generator at the station and that
the propulsion current is returned to this terminal, under
this potential,by three paths connected in parallel, namely
the track rails, the earth, and a negative feeder in series
with a negative booster. Representing the currents flow-
ing in the respective paths by It, Z^, and /y, and the resist-
ances by Rt, R^, and Rj, then, if the voltage generated by

BOOSTERS. 281
the booster be Eb and if it be properly directed, the differ-

ence of potential will be
Rtlt = Reie =,(..- 1)

The expression in parentheses represents the apparent resist-
ance of the negative feeder. If the booster be so designed
that the slope of its characteristic is approximately Rj the
apparent resistance of the negative feeder becomes zero,
nearly all the current will return through it, and the earth
currents will be reduced.
Sometimes the field coil of the negative booster is con-
nected in series with the outgoing feeders while the arma-
ture is connected in series with the return feeder as above.
Boosters are extensively used in connection with storage
batteries for regulating the voltage between conductors of
constant-potential systems.
A so-called shimt booster^ with its armature connected, in
series with a battery, between the station bus-bars, and with
its shunt field coils also connected through a regulating
rheostat to the same bus-bars, is often used to increase the
voltage impressed upon the battery above that between bus-
bars during the charging of the battery. Since the charg-
ing pressure per cell varies from 1.8 volts at the start to
2.65 volts at heavy over-charge, if there be n cells and E volts

between bus-bars, the booster will be required to furnish at
a maximum an E.M.F,
Eb = ^(2.65 - 1.8) = 0.85 n volts,
and the current capacity must be the same as the maximum

charging current of the battery. When such an arrange-
ment is used the booster is employed only during the
charging of the cells and not all the cells are used during
the whole time of the discharge of the battery. A few
cells, called end-cells^ are cut out of circuit at the beginning
of the discharge and are successively cut in again as the
voltage per cell decreases due to the discharge. At the

close of the discharge all the cells are in circuit and their
number is
The E.M.F. capacity of the booster as well as its normal

volt-ampere capacity accordingly amounts to about 40 %
that of the battery.
Frequently differentially-woimd boosters, connected as
shown in Fig. 183, are used in connection with generators
Fig. 183.
supplying energy both for lighting as well as for motors.

This arrangement is especially suited to cases where the
motor load fluctuates much while its average value is small
and where a reduction of pressure upon the motor circuits
under load is advantageous. Such cases are found in office
buildings, apartment houses, and hotels, where a single gen-
erator supplies energy for lamps as well as for elevator and
pump motors. The motor bus-bars generally have 1 5 volts
greater potential difference than the lighting bus-bars.
At average motor load, the shunt ampere-turns predomi-
nate, the series coil carries the average motor-load current^
the booster EM,F,, Eb, is added to the generator E.M.F.,
BOOSTERS. 283
and the battery neither charges nor discharges. With

heavy motor load, the series excitation falls slightly with a
consequent fall of Ee^ of motor bus-bar pressure, and of
shunt excitation. The battery, therefore, supplies the ex-
cess above the average of the motor-load current, while the
main generator supplies, as before, this average. On light
motor load Eb increases slightly, the motor bus-bar pres-

sure rises, and the battery takes a charging current equal
to the difference between the motor-load current and its
average value. The current in the booster varies in prac-

tice but a few per cent from the average motor-load cur-
rent, and its direction is always the same. Such a machine
is therefore called a non-reversible or a constant-current
booster.
In electric railway systems where there is a large aver-
age current the battery charge and discharge rates are
moderate and it is desirable that the voltage should not
decrease with increase of load. In such cases the differ-
entially-wound booster may be employed, with connections
as indicated in Fig. 1 84, where the direction of the current
MOTOR
LOAD
Fig. 184.
through the armature alters with change from charge to dis-
charge of the battery. It is therefore called a reversible

booster. At normal load, the series and the shunt ampere-
turns are equal and opposed to each other, and hence the
booster E.M.F., E^, is zero, the battery is neither charging
nor discharging and its open-circuit voltage, Es, is equal to
E^ that of the generator and system. With heavy loads the
series ampere-turns predominate, Eb is added to^g, and the
battery discharges. With light loads the shunt ampere-
turns predominate, Eb opposes ^5"^, and the battery charges.
When the battery is discharged its E.M.F. falls, but the
booster compensates therefor by taking more current in
the series coil. The load on the generator is practically
constant and the battery takes up the variations. The
booster has to carry the maximum battery current and it
must at the same time give its maximum E.M.F. and ;
these values, therefore, determine its capacity.

The series coils of the two differentially-wound boosters
must be of sufficient cross-section to carry very large cur-
rents, and this again requires such large magnet frames as
to make the cost of the machines excessive. Means have
therefore been devised for making use of shunt-wound
boosters, the current in the shunt coil being changed by
and in accordance with variations in the generator current.
-MAAA/V^ r—
Fig. 185.
The Hubbard booster system makes use of an auxiliary

generator, X, for furnishing exciting current for the booster,
the connections being as indicated in Fig. 185. In prac-
tice the exciter and driving motor are on one shaft. At
average load the voltage of the exciter, E^, is the same as
BOOSTERS. 285
that of the system, E, and opposed to it, the booster volt-

age, Eb, and the battery neither charges nor dis-
is zero,
charges. With heavy load E^ > E, Eb is added to E^, and

the battery discharges. With light load, E^<E, Eb is re-
versed and is opposed to E^, and the battery charges.

This system is sometimes called the counter E.M.F. system
because the exciter E.M.F. opposes that of the system.
Another much-used booster system employs the E7tt2
carbon-plate regulator to control the exciting current in an
auxiliary generator used as an exciter for the booster. The
Fig. 186.
connections are as indicated in Fig. 186. Two piles of
carbon plates / and r have variable resistances, which are

reduced under pressure, and whose magnitudes are con-
trolled by the combined action of the solenoid 5 and the
spring s. The resistance Ri is reduced and R^ increased
upon increase of current in S. At average load Ri
and Rr are equal and therefore the point a is at the same
potential as b, and there is no current in the field coil of
the exciter X. Hence Ey, = Eb = 0, Eg = E, and the battery
neither charges nor discharges. With heavy load Ri<^R^y
E^>o, Eb has the same direction as E^, and the battery
discharges. With light load R^. < Ri, E^ > o, Eb is opposed to
Eg, and the battery charges. The appearance of the regu-
lator is shown in Fig. 187.

Booster armatures are generally lap-wound because of
the large currents which they must carry. The current
density in the windings can be made high because they are
Fig. 187.
rarely called upon to give their rated output. The reversible

boosters should have laminated field-magnet cores in order
to avoid a sluggish behavior. Sparking is liable to occur,
unless the armature coils are of low reactance, because of

the weak fluxing of the iron of the magnetic circuit. Safety
relay devices should be used to prevent racing of the gen-
STORAGE BATTERIES. 287
erator element in case of the accidental opening of the shunt

exciting circuit of the motor element.
113. Storage Batteries. — Storage batteries are reversible
electrolytic cells,whose electrodes are chemically modified
by the passage of current through the cells and which
thereby absorb and store energy when the current flows in
one direction and give it up when the direction is reversed.
Lead Storage Battery. —
In the various makes of lead
storage batteries, lead is used for electrodes and dilute sul-
phuric acid for an electrolyte. When charged, and energy
has been absorbed, the positive electrode, that is the one
of higher potential, is modified so as to contain an amount
of lead peroxide (Pb02), while the other or negative elec-
trode contains a corresponding amount of sponge lead.
Before a commercial cell can be considered as ready to
receive its first or factory charge, the electrodes must have
been materially modified from the condition of ordinary reg-
uline lead. Their surfaces may have been rendered porous

by mechanical and electrochemical treatment, or lead oxides
may have been conductively united with them through me-
chanical means. The plates constituting the former elec-
trodes are termed Plante plates, while the latter are known
2,'=y pasted plates. The purpose of the preliminary treatment
ox formation of the electrodes is eventually to expose a large
surface to the electrolyte, so that, under the limitations as
to the velocities of the chemical reactions, a relatively high
rate and large amount of energy may be absorbed during
charge and be liberated during discharge. When fully
charged, the porous portion of the positive electrode is
peroxide of lead and of the negative is sponge lead. At all
other times there is some lead sulphate present in the

porous or active material of both electrodes. As lead sul-
phate is a non-conductor of electricity, an excessive amount
of it will interfere with the functioning of the active mate-
rial. When the open-circuit potential of a cell sinks to i.S
volts the amount has increased to the permissible limit.

The chemical changes taking place during charge and dis-
charge are represented by the formula
Charge
PhO^ + Pb + 2 H,SO, = 2 PbSO^ + 2 H,0.

Discharge
Plante plates are larger, heavier, more expensive, and

more Ukely to be injured by impurities in the electrolyte
than pasted plates, although they are more efficient, dura-

ble, and dependable. They are best fitted for use in con-
nection with central stations. Pasted plates are to be pre-
ferred for motor-car propulsion. The electrochemical action
does not penetrate much more than a millimeter below the
surface of the electrode, because the active material has so
much greater conductivity than the electrolyte and, at that
depth, most of the current is confined to the active ma-
terial, and there is, accordingly, no appreciable release of
ions from the electrolyte.
The acid of the electrolyte should be made from sulphur
and not from pyrites and at full charge should be diluted
to have a specific gravity of 1.20. During discharge the
electrolyte gives up to the electrodes SO3 and its specific
gravity therefore falls from 1.13 to 1.19 depending upon

the amount of electrolyte. Calculations of the resistance
offered by the electrolyte can be based upon the assump-
tion that its resistivity 4/3 ohm per cubic centimeter at
is
18° C. with a negative temperature coefficient of 0.016 per

degree Centigrade.
The E.M.F. of a cell depends upon the condition of

charge. The terminal voltages during the hours of charge
and discharge as a function of the time are shown in
"~
1 1
2.6
J
/
2.4
1
CHARGE
1
^
^-
2.2
/
N DISCHARGE
2.00 ~~~' '
^
1.8
N
\
1.6
3L \
I L 5 6 7 8
HO URS
Fig. 188.
Fig. 188. The E.M.F. of a fully charged cell is 2.5 volts.

If an auxiliary cadmium electrode be inserted in the elec-
trolyte its potential should be 2.3 volts below that of the

positive plate and 0.2 volt above that of the negative plate.
When fully discharged the E.M.F. of a cell is 1.8 volts
and cadmium should have a potential 2.05 below the posi-
tive electrode and 0.25 below the negative. By means of
such a cadmium test the condition of either electrode can
be determined. It is common to take the average E.M.F.
of a cell as 2 volts. To obtain a battery of greater
E.M.F. a plurality of cells, connected in series, is employed.
The capacity rating of a storage cell is expressed by the
number of ampere-hours which it will furnish in discharg-
ing itself at constant current from a fully charged condi-
tion to a point where its potential on open circuit is 1.8
volts, the discharge being completed after the expiration
of 8 hours. The actual ampere-hour capacity decreases
with an increase of discharge rate, that is if made in less
than 8 hours. It is reduced to one-half if made in one
hour. The capacity is from 40 to 60 ampere-hours per
square foot of exposed area of positive electrode, counting
both sides but taking no account of increase of surface
due to porosity. The normal current rate of charge or dis-
charge is therefore from 5 to 8 amperes per square foot.
A continuous discharge should not exceed 25 amperes per

square foot. Double this rate is permissible for 30 seconds
or less. If it be desired to charge the cell rapidly the
charging current should- not be kept constant. To charge
in three hours, for example, the current for the first hour
should be 4 times the 8-hour rate, for the next 2.5 times,
and for the last 1.5 times. Theoretically the amount of
lead chemically modified per ampere-hour on either elec-
trode is 0.135 oz. Practically from 0.5 to 0.9 oz. is re-
quired. There should be at least xV lb. of electrolyte for

each ampere-hour.
The plates are assembled in the electrolyte so that suc-
cessive plates are of opposite polarity and both sides of
each positive plate are exposed to a negative. Containing
jars aremade of glass or hard rubber, and for large cells
wooden tanks are used. Fig. 189 shows a 560-
lead-lined
ampere-hour cell in a glass jar. The power output per
pound of complete cell is from 8 to 14 watts with pasted
plates and from 3 to 7 watts with Plante plates.
Edison Storage Battery. — The positive electrodes of
the Edison storage battery consist of grids of nickel-plated
steel supporting nickel hydrate (changed to nickel oxide
when first charged) intermixed with flakes of pure nickel,
and the negative electrodes consist of similar grids con-
taining powdered iron oxide. The electrolyte is a 21 per
cent solution of caustic potash in distilled water with a
slight amount of lithia, and is contained in a nickel-plated
sheet-steel case.
The ampere-hour capacity of these batteries is based on
a 5 -hour discharge rate. The voltage of a cell is 1.2 at
Fig. i89. Fig. 190,
normal discharge ; for charging, 1.85 volts are required per

cell. shows the appearance of an 80-ampere-hour
Fig. 190
Edison storage battery, and also the positive (at the right)
and negative plates. The weight of an Edison battery is
about half that of a lead battery, having the same voltage
and capacity, but its efficiency is slightly lower. It may
be overcharged or discharged to zero voltage without harm

to the battery.
PROBLEMS.
1. A dynamotor, the resistances of whose armature windings
are each o. i ohm, is used as an equaHzer on a 3-wire equivolt-
age system with 200 volts between outside conductors. One
ampere flows through the armatures when the system is bal-
anced. Find the power expended in frictions and the counter
E.M.F. of each armature winding.
2. Find the regulation of each side of the system of the pre-
ceding problem if the maximum unbalanced load be 100 am-
peres.
3. A motor-generator, with one armature having a resistance
two-thirds as great as the other and designed to generate at
the same speed two-thirds the E.M.F. generated by the other,
is used as a balancer between outer wires having a potential dif-
ference of 500 volts. The power required to overcome frictions

is 400 watts and the resistance of the two armatures in series is
1.2 ohms. A current of 150 amperes flows through the middle
wire. Determine the capacity of each unit of the balancer.
4. A 3-element four-wire balancer is used on a multivoltage
variable-speed motor system with 40, 120, and 80 volts between
successive wires. The armature resistances are proportional to
the E.M.F. generated in them, and together amount to 0.48
ohm. On balanced load the armatures take 10 amperes. If the
current between successive line wires be 30, 75, and 10 amperes

respectively, what are the respective currents in the armatures
of the motor-generator elements ? What is the pressure between
successive wires ?
5. From a point one mile distant there returns to the generat-

ing station for a single-track railway, that uses 70-lb. (per yard)
rails, 200 amperes by way of the rails. Two No. 0000
parallel
copper wires in series with a negative booster and returning
300 amperes to the station, will reduce to zero the drop between
this point and the station with what booster voltage ? The re-
sistivity of the rails, including bonds, is no ohms per mil-foot.

PROBLEMS. 293
6. In Fig. 191 the curve represents a maximum daily

load-curve, on a 500-volt system, variations in which are to be
provided for by a storage battery. Determine the current /av
such that the charging ampere-hours shall exceed the quantity
of discharge by 10%, and then obtain the ampere-hour capacity
and the exposed area of positive plates per cell and the number
of cells in an appropriate battery having end-cell regulation.
10 12 2
HOURS
Fig. 191.
7. At 500 volts with battery arranged as in Fig. 184, how

many cells would be required in the battery .?
8. Plot a power output-time curve of the reversible booster of

the preceding problem, the load curve being that shown in Fig.
191; each cell having an ampere-hour capacity as in problem
6, the voltage-hour curves of charge and discharge being those
shown in Fig. 189, and the cell being considered as fully charged
at the instant when the load first assumes its average value.
9. If the booster and its driving motor each have an overload
capacity of 25% for two hours and have an efficiency of 90%

at full load, what is the capacity of each in kilowatts ? What is
the maximum motor input ?

294 DYNAiMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
CHAPTER IX.
CENTRAL-STATION EQUIPMENT.
ii4. Paralleling of Generators. — In general a generator

is much more efficient when operated at its full load than
when operated at one-half or one-quarter load. It is usual
to install in central stations, which, as a rule, must supply
different quantities of electrical energy at different times of
the day, a number of smaller units rather than one unit
large enough to supply the total energy. By this means
any load can be handled by a machine or by a number of
machines all operating at about their maximum efficiency.
It is necessary, therefore, to consider the methods of com-
bining two or more machines to supply energy to a single
load.
The simplest and most usual method of connecting

generators is employed in incandescent light generat-
that
ing stations, where a number of constant-pressure machines
are connected in parallel, the positive and negative terminals
of each generator being connected respectively to positive
and negative common conductors, called bits-bars, which are
located on the rear of the operating switchboard. The
connections of two shunt-wound machines with their regu-
lating rheostats are shown in Fig. 192. The various load
external circuits are connected in parallel to the bus-bars.
This practice is frequently modified by separating those
machines which supply energy to the more distant loads
from those that supply the shorter circuits. This is because
CENTRAL-STATION EQUIPMENT. 295
the maintaining of a constant and uniform pressure at all
distributing points requires a higher pressure on the station

ends of the longer mains than that on the shorter. When
a machine is to be connected to bus-bars to which other
operating machines are already connected, it is first brought
Fig. 192.
up to speed ; the field magnetization is then adjusted till
the machine generates the same voltage as that of the bus-

bars, and the main switch is then closed, which puts the
machine in circuit. The proper voltage at which to connect
in the new machine may be roughly determined by compar-
ing the relative brightness of its pilot lamp with that of the
lamps operating on the circuit. A more exact way is to

compare the readings of a voltmeter across the terminals of
a machine with one across the bus-bars. Another method

is to connect the generator to the bus-bars through a high
resistance and a galvanometer indicator. When the latter
indicates no deflection, the voltages of the machine and the
bus-bars are identical, and the machine may be connected
in. Sometimes the differential indicator is used for this
purpose.
When shunt machines are connected in parallel, their volt-
ages should be maintained the same so that the total load

may be properly apportioned among them. If this equality
of voltage be not maintained, no serious damage will occur,
•oince the machine which generates the lower voltage merely

fails to take its full share of the load. Even if the voltage
of one machine falls so low that it is overpowered and run
as a motor, still no damage will result, save perhaps the
blowing of a fuse, since the direction of rotation for a shunt
machine is the same whether it be run as a generator or as
a motor. If it be desired to regulate a number of machines
simultaneously by one regulator, it may be accomplished by
bringing the positive ends of the one terminal
field coils to
of the regulator and connecting the other terminal to the

negative bus.
Shunt machines may be operated in series by connecting
the positive brush of one machine to the negative brush of
,
the next, and connecting the
rrri
_J g
/^^\
\ ^
extreme outside brushes with
j !
I
Aj ^j the line wires. Each machme
j
can be regulated separately to

generate any portion of the
pressure, or, if it be desired to
i jr ^ j, regulate all the machines thus
Fis- 193. connected uniformly and as a
unit, the field coils of all the machines may be joined
in series with one regulating rheostat, and shunted across
the line wires. Fig. 193 illustrates such an arrangement
for two 1 1 5 -volt generators.
Series-wound generators may be operated in series, as in
the Thury system of direct-current high-potential power

transmission, which is in use on a number of lines in
Europe. The aggregate capacity of the 1 5 plants at pres-
ent employing this system is 25,000 horse-power, the line
from Montiers to Lyons being the longest (112 miles) and

employing the highest voltage (57,000 volts).
There are a number of groups of generators at the power
house connected in series, each group being driven by a
water turbine or other prime mover ; the voltage per
machine being less than 4000. Each generator is insulated
from ground and from the other machines of the group,
the middle point of the system being grounded to limit the
required insulation. The line current is maintained con-
stant by several complicated auxiliary devices. These auto-
matically regulate the speed of all the prime movers, so as
to keep the line voltage proportional to the load; cut in
or out of circuit one or more machines if there be large

changes in load ; and any disabled machine. In
short-circuit
the substations, a number of series-wound motors are con-
nected in series across the line, the motors being arranged
in groups, each group driving a generator. The generators,
which may deliver either direct or alternating current, are
connected in multiple for distribution. The motors and
generators in the substations are insulated from each other
and from ground, just as are the machines in the generating
station. The current taken by the motors is kept constant
by an automatic shifting of the brushes. The Thury sys-
tem is adapted only to undertakings where the power is to
be transmitted over a long distance and the load is to be
concentrated at few points, since at every tap a complete
substation must be provided containing motors having an
aggregate voltage equal to the line voltage. If the line
alone be considered, direct-current power transmission is far
superior to alternating-current transmission, which is em-
ployed exclusively in this country. Less conductor mate-
rial is required and none of the disturbing influences met
with in alternating-current transmission are encountered in
the Thury system.
Difficulty is experienced if it be attempted to operate
series generators in parallel. If the machines start with a
proper distribution of load among them, and if one generates
slightly less than its full voltage, then this machine does
not continue to take its full share of the load; and, since it
is series wound, the magnetic field becomes weakened, thus

resulting in a still lower voltage. The conditions continually
grow more uneven until the machine is overpowered and
it becomes a motor. Since the direction of rotation of a
series-wound motor is opposite to its direction when run as
a generator, serious results may occur. One way in which
this difficulty may be overcome is to arrange the field coils
so that the magnetization in any one machine will remain

the same as in the other machines, even though its pressure
falls below that of the others. To accomplish this result
the series fields must all be placed in parallel. This may
be done by means of an equalizer^ which is a wire of small
resistance connecting all of the brushes of one polarity, and
Fig. 194-
placing the field in parallel, as shown in Fig. 194. Two

seriesdynamos may be run in parallel without an equahzer
by resorting to mutual excitation, that is, by letting the cur-
rent of one armature excite the field of the other. In this

case, if the pressure of one machine falls and its load there-
fore decreases, the magnetization of the other is reduced,
compelling the first to maintain its share of the load.
Series dynamos are never operated in parallel in prac-

tice, but this discussion is introduced because of its
application to the parallel operation of compound-wound

dynamos.
Compound-wound generators are extensively used for
constant-potential distribution. Since these machines have
series field coils as well as shunt field coils, the parallel
connection thereof for combined output should involve an
equalizing bus, as in Fig. 195. Any number of compound
generators may be op-
erated in parallel regard-
I
i&
less of the size of the
units, provided their volt-
ages are the same and

SERIES
that the resistances of
umm.COILS mmsL
FIELD
their series field coils are
Fig. 195-
inversely proportional to
the currents supplied by the individual machines. Over-
compounded generators which are to be operated in parallel
must yield exactly the same voltage increase at full load
or at any other load. This may be adjusted by interposing
additional resistance in the series field coil of that generator
which carries more than its share of the load.
115. Parallel Operation of Motors. — Any number of
shunt motors may be placed in parallel across constant-
pressure mains, and their operation will be satisfactory
whether each has a separate load or whether they be con-
nected through suitable devices to a common shaft. Shunt
motors will operate in series on a constant-pressure circuit
when positively coupled together; but if connected to the
same shaft by belts, and one belt slips or comes off, that
motor will race, and receive more than its proper portion
of the voltage. This arrangement is not common.
Series motors will operate satisfactorily on constant-
pressure circuits if rigidly coupled to their loads. Series
motors connected in series on constant-pressure mains will
operate satisfactorily, dividing up the total voltage between

them according to the load each is carrying. If it be
desired to make them share a load equally they must be
geared together so that each rotates at the speed correspond-
ing to its share of the voltage. Series motors only are used
on constant-current circuits. Any number of these may be
placed in series on such a circuit individually or connected
to a common shaft. A series motor on a constant-current
circuit may be overloaded until it stops without harm, since
a constant current flows at any speed.
Compound-wound motors are coming into quite general
use, and they are invariably operated on constant-pressure

circuits, and each machine has its own load.
ii6. Switches. — Switches are devices inserted in a cir-
cuit to facilitate its establishment or interruption. They

are generally of the form known as knife switches, and may
be single-pole, double-pole, etc., according to the number
of circuit interruptions simultaneously effected. Fig. 196
shows a 3000-ampere 125-volt double-throw back-connected
multiple-blade knife switchmade by the Anderson Manu-
facturing Company.
The metal parts of such switches consist of copper hinges,
blades, and clips, and these must be properly designed to
have sufficient current-carrying capacity and contact surface.
It is usual to allow one square inch of cross-sectional area

for every 800 to 1000 amperes, and to provide one square
inch of contact surface for every 60 to 75 amperes of cur-
rent. The distances between metal parts of opposite
polarity and the break distances of approved switches, in
Fig. 196.
inches, are given in the following table. Frequently

switches are provided with fuse connections, and also lugs
into which the ends of the leads are soldered.
MINIMliM SEPARATION
OF METAL PARTS OF MINIMUM BREAK DISTANCE
OPPOSITE POLARITY
SIZE OF
SWITCH
I2SV. 125 V. 250 V. 125 V. 125 V. 250 V.
OR TO TO OR TO TO
LESS 250 V. 600 V. LESS 250 V. 600 V.
10 amp. or less I
3
10-35 amperes 4
35-100 " f> 4K 4
ioc-300 " 2%
300-600 "
600-1000 " 3 3 2^
Fig. 197-
A loooo ampere 500 volt ''rotary" switch for use on

central-station switchboards is shown in Fig. 197.
117. Fuses. — Fuses are devices intended to protect cir-
cuits from destruction or damage which might result from an

excessive flow of current through them. They are made
of fusible material, generally of lead or an alloy of tin and

lead, and take the form of wire or strips provided at each
end with a copper terminal which is slotted to fit into fuse
receptacles.
The magnitude of the current which will melt a fuse de-
pends upon the length of the wire. Short lengths of a wire
of given cross-section and given material will carry larger
currents than longer lengths. The heat which is generated

in the short ones escapes more rapidly, owing to the prox-
imity of large masses of metal which commonly form the
terminals of the fuse. Fuses are rated at 80 per cent of
the greatest current they can carry indefinitely without
melting. This rating enables the fuse to carry a current
25 per cent greater than the normal current for which the
fuse is designed.
The "blowing" of a fuse is accompanied by a flash and
a spattering of the fused metal ; this may ignite near-by
combustible materials. Therefore link fuses should be
placed in separate porcelain or other fireproof receptacles.
The better practice is to use enclosed fuses, in which the
fusible conductor is surrounded by a finely divided powder
contained in an insulating casing.
118. Circuit Breakers. — In central-station practice the
fuse with its uncertainties has been superseded by the
electro-magnetic circuit breaker. This device acts promptly
and definitely, and has the advantage that a circuit once
opened by it, due to an excessive current therein, may be
instantly reestablished.
A circuit breaker consists of a switch which may be
closed against the action of a strong spring and kept closed
by means of a latch. This latch is controlled by the
plunger of a solenoid which is connected in series with the
line. When an abnormal current flows through the circuit,
the plunger is attracted and strikes against a trigger which

releases the latch. The spring then becomes operative and
the circuit breaker is opened. The opening of a circuit
carrying an excessive current is accompanied by an arc
across the break. To avoid arcing across the metal con-
tacts of a circuit breaker, this device is provided with an
auxiliary set of carbon contacts so arranged that the latter
are opened an instant later than the main metal contacts.
Thus all the sparking takes place at the renewable carbon
contacts.
A Westinghouse single-pole 500-volt circuit breaker for
use with compound-wound generators is shown in Fig. 198.
The solenoid is a massive

copper coil located on the
rear of the marble panel.
The movable member is built
up of thin sheets of spring

copper which contact edge-
wise against solid copper ter-
minal blocks. This instru-
ment may be adjusted to
open the circuit which it pro-
tects for any predetermined
current strength between the
limits of 20 % less than, and
50 % in excess the normal
of,
Fig. 198. current.

When generators are operated in parallel, each machine
should be protected by a reverse-current circuit breaker,
which will open when a reverse current of predetermined
value flows. The usual overload circuit breaker, just de-
scribed, may be used for this purpose when provided with

a relay ; or, better still, a circuit breaker equipped with two
solenoids may be used, one of which operates on the passage
of an excessive current and the other on the flowing of a
reverse current. A circuit breaker especially suitable for
storage-battery work to prevent the current from flowing

back through the generator is the juiderload ch'cviit breaker.
It is usually adjusted to open the circuit when the current
falls below one-tenth of its normal rated value. Another
type of circuit breaker is that having a no-voltage release ;
this instrument is particularly adapted for the protection

of motor circuits from dangers accruing from the circuit
remaining closed while the line is idle.
119. Measuring Instruments. — The instruments em-

ployed in direct-current work are ammeters, voltmeters and
wattmeters, for measuring respectively current, voltage and
power. Every instrument has some movable part to which
a pointer, passing over a divided scale, is attached. Two
forces act upon this moving element, one causing a deflec-
tion thereof from its zero position, and the other, opposing
the first, limits the deflection so that the position of the
moving element when in equilibrium gives a proper indica-
tion of the magnitude of the deflecting force.
Ammeters. There are four types of commercial amme-
ters: (i) those in which the force-action between two coils
carrying current serves as a measure of that current, (2)
those in which the force-action between a permanent mag-
net and a coil carrying current is utilized as a measure of
the current, (3) those in which the amount of attraction of
a soft -iron core or vane by a coil carrying current serves
as an indication of the current strength, and (4) those
in which the expansion of a wire heated by the passage
3o6 DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
of a current through it is utiHzed as a measure of the
current.
The electrodynamometer is an ammeter of the first type,
and consists of two coils connected in series, one coil being
fixed and the other movable. The planes of these coils are
normally at right angles to each other, but when a current
flows through them they tend to place themselves in the
same plane. This tendency of rotation of the movable coil
is resisted by a torsional spring. The angle through which

the spring is turned in order to restore the coil while carry-
ing the current to its original position is measured by means
of a pointer and a dial. If a be the angle turned through,
then the current strength is
I=^k\/a,
where /^ is a constant determined by calibration.

Ammeters of the second type may have the coil fixed
and the permanent magnet movable, but the moving-coil

instruments, such as the Weston meter, are more generally
used. The Weston instrument consists of a coil composed
of a large number of turns of fine insulated copper wire
wound on a light rectangular frame of copper or aluminum,
this coil being pivoted in jeweled bearings and mounted in
an annular space between the poles of a permanent magnet
and a soft-iron core at the center, as shown in Fig. 199.
Two spiral springs serve to carry the current to and from
the moving coil, and also control the amount of deflection.
The current strength is directly proportional to the angle
of deflection, and therefore the scales of such instruments
are uniform over the entire range.
Ammeters in which a soft-iron piece is attracted by
an electromagnet carrying the current to be indicated are
most generally used for the measurement of alternating

currents, but serve equally well for direct currents. In the
most approved form
of this type of instru-
ment the current to
be measured passes
through a fixed coil
and thereby magne-

tizes a soft -iron vane
which is pivoted and

controlled by a spring.
Magnetizing the vane
causes it to move,
the amount of move-
Fig. 199.
ment indicating the
current strength on the properly calibrated scale.
The principle of operation of the hot-wire type of amme-
ter is that the heat produced by a current which traverses
a wire having a negligible temperature coefficient of resist-
ance is proportional to the square of that current, and, since
the temperature rise of the wire
__ is proportional to the heating,
and the linear expansion of the
wire is proportional to the tem-
perature rise, it follows that the
linear expansion is directly pro-
portional to the square of the
Fig. 200.
current value. The expansion
of the wire may be observed by a pointer, P, which passes
over a calibrated scale, the arrangement being as shown
in Fig. 200.
Frequently only a small part of the whole current to be
measured passes through the ammeter coil, the remainder
flowing through a by-path of low resistance, called a sJnmt.
The resistance of a shunt for a given instrument is so pro-
portioned that a full-scale deflection will be produced when
a specified current flows through the shunt. The size of
the shunt is designated by this current value. If it be

proposed to use a moving-coil instrument, which gives a
full-scale deflection on E volts, to indicate a maximum cur-
rent of / amperes, then the resistance of the shunt must
be — ohm.
Voltmeters. Most voltmeters are simply ammeters of

very high resistance. They may therefore be connected
to supply mains without
causing more than a slight
flow of current through the
instrument. The resist-
ance of voltmeters is in the

neighborhood of lOO ohms
per volt of maximum scale
deflection. The appearance
of switchboard voltmeters
and ammeters is shown in
Fig. 20 1.
F^s- 20I- Another type of volt-
meter, depending for its operation on the attraction between
two electrically charged bodies, is the electrostatic volt-
meter. Low-voltage instruments of this type consist of a
number of thin plates horizontally suspended between
corresponding quadrants, and fitted with a pointer which
plays over a divided scale.
In order to vary the range of the usual type of voltmeters,
CJtNTRAL-STATION EQUIPMENT. 309
resistance is connected in series with the instruments, such

resistances being known as mtdtipliers. If R be the resist-
ance of a low-reading voltmeter, and r be that of the multi-
plier, then the range of the instrument has been increased
r+ R times. Multipliers should be wound non-inductively
R
with wire having a negligible temperature coefficient of
resistance.
Wattmeters. The power delivered to direct-current re-
ceiving circuitsmay be determined from voltmeter and
ammeter readings, or may be measured directly by means
of a wattmeter. This instrument consists of a fixed coil,
which is connected in series with the load circuit, and a

movable coil, which is connected in series with a high re-
sistance across the supply mains, as shown in Fig. 202.
Fig. 202.
The deflecting force is proportional to the product of the

currents flowing in the two windings, but the current flow-
ing in the movable coil is proportional to the voltage of the
circuit; therefore the deflecting force is proportional to
the product of the current supplied and the voltage, or to
the power delivered to the load. Wattmeters are used
principally in connection with alternating-current measure-
ments.
To measure the energy delivered to a circuit, ivatt-Jiour
3IO DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY.
meters are employed. In order that an instrument may
record the time element, some part of the meter must move
constantly through unit distance for each unit of energy
delivered,and this movement must be permanently recorded
by a suitable device such as a dial train. The Thomson
watt-hour meter, shown in Fig. 203, consists of a spherical
armature rotating within
two circular field coils, one
on either side of the arm-
ature. This instrument is
connected to the circuit in

the same manner as the
indicating watt-meter. The
armature is carried by a
vertical spindle, the lower
end of which rests in a jew-
eled bearing, and the upper

end is provided with a worm
which meshes with a chain
of wheels constituting the
counting mechanism. The
torque produced is propor-
Fig. 203.
tional to the product of the
field flux and the armature current. As there is no iron in
the magnetic circuit and since the speed of rotation is low,

little or no counter E.M.F. will be induced in the armature
coil; thus the armature current is independent of the speed,
and is directly proportional to the line voltage. For the
same reason the field flux is proportional to the main current.
Therefore the torque is proportional to the power consumed
by the load. In order that the meter shall record correctly
it is only necessary to provide some means for making the
speed of rotation proportional to the torque. This is accom-

plishedby applying a magnetic drag, in the form of an
aluminum disk fastened to the armature spindle and passing
between the poles of permanent magnets. The electromo-
tive forces induced in the disk are proportional to the
number of lines of force cut in a given time, and, since the
resistance of the disk is constant, the strength of the eddy
currents will be proportional to the rate of cutting lines of
force, and consequently will vary with the speed of rotation.
The drag or counter torque, being proportional to the prod-
uct of the constant flux and the eddy currents, will vary
directly with the speed. To overcome mechanical friction
an auxiliary field coil or starting coil is provided which
consists of a few turns
of fine wire connected
in series with the arma-
ture.
Instruments for re-
cording successive in-
stantaneous values of
current, voltage or
power are called record-
ing instruments. They
operate on the same
principles as indicating
instruments, and are
made recording by fit-
Fig. 204.
ting the pointer with an
ink pen which presses against a paper chart wound
on a drum, the latter rotating slowly at constant speed
by clockwork. A curve-drawing wattmeter is shown in
Fig. 204.
120. Switchboards. — The object of a central-station
switchboard group the necessary devices for controlhng,
is to
distributing and measuring the current received or deUvered,
particular attention being directed toward locating these
devices for convenient operation. Safety apparatus for pro-
tecting generators or the lines against abnormal conditions
are sometimes placed upon the switchboard.
Switchboards are designed with a view to a symmetrical
arrangement of the apparatus and instruments, and it is
usual to place all similar devices m the same horizontal row.

As a rule circuit breakers are located at the top of the
board and recording instruments at the bottom. Measuring
instruments are placed at such height as to be conveniently
read by the switchboard attendant. Rheostats may be
placed above or below the switchboard at the rear, but the
handles controlling them, through the agency of chains and
sprocket wheels, must be located so that the attendant can
manipulate them and note the instrument indications simul-
taneously. The bus-bars and the connections from them to
the switches, circuit breakers, rheostats and to the instru-
ments are mounted on the rear of the switchboard.
Switchboards are constructed so that each panel controls

the apparatus for a single generator or controls a definite
number of feeders. Fig. 205 illustrates a switchboard for
two compound-wound generators, and consisting of two
generator panels and one feeder panel for four feeders.
Each generator may be connected to the bus-bars by means

of a main switch and a circuit breaker. The current sup-
pHed to the by each generator is measured by a
load
separate ammeter and shunt, but the voltage of both ma-
chines is measured alternately by a single voltmeter which
may be connected to either machine by a voltmeter switch
Fig. 205.
mmMr-^
on the feeder panel. The rheostats on the generator panels
regulate the excitation of the generator shunt fields. In
order that these compound-wound machines may be oper-
ated in parallel, equalizer switches and an equalizer bus-bar
are necessary. A lamp on each panel provides illumination
for the scales of the measuring instruments; the lamps on
the generator panels also serve as pilot lamps. The outer
lamps on the feeder panel constitute a groimd detector^ and
are used for indicating grounds. Should a partial ground
occur on one line the corresponding lamp would burn dimly
and the other brightly, thus indicating by their relative
brightness the extent of the fault.
121. Works Cost. — The costs of the various items

which are involved in the manufacture of dynamo-electric
machines are so dependent upon the types of the specific
designs that a comprehensive discussion of them cannot be
given in this book. Commercial designers, however, are
responsible for the manufacture of machines which are as
inexpensive as is consistent with satisfactory operation.
Although, with a machine of given speed and output, the
detail costs for labor, iron, copper and insulating material
may vary widely in different cases, the total works costs
are not very different. If the diameter and over-all length
of the armature be D and / inches respectively, then the
works cost in dollars may be expressed as
Cost = KDl,
where iT is a function of the speed and output of the
machine. This function is fairly constant for pressures
between lOO and 500 volts, for the extra costs of insulation
in the construction of the machines of higher voltage are
compensated for by the reduced costs of commutator copper.
The values of K may be obtained from the curves shown

in Fig. 206, which correspond to peripheral velocities, v, of
the armature of 200, 150, and 100 or less feet per second.
^The increased values for velocities above 100 are due to
increased costs of labor and of suitable material for with-
standing the higher centrifugal forces.
-^ Ji-^
_
ASfL-
^^ -^
"^
^^ -— -^ jooof _LESS^
^^ .^ — J^-^
200 400 600 1000

OUTPUT IN K.W.
Fig. 206.
122. Selling Prices. —

The selling price of a machine
must exceed the works cost by an amount sufficient to
include the profit and such expenses as litigation, advertis-
ing, and sales commissions or expenses. It is customary for
manufacturing concerns to print in their commercial publi-

cations list-prices of machines which considerably exceed
the total costs of them when deUvered. Substantial dis-
counts are allowed to purchasers, amounting to as much
as 50 % in some and depending upon the extent of
cases,
purchase, date of payment and many other complex condi-
tions. The actual selling price per K.W. is dependent upon
the speed, output and type of machine. To give a general
idea as to the selling prices of compound-wound generators
the curves of Figs. 207 and 208 are given. The prices are
not far from those which would be paid by unfavored pur-
50
\
125-VOLT
40
\ COMPOUND GENERATORS
) \
V \ \ <^
z
1 ^>
'^
'i^
^
\c
S20
^ ^J ~
%^ ''^,
PEED si!
^f
JITED T
""-î*. ._ ^
CAPA CITY
"~~~
10
100 150
CAPACITY IN K.W.
Fig. 207.
250-VOLT
ENGINE-TYPE
\
\
V ^^
COMPOUND GENERATORS
AT 100 R.P.M.
400 600
CAPACITY IN K.W.
Fig. 208.
chasers in 1910. In Fig. 209 are given the selHng prices

of 230-volt shunt or series motors for normal speeds of
1000 revolutions per minute, and of 125-volt balancers.
\ V
\
\^
\
\ h
1^ ^SAL^
V^
"N.
^»*,5-,9
CERs
—
^
Ui^ ,2^07^
lM_^
122^?. M.
'
20 30
CAPACITY IN K.W.
Fig. 209.
\
a.
\ ^^ s»^
~~-
J.
- '^
1000 2000 3000 4000

AMPERE-HOUR CAPACITY AT 8-HOUR RATE
Fig. 210.
The selling prices of lead-lead-sulphuric acid storage cells

per ampere-hour of capacity at an 8-hour rate are em-
bodied in the curve of Fig. 210 as functions of the
capacities.
123. Plant Costs. —A fair average cost per kilowatt for
a steam-driven power plant is $100, although with steam-
turbine plants it may be placed at ^80. For hydraulic
plants the cost is greater than these, and has been estimated
at $200 per kilowatt. These prices are applicable to central
stations of reasonably large capacity. In such stations
alternating-current generators are usually employed. Di-
rect-current generators are more generally used in isolated
plants, such as in office buildings or in manufactories, where

steam is generated for heating or power purposes and its
use for driving electrical generators is subsidiary and inci-

dental. In such cases the cost of delivery and of erection
of generators may be estimated as 60 cents per K.W.
The various installation costs may be estimated from the
data given by Stott in the following table:
POWER PLANT COST PER K.W.

Minimum Maximum
1 Real Estate ^3 00 .
$7 .00
2. Excavation .75 i .
25
3. Foundations, Reciprocating Engines 2.00 3.00
4. Foundations, Turbines .50 .75
5. Iron and Steel Structure 8.00 10.00
6. Building (Roof and Main Floor) 8.00 10.00
7. and Platforms
Floors, Galleries i .
50 2 . 50
8. Tunnels, Intake and Discharge , i . 40 2 .80
9. Ash Storage Pocket, etc .70 i 50 •
10. Coal-hoisting Tower 1.20 2.00

11. C ranes .40 .60
1 2. Coal and Ash Conveyors 2 . 00 2 75 .
13. Ash Cars, Locomotives and Tracks .15 .30

14. Coal and Ash Chutes, etc .40 i.oo
15. Water Meters, Storage Tanks and Mains . .50 i .00
16. Stacks 1.25 2.00
17. Boilers 9.50 11.50
18. Boiler Setting 1.25 1.75
Minimum Maximum
19. Stokers $1.30 $2.20
20. Economizers i . 30 2.25
21. Flues, Dampers and Regulators .60 .go
22. Forced Draught Blowers, Air Ducts, etc . . . 1.25 1.65
23. Boiler Feed and Other Pumps .40 .75
24. Feed-water Heaters, etc .20 .35
25. Steam and Water Piping, Traps, Separators,
High and Low Pressure 3 00 .
5 .00
26. Pipe Covering .60 i . 00
27. Valves .60 1 . 00
28. Main Engines, Reciprocating 22 .00 30.00
29. Exciter Engines, Reciprocating .40 .70
30. Condensers, Barometric or Jet i .00 2.50
31. Condensers, Surface 6.00 7.50
32. Electric Generators 16.00 22.00
^7,. Exciters .60 .80
34. Steam Turbine Units Complete 22 .00 32 .00
35. Rotaries, Transformers, Blowers, etc .60 i.oo
36. Switchboards Complete 3.00 3-90
^y. Wiring for Lights, Motors, etc ; ,20 ,30
38. Oiling System Complete .15 .35
39. Compressed Air System and Other Small
Auxiliaries .20 ,30
40. Painting, Labor, etc 1.25 1.75
41. Extras 2.00 2.00
42. Engineering Expenses and Inspection.,.,, 4.00 6.00
Costs of Excavation near New York City
Earth $2.44 per cu. yd.

Rock 6 00 per cu, yd.
.
Brickwork 1 1 . 30 per cu. yd.
124. Operating Expenses There are many items which

make up the expenses for operating a plant and for making
repairs which are essential for maintaining the machinery
in good running condition. The relative costs of these
items have been given by Stott as listed in the following
table
DISTRIBUTION OF MAINTENANCE AND OPERATING

CHARGES.
o a ti
z 2 H
a <
in Ci ID S
Maintenance
1. Engine Room Mechanical . . 2.57 0.51 1-54 2.57 1.54
2. Boiler Room or Producer Room 4.61 4-30 3-52 I-I5 1-95
3. Coal- and Ash-handling Appa-
ratus 0.58 0.54 0.44 0.29 0.29
4. Electrical Apparatus . , . . 1. 12 1. 12 1. 12 1. 12 1.12
Operation
5. Coal- and Ash-handling Labor . 2.26 2. II 1.74 I-I3 1. 13
6. Removal of Ashes .... 1.06 0.94 0.80 0.53 0.50
7. Dock Rental 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74 0.74
8. Boiler-room Labor .... 7.15 6.68 546 1.79 303
9. Boiler-room Oil, Waste, etc. . 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17
10. Coal 61.30 57-30 46.87 26.31 25.77
11. Water 7.14 0.71 546 3.57 2.14
12. Engine-room Mechanical Labor 6.71 1-35 4.03 6.71 4.03
13. Lubrication 1-77 0.35 1. 01 1.77 1.06
14. Waste, etc 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30
15. Electrical Labor 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52 2.52
Relative Cost of Maintenance and

Operation 79.64 7572 50.67 46.32
Relative Investment in per cent 82.50 77.00 91.20
125. Cost of Electrical Energy The cost attendant

upon the delivery of electrical energy at the bus-bars of a
central station is made up of two factors.
The first is constant in magnitude, is independent of the

amount of delivered energy, and appears in the station
records as 2i fixed charge. It includes such items as interest
on the investment, insurance, taxes, depreciation, and obso-
lescence. The last item is one which is due to the frequent
improvements in central station apparatus, which make it
desirable at times to cast aside operative machines before

they are worn out, in order to take advantage of the greater
efficiency afforded by newer types. Dr. C. T. Hutchinson
gives the following approximate values for the items of fixed
charges expressed as percentages of the cost of the plant
FIXED CHARGES OF GENERATING PLANTS.

STEAM WATER
Interest 6.0% 6.0%

Insurance
Taxes
Depreciation i.o
Obsolescence 5.0 1-5
i7-o% 9-o%
The second factor is the maintenance and operating

expense, which depends upon the amount of electrical energy
delivered to the bus-bars and varies with it. Although this
expense per kilowatt-hour varies somewhat with the ratio
of the load to the maximum capacity of the plant, it may

safely be estimated at 0.5 cent.
The average cost throughout a day or year of a unit of
delivered electrical energy, therefore, depends upon the ratio
of the average power to the maximum power. This ratio

is termed the load factor of the plant. Inasmuch as all
generators have an overload capacity, due to their ability
to store heat for a limited time without an excessive result-
ant rise of temperature, the maximum power is really taken
as the average power for say an hour during the period of
maximum load. It is common for load factors to be as low
as10%, although that of the Interborough Rapid Transit
Company varies between 50% and 55 %. The influence
of the load factor upon the cost of a kilowatt-hour of
electrical energy is shown in the following table, the cal-

culations being based upon a lOOO-K.W. steam-turbine
plant costing $80 per kilowatt and operating continuously
throughout the year, viz. for 8760 hours.
EFFECT OF LOAD FACTOR ON COST OF POWER.

LOAD FACTORS
COSTS
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I.O
Fixed Charges ....... 0.77"^ 0.388 0.258 0.194 0-155

Operating Expenses . . 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500
Total per Kilowatt-hour in Cents . 1.275 0.888 0.758 0.694 0-655
PROBLEMS.
1. Design a good 500-ampere, iio-volt, double-pole, single-
throw, back-connected switch, but use no more material than
necessary. How many pounds of copper are required if the
terminal studs be 5 inches long ?
2. A moving-coil instrument gives a full-scale deflection on

0.068 volt. What is the resistance of a 200-ampere shunt
therefor ?
3. The resistance of a 150-volt voltmeter is 14,000 ohms.
What must be the resistance of a multiplier for this instrument

so that it can measure E.M.F.^s up to 750 volts ?
4. A watt-hour meter without a starting coil reads correctly

when run on a i-K.W. load. On light load a power consump-
tion of 100 watts will just start the armature rotating. What
will be the meter indication after running 2% hours on a constant
load of 600 watts, assuming running friction as one-half of
starting friction ?
5. Lay out the connections of a suitable switchboard for an

isolated plant having a single compound-wound generator, which
is intended to supply three feeder circuits.
INDEX,
Absolute electrical units, 3. Boosters, 279.

Action of a generator, principle of, 45. Braking, dynamic, 262.
motor, principle of, 210. Brushes, 81.
Acyclic dynamos, 184. Brush arc-hght generator, 193.
Ageing of iron, 41. holders, 82.
Air gap, magnetic distribution in, lead or lag, 113, 216.
112, 119. pressure, 80.
Allis-Chalmers Co. generators, 177. transition resistance, 79.
Alternator, the, 46. Burke Electric Co. three-wire gen-
Ammeters, 305. erator, 184.
Ammeter shunts, 308.
Ampere, definition of, 3. Calculation of exciting ampere-
-hour, definition of, 3. turns, 96.
-turn, definition of, 32. of reactance voltage, 127.
-turns, exciting, calculation of, 96. Capacity of a dynamo, 140.
for compensating armature re- Cast iron, magnetic properties of, 34.
action, 116. Characteristic curves of generators,
Anderson Mfg. Co. switch, 300. 162, 172, 187.
Angle of brush lead or lag, 113, 216. of motors, 233, 241, 247.
AppUcations of shunt motors, 236. Circuit breakers, 303.
Arc-light generators, 85. Circular mil, definition of, 6.
Armature bearings, 85. Coefficient, economic, 158.
coils, 73. of conversion, 158.
copper loss, 148. of dispersion, 95.
core construction, 67. of mutual induction, 25.
cores, losses in, 146. output, 145.
equalizing connections, 65. self-induction, 24.
of dynamo, 52. Coercivity, 39.
reaction, no, 216. Commercial efficiency, 159.
compensation for, 115. Commutating plane, 113.
shafts, 83. poles, 120, 219.
slots, 72. Commutation, conditions for spark-
windings, 55. less, 134.
Automobile motors, 258. frequency of, 126.
Auxiliary field poles, 120. process of, 121.
self-inductance, 122, 129.
Balancers, 274. time of, 125.
Ball-bearings for armatures, 86. Commutator construction, 76.
Batteries, storage, 287. function of, 46.
Bearing friction, 151. losses, 79, 152.
Bearings, armature, 85. Compensation for armature re-
Bipolar field magnets, 54. action, 115.
323
324 INDEX.
Compound excitation, 92. Distribution, constant-current, 160.

Compounding, 171. -potential, 160.
Compound-wound generators, see three-wire, 181.
Generators, Divided circuits, 8.
motors, 263. Dobrowolsky's three-wire gener-
Conductivity, definition of, 6. ator, 182.
Conductors, resistance of, 5. Ducts for ventilation, 70.
Constant-current booster, 283. Dynamic braking, 262.
distribution, 160. Dynamo capacity, 140.
-potential distribution, 160. homopolar, 184,
Control of motor speed, 218. Dynamos, 45.
of railway motors, 251. E.M.F. equation of, 66.
Copper loss in armature coils, 148. heating of, 142.
Core construction, 67. Dynamotors, 266.
Cost of dynamos, 314. Dyne, definition of, i.
of electrical energy, 320.
of operating machine tools, 238. Economic coefficient, 158.
of plants, 318. Eddy currents, 42.
of storage batteries, 317. losses due to, 147.
Coulomb, definition of, 3. Electric Mfg. Co. automobile
Counter E.M.F. of motors, 214. motor, 259.
Crane motors, 261. Effect of load factor on cost of
Crocker- Wheeler mill motor, 260. power, 322.
motor for lathes, 237. Efficiency of dynamos, 155.
Cross-magnetizing effect of arma- of motors, 234.
ture current, iii. Electrical distribution, 160.
Current, absolute unit of, 3. efficiency, 159.
density in field coils, 107. energy, cost of, 320.
Cutler-Hammer Mfg. Co. con- units, 3.
troller, 263. Electro-Dynamic Co. dynamo field
rheostat, 169. structure, 121.
starting and field rheostat, 228. motor, 221.
Electrodynamometers, 306.
Decay of current in inductive cir- Electro-magnetic induction, 21.
cuit, 27. Electromotive force fluctuation,
Degree of re-entrancy, 64. 52.
Demagnetizing effect of armature generated, 48.
current, 113. induced in conductor, 23.
Density of flux, 14. of dynamo, 66.
Design of starting rheostats, 230. Element of winding, 56.
Dettmar's three-wire generator, 182. Elevator, motor-driven, 238.
Devices for reducing armature re- End-cell control, 282.
action, 118. Energy, definition of, i.
Diamagnetic substances, 21. Entz regulator, 285.
Dielectric strength, 11. Equalizers, 269, 298.
test of, 13. Equalizing connections, 65.
Difference of potential, 3. Erg, definition of, i.
Differential boosters, 282. Excelsior arc-light generator, 198.
motor, 263. Excitation loss, 151.
Direction of induced E.M.F. , 23. of field magnets, 92.
of rotation of motors, 211. Exciting ampere-turns, calculation
Dispersion coefficient, 95. of, 96.
INDEX 325
Expenses, operating, 319. Growth of current in inductive cir-

External characteristic, 187. cuit, 26.
Feeders, 166. Hamilton motor-operated drill press,

Field coils, 53, 104. 236.
current density in, 107. Hand regulation, 165.
cores, 88. Heat developed by a current, 11.
excitation, 92. Heating of dynamos, 142.
magnet frames, 88, 180. Henry, definition of, 25.
magnets, 53. Homopolar generators, 184.
rheostats, 166. Horse-power, definition of, 2.
Flat compounding, 172. Hot-wire instruments, 307.
Fleming's Rule, 23, 211. Hubbard booster system, 284.
Fluctuation oi E.M.F., 52. Hysteresis loss in armature cores,
Flux density, 20. 147.
Foot-pound, definition of, i. magnetic, 38.
Force, definition of, i. Hysteretic constants, 42.
Foucault currents, 42.
Frequency, 52. Induction, 20.
of commutation, 127. electro-magnetic, 21.
Function of commutator, 46. mutual, 25.
Fuses, 302. self, 24.
Inductors, armature, 56.
Gauss, definition of, 21. Industrial applications of shunt
General Electric Co. constant-cur- motors, 236.
rent generator, 193. Instruments, 305.
constant-potential generator, Insulating materials, 11.
174, 179, 184. Insulation resistance, 11.
field rheostat, 167. Intensity of magnetic field, 19.
railway motor, 247. Interpoles, 120, 219.
shop-tool controller, 229. Iron loss in armature cores, 147.
Generated electromotive force, 48.
Generator losses, 146. Joule, definition of, i.
output of, 145.
principle of action of, 45. Kinetic energy, definition of, 2.
Generators, compound-wound, char- Kirchhoff's Laws, 9.
acteristic curves of, 172.
efficiency of, 155. Laminations of armature core, 68.
field excitation of, 92. Lap armature windings, 57.
for lighting and railways, 173. Leakage, magnetic, 94.
homopolar, 184. Lighting generators, 173.
parallel operation of, 294, Lines of force, 18.
rating of, 145. Load factor of plants, 321.
series-wound, 189. Loading-back method of testing
characteristic curves of, 187. motors, 235.
shunt-wound, characteristic curves Losses in armature coils, 148.
of, 162. cores, 146.
regulation of, 164. in commutator and brushes, 153.
split-pole, 118. in field pole faces, 149.
three-wire, 180. winding, 151.
Gilbert, definition of, 32. Lubrication, 85.
Ground detectors, 314. Lundell generator, 118, 179.
326 INDEX.
Machine-tool operation, cost of, Negative booster, 280,

238. Neutral of three- wire system, 181.
Magnetic distribution in air gap, plane, 115.
112, 119. Non-reversible booster, 283.
Magnetic field, definition of, 18.
intensity of, 19.
Oersted, definition of, 37.
hysteresis, 38.
leakage, 94.
Ohm, definition of, 4.
Ohm's Law, 4.
permeabiHty, 20.
Operating expenses, 319.
potential, 20.
Otis traction elevator, 238.
properties of iron and steel, 34.
Output coefficients, 145.
Magnetization curves, S3-
Over-compounding, 172.
Magneto, 92, 159.
Magnetomotive force, 32.
Magnet pole, strength of, 18. Parallel connection of circuits, 8.
Matthiessen standard resistivity, 7. operation of motors, 299.
Maxwell, definition of, 21. Paralleling of generators, 294.
Measuring instruments, 305. Paramagnetic substances, 21.
Mechanical units, 1. PermeabiHty, 20.
Meters, recording watt-hour, 310. Permeance, 37.
Mill motors, 260. Pitch, pole, 90.
Motor, armature reactions of, 216. winding, 59.
counter E.M.F. of, 214. Plane of commutation, 113.
direction of rotation of, 211. Polar span, 91.
-generators, 273. Pole-face losses, 149.
power of, 216. pitch, 90.
principle of action of, 210. shoes, 88.
torque exerted by, 213. Potential energy, definition of, 2.
Motors, compound- wound, 263. magnetic, 20.
field excitation of, 92. Poundal, definition of, i.
parallel operation of, 299, Pound as a unit of force, i.
series, 239. Power, definition of, 2.
characteristic curves of, 241. lines, 189.
for automobiles, 258. of electric current, 10.
for rolling mills, 260, of motors, 216.
on railways, 243. plant costs, 318.
shunt, characteristic curves of, 233, transmission, Thury system, 296.
industrial applications of, 236. Practical electrical units, 3.
interpole, 221. Pressure, definition of, 4.
speed, 217. Principle of generator action, 45.
control of, 222, 277. of motor action, 210.
regulation of, 232. Problems, 16, 43, 86, 108, 138, 207,
starting of, 225. 265, 292, 322.
Multiple-circuit armature windings, Protective devices in circuits, 302.
57-
-unit railway motor control, 255.
Quantity of electricity, 3, 29.
Multiplex armature windings, 62,
Multipliers, 309.
Multipolar field magnets, 55. Railway generators, 173.
Multivoltage distribution system, motors, 243.
222. characteristic curves of, 247.
Mutual induction, 25. control of, 251.
INDEX. 327
Rating of machines, 145. Split-pole type of generator, 118.

Reactance voltage, 123. Starting rheostats, 225.
calculation of, 127. design of, 230.
Reaction of armature currents, no. Steam-turbine driven generator,
compensation for, 115. 179.
devices for reducing, 118. Steel, magnetic properties of, 35.
Recording instruments, 311. Storage batteries, 287.
Re-entrant armature windings, 63. cost of, 317.
Regulation of series generators, 190. Stow Mfg. Co. motor, 221.
speed of shunt motors, 232. Strength, dielectric, 11.
voltage of generators, 164. of magnet pole, 18.
Reluctance, 36. Suspension of railway motors on
Reluctivity, definition of, ^t. trucks, 250.
Resistance, 4. Switchboards, 312.
specific, 6. Switches, 300.
temperature coefficient of, 7.
Resistivity, definition of, 5.
Table of armature shaft fits, 174.
Retentivity, 39.
cost of machine-tool operation,
Reversible booster, 283.
238.
Rheostatic railway controller, 251.
Rheostats, field, 166. current paths in armature wind-
starting, 225. ings, 67.
design of, 230. dielectric strengths, 14.
Rolling mills, motors for, 260. fixed charges of plants, 321.

flux densities in dynamos, 97.
Saturation, 33. generator speeds, 141, 174.

Self-induction, 25. hysteretic constants, 41
-regulation, 172. load factor versus cost of power,
Selling prices of machines, 315. 322.
^
Series-booster, 279. magnetic properties of iron and

connection of circuits, 7. steel, 35.
excitation, 92. number of dynamo field poles,

-parallel railway controller, 252. 142.^
-wound generators, see Generators. operating and maintenance
Shafts of armatures, 83. charges, 320.
Shop-tool controller, 229. power plant cost, 318.
Short-chord armature windings, 62. resistivities, 6.
Shunt-booster, 281. switch data, 301.
excitation, 92. test voltages, 16.
motors, see Motors. Temperature coefficient of resist-
Shunts for ammeters, 308. ance, 7.
Shunt-wound generators, see Gen- elevation of dynamos, 143, 153.
erators. Thomson-Houston arc-light gen-
Simplex armature windings, 56. erator, 200.
Slots in armature cores, 72. watt-hour meter, 310.
Space factor of armature slots, 74. Three- wire generators, 180.
of field coils, 107. Thury system of power transmis-
Sparkless commutation, conditions sion, 296.
for, 134. Time of commutation, 125.
Specific resistance, 6. Toroids, 32.
Speed control of shunt motors, 218. Torque exerted by motors, 213.
regulation of shunt motors, 232. Track-return booster, 280.
328 INDEX.
Unipolar dynamos, 184. Western Electric Co. generator.

176.
Variable-speed control of motors, 218. Westinghouse circuit breaker, 304.
Ventilating ducts in core, 70. field rheostat, 168, 169.
Voltage regulation of shunt gen- generator, 178.
erators, 164. railway controller, 254.
Volt, definition of, 3. motor, 243.
Voltmeter multipliers, 309. Weston instruments, 306.
Voltmeters, 308. Windage, 151.
Winding pitch, 59.
Ward Leonard motor control system,
Windings, armature, 55.
223.
Work, definition of, i.
self-starter, 229.
Works cost, 314.
Watt, definition of, 2.
Wrought iron, magnetic properties
Wattmeters, 309.
of, 34.
Wave armature windings, 57.
Western Electric Co. arc-light gen-
erator, 204. Yoke, 54.
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Working Table, Standard Annealed Copper Wire
American Wire Gage (B. & S.)
Cross Section Ohms per 1000 Feet

Diameter in Pounds per
OtgeNo. Mils 1000 Feet
Square Inches
25»C 65«C
Circular Mils (-77« F) (=149»F)
0000 460. 212 000. 0.166 0.0500 0.0577 641.

000 410. 163 000. .132 .0630 .0727 508.
00 365. 133 000. .105 .0795 .0917 403.
325. 106 000. .0829 .100 .116 319.

289. 83 700. .0657 .126 .146 253.
258. 66 400. .0521 .159 .184 201.
229. 52 600. .0413 .201 .232 159.

204. 41700. .0328 .253 .292 126.
182. 33 100. .0260 .319 .369 100.
162. 26 300. .0206 .403 .465 79.5

144. 20 800. .0164 .508 .586 63.0
128. 16 500. .0130 .641 .739 50.0
114. 13 100. .0103 .808 .932 39.6

10 102. 10 400. .008 15 1.02 1.18 31.4
11 91. 8230. .006 47 1.28 1.48 24.9
12 81. 6530. .005 13 1.62 1.87 19.8

13 72. 5180. .004 07 2.04 2.36 15.7
14 64. 4110. .003 23 2.58 2.97 12.4
15 57. 3260. .002 56 3.25 3.75 9.86

16 51. 2580. .002 03 4.09 4.73 7.82
17 45. 2050. .001 61 5.16 5.96 6.20
18 40. 1620. .001 28 6.51 7.51 4.92

19 36. 1290. .001 01 8:21 9.48 3.90
20 32. 1020. .000 802 10.4 11.9 3.09
21 28.5 ^0. .000 636 13.1 15.1 2.45

25.3 642. .000 505 16.5 19.0 1.-94
22.6 509. .000 400 20.8 24.0 1.54
24 20.1 404. .000 317 26.2 30.2 1.22

25 17.9 320. .000 252 33.0 38.1 0.970
26 15.9 254. .000 200 41.6 48.0 .769
27 14.2 202. .000 158 52.5 60.6 . .610

28 12.6 160. .000 126 66.2 76.4 .484
29 11.3 127. .000 0995 83.4 96.3 .384
30 10.0 101. .000 078 9 105. 121. .304

a 8.9 79.7 . 000 062 6 133. 153. .241
32 8.0 63.2 .000 049 6 167. 193. .191
33 7.1 50.1 .000 039 4 211. 243. .152

34 6.3 39.8 .000 031 2 266. 307. .120
35 5.6 31.5 .000 024 8 335, 387. .0954
36 5.0 25.0 .000 019 6 423. 488. .0757

37 4.5 19.8 .000 015 6 533. 616. .0600
38 4.0 15.7 .000 012 3 673. 776. .0476
39 3.5 12.5 .000 009 8 848. 979. .0377

40 3.1 9.9 .000 007 8 1070. 1230. .0299
NoTB I. The fundamental resisiiviiy used in calculating the table is the International Annealed Copper Standard,
viz. 0.153 28 ohm (meter, gram) at 20° C. The temperature coefficient for this particular resistivity is q:30=0.d03 93, or ao="
0.004 27. However, the temperature coefficient is proportional to the conductivity, and hence the change of reiistnityptt
degree C is a constant, 0.000 597 ohm (meter, gram). The " constant mass" temperature coefficient of any sample is
0.000 597+0000005
a,=-
ohms (meter, gram) at /" C
resistivity in
The standard density is 8.89 grams per cubic centimeter. The standard conductivity is sS.Xio— * cgs units at so** C.
NoTB 2. —The values given in the table are only for annealed copper of the standard resistivity. The user of the table
must apply the proper correction for copper pf any other resistivity. Hard-drawn copper may be taken as about a. 7 per
cent higher resistivity than annealed copper.
—
NOTB 3. Ohms per mile, or pounds per mile, may be obtained by multiplying the respective values above by 5.38.
—
NoTB 4. For complete tables and other data see Circular No, 31 of the Bureau of Standards.
Washington, D. C, 1914 BUREAU 07 STANDARDS

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m.

NINTH EDITION, REVISED

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

The object aimed at in the preparation of the first

tions, computations, and occasional lectures, and which are

may seem undesirable to require from other than electrical

trations are new, most of them having been specially drawn

boosters,and a discussion of costs, prices, and operating

book of this character.

Electrical Laws and Facts.

9. Test of Dielectric Strength 13

Magnetic Laws and Facts.

10. Strength of Magnet Pole 18

26. Reluctance and Permeance 36

45. Field-Magnet Frames 88

Armature Reaction. Commutation.

59. Capacity of a Dynamo 140

74. Characteristic Curves of Shunt- Wound Generators 162

83. Characteristic Curves of Series- Wound Generators 187

90. Principle of Action of a Motor 210

96. Speed of Shunt Motors 217

102. Series Motors 239

Dynamotors, Motor-Generators, Boosters, and Storage Batteries.

1 10. Dynamotors 266

114. Paralleling of Generators 294

ELECTRICAL LAWS AND FACTS.

I. Mechanical Units. — Force is that which tends to

mass of the earth. The potential energy of a body is

since the mass of a body is equal to its weight divided by

foot-pounds per minute. A watt is one joule per second.

by T, and its angular velocity in radians per second by co

= 2 TT V/60y where V is the number of revolutions per

the difference in tension of the two sides of the belt multi-

bent into an arc of one centimeter radius, it will exert a

force of one dyne on a unit magnet pole (§ lo) placed at

one-tenth the magnitude of the absolute unit.

convenient and rational to make a distinction be-

tween electromotive force and difference of potential.

rent. Between any two points of a conductor carrying a

ductor be doubled, the difference of potential between the

ence of potential exists because of the current flowing in

given by Ohm's law, in absolute units, as

Since the current in amperes is loi, the E.M.F. in volts

where / is the number of amperes flowing in an undivided

may occur. The drop is caused by the resistance of the

from which it is evident that the drop varies as the cur-

where ^ is a constant called the resistivity, and depending

As rectangular conductors are much used in armatures

express their cross-sections in circular mils. Since the

0.000000785 square inches, the equivalent cross-section of

hard drawn copper may be taken as 2.^ per cent higher

The International Electrotechnical Commission has

pure metals, and the rate of increase is approximately the

conductor at 0° C. by R^, then its resistance at any temper-

should be remembered that this coefficient varies slightly

0.00427 times its conductivity, reckoned from 0° C, that

resistance at 0° C. for each degree rise of temperature.