IIPUC Physics - Passing Package

CONTENTS
1. ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS ································ 1

2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE ·················· 6
3. CURRENT ELECTRICITY ············································· 9
4. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM ·························· 14
5. MAGNETISM AND MATTER ·········································· 19
6. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION ································ 22
7. ALTERNATING CURRENT ············································ 28
8. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ······································· 24
9. RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS ··················· 29
10. WAVE OPTICS ····························································· 36
11. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER ················ 41
12. ATOMS ······································································· 43
13. NUCLEI ······································································ 46
14. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS ······························· 49
CHAPTERWISE WEIGHTAGE
Unit Chapter No. of teaching

TOPIC Marks
No. No. hours
I 1 Electric charges and fields 10 9
II 2 Electric potential & capacitance 9 8
III 3 Current Electricity 15 13
IV 4 Moving charges and magnetism 12 10
5 Magnetism and matter 8 7
V
6 Electromagnetic induction 7 6
7 Alternating current 8 7
VI
8 Electromagnetic waves 3 3
VII 9 Ray optics & optical instruments 10 9
VIII 10 Wave optics 10 9
11 Dual nature of radiation & matter 6 5
IX
12 Atoms 5 5
13 Nuclei 7 6
X
14 Semiconductor electronics 10 9
TOTAL 120 105
6
1. ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Write the S.I. unit of charge

The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C)
2. Define one coulomb or Define S.I. unit of charge or Define unit of charge.
One coulomb is the charge which when placed in vacuum at a distance of 1m from another equal
and similar charge repels it with a force of 9 × 109 N .
3. What is an electric dipole?

An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by a small distance.
4. What is an electric field line?

An electric field line is a curve in an electric field, such that the tangent to it at any point gives the
direction of net electric field at that point.
5. What is the value of electric field at any point inside a charged spherical shell?
Zero
6. An electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field. What is the net force acting on it?
Zero.
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
1. State and explain Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.

Statement: “The electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the
product of magnitude of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them”.
Explanation: Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r.
𝑭 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝑭
r
According to Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force between them is:

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭∝ 𝟐 ⟹𝑭=
𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐
where 𝜖0 = permittivity of free space
2. Write Coulomb’s law in vector form and explain the terms.
The electrostatic force acting on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 is:

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓̂
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝟐𝟏
where 𝒓̂𝟐𝟏 = unit vector directed towards 𝑞2 from 𝑞1 .
3. State and explain Gauss’s law in electrostatics.

1
Statement: “The total electric flux through any closed surface in free space is equal to times
𝜖0
the total charge enclosed by the surface”
Explanation: If 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 is the total charge enclosed by a closed surface then the total electric
flux through the surface is:
1
(𝜙𝐸 )𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝜖𝑜
where 𝜖𝑜 = permittivity of free space
1
4. Define electric dipole moment. Write its S.I. unit.
Electric dipole moment is defined as the product of magnitude of either of charge and length of
the dipole (𝑝 = 2𝑎𝑞).
The S.I. unit of electric dipole moment is C m (coulomb metre)
5. Sketch electric field lines due to a point charge if (i) q > 0 (an isolated positive charge) and
(ii) q < 0 (an isolated negative charge )
(i) q > 0 (An isolated positive charge) (ii) q < 0 (An isolated negative charge)
6. Sketch electric field lines for (i) an electric dipole (a pair of equal and opposite point charges
(ii) two equal positive point charges
(i) An electric dipole (ii) Two equal positive point charges
7. Define linear charge density at a point. Write its S.I. unit.

∆𝑞
The linear charge density is defined as the charge per unit length of a linear charge. ( 𝜆 = ∆𝑙 )
The S.I. unit of linear charge density is C m-1 (coulomb per metre)
8. Define surface charge density at a point. Mention its S.I. unit.

The surface charge density at any point on a surface is defined as the charge per unit area of the
∆𝑞
surface at that point. (𝜎 = ∆𝑠 )
The S.I. unit of surface charge density is C m-2 (coulomb per metre square)
9. Define volume charge density at a point. Mention its S.I. unit.

The volume charge density at any point is defined as the charge per unit volume at that point. (𝜌 =
∆𝑞
∆𝑣
). The S.I. unit of volume charge density is C m-3 (coulomb per metre cube)
10. Define electric field (electric intensity or electric field strength). Give its S.I. unit.
The electric field at a point is defined as the electric force experienced by a unit positive charge
placed at that point.
The S.I. unit of electric field is NC-1 (newton per coulomb) or Vm-1 (volt per metre)
11. What is an electric flux? Give its S.I. unit.

Electric flux over a given surface is the scalar product of electric field and the surface area.
The S.I. unit of electric flux is Nm2C-1 or Vm.
12. Write the expression for torque acting on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field
and explain the terms.
Torque, 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃
where 𝑝 = electric dipole moment, E = electric field, 𝜃 = angle between 𝑝 and 𝛦⃗ .
2
13. When will be the torque acting on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field (i)
maximum (ii) minimum?
(i) Torque is maximum when the dipole axis is perpendicular to the electric field.
𝜏 = 𝑝E when θ = 90o
(ii) Torque is minimum when the dipole axis is parallel to the electric field.
𝜏=0 when θ = 0o or 180𝑜
14. What is quantisation of charge? Explain.
The charge (q) of a body is always an integral multiple of basic unit of charge (e) which is equal
to 1.6 × 10−19 C.
Mathematically: 𝒒 = 𝒏𝒆 where 𝑛 = ±1, ±2, ±3, ⋯
15. Explain the terms (i) additivity of charges and (ii) conservation of electric charges
(i) Principle of additivity of charges: The total charge of a system is equal to the algebraic sum of
all the individual electric charges in the system.
(ii) Principle of conservation of charges: The total charge of an isolated system always remains
constant.
THREE MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Mention any three basic three properties of electric charges.

(i) Charge is additive in nature.
(ii) Charge is quantised.
(iii) Charge of an isolated system is conserved.
2. Mention any three properties of electric field lines.
(i) Tangent to the field line at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
(ii) Density of electric field lines is a measure of electric field at a given point.
(iii) Two electric field lines can never cross each other.
(iv) Electrostatic field lines do not form closed loops.
(v) Electric field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges.
3. Obtain an expression for electric field due to uniformly charged long straight wire.
Consider a long straight wire with uniform linear
charge density 𝜆. Let P be a point at a distance r from
the wire. Consider an imaginary cylinder of length
ℓ and radius r.
Total electric flux through Gaussian cylinder is (Here
𝜃 = 0 and ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙):
𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 (1)
From Gauss’s law,

𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝜆𝑙
𝜙𝐸 = = (2)
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜
𝜆𝑙
From (1) and (2): 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 𝜖
𝑜
𝝀
⟹𝑬=
𝟐𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓
4. Obtain an expression for electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet.
Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of
surface charge density σ. Imagine a
Gaussian cylinder of cross sectional area A.
Total electric flux through the cylinder is:
𝜙𝐸 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + 𝜙3
But 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 𝐸𝐴 and 𝜙3 = 0. Therefore,
3
𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 + 0 = 2𝐸𝐴 (𝟏)
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
According to Gauss’s law, 𝜙𝐸 = 𝜖𝑜
We know that: 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝜎𝐴.
.
𝜎𝐴
∴ 𝜙𝐸 = (𝟐)
𝜖𝑜
𝜎𝐴
From equations (1) and (2), 2𝐸𝐴 =
𝜖𝑜
𝝈
⟹𝑬=
𝟐𝝐𝒐
5. Derive an expression for the torque acting on electric dipole placed in a uniform electric
field.
The torque on the dipole = 𝜏 = force × moment arm
But force = 𝑞𝐸 and moment arm = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 = 2𝑎 sin 𝜃.
∴ 𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 × 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 = (2𝑎𝑞)𝐸 sin 𝜃
But (2𝑎𝑞) = 𝑝 = dipole moment. Therefore:
𝐓𝐨𝐫𝐪𝐮𝐞, 𝝉 = 𝒑𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
FIVE MARKS QUESTONS

1. Derive an expression for electric field (electric intensity) at any point on the axis (axial line)
of an electric dipole.
Consider a point C at a distance r from the centre O of an electric dipole. Let 2a be the dipole
length. Electric field at C due to +q is:
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗1 = 𝑝̂ (𝟏)
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
Electric field at C due to – q is:
1 𝑞
𝐸⃗2 = − 𝑝̂ (𝟐)
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
Total electric field at C is: 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗1 + 𝐸⃗2 (𝟑)
Substituting (1) and (2) into (3), we have:

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 2
𝑝̂ − 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝑞 1 1
⟹ 𝐸⃗ = ( 2
− ) 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 − 𝑎) (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 1 4𝑟𝑎𝑞

⟹ 𝐸⃗ = ( 2 2 ) 𝑝̂ = ( 2 ) 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 − 𝑎) (𝑟 + 𝑎) 4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2
Here: 4𝑟𝑎𝑞 = 2𝑎𝑞 × 2𝑟 = 2𝑝𝑟 where 𝑝 = 2𝑎𝑞 is the dipole moment.

𝟏 𝟐𝒑𝒓
⃗ =
⟹𝑬 ̂
𝒑
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 (𝒓 − 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
𝟐
For large distances, r ≫ a. Then:

𝟏 𝟐𝒑
⃗ =
𝑬 ̂
𝒑
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟑
4
2. Derive an expression for electric field due to an electric dipole at any point on the equatorial
line. (Point on the perpendicular bisector)
Consider a point C on the equatorial line at a distance r
from the centre O of the electric dipole as shown in fig.
Electric field at C due to +q is:
1 𝑞
𝐸1 = along AC (𝟏)
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )
Electric field at C due to –q is:

1 𝑞
𝐸2 = along CB (𝟐)
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )
2
We see that 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 . When 𝐸⃗1 and 𝐸⃗2 are added

vectorially, their vertical components cancel and horizontal components get added. Therefore, the
resultant field at C is:
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸 = 𝐸1 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸2 cos 𝜃 = 2 2
cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 + 𝑎 ) 4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )
2
1 𝑞
⟹𝐸 =2× cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )
2
𝑎
From the figure, cos 𝜃 = (𝑟2 +𝑎2 )1⁄2. Therefore:
1 𝑞 𝑎 1 2𝑎𝑞
𝐸 =2× 2 2 ⁄
=
2
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 + 𝑎 ) (𝑟 + 𝑎 ) 2 1 2 4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑟 + 𝑎2 )3⁄2
2
We know that: 2𝑎𝑞 = 𝑝 = dipole moment.

𝟏 𝒑
⟹𝑬=
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 (𝒓 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 ⃗
𝒑
Vectorially: ⃗𝑬 = −
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 (𝒓𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐
𝟏 𝒑 ⃗
For large distances: ⃗ =−
𝑬
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟑
3. State Gauss’s law in electrostatics. Derive expression for electric field due to a uniformly
charged thin spherical shell at a point outside the shell.
Statement: “ The total electric flux through a closed
1
surface in free space is equal to 𝜖 times the net chaege
0
enclosed by the surface.
1
For a closed surface, 𝜙𝐸 = 𝑞
𝜀𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
Consider a spherical shell of radius R with a charge q. P
is a point at distance r from O. Imagine Gaussian sphere
with centre O and radius r.
Total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is (here
𝜃 = 0 and ∑ 𝑑𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 ):
𝜙𝐸 = ∑ 𝐸 Δ𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 (1)
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 𝑞
By Gauss’s law, 𝜙𝐸 = = (2)
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜
𝑞
Comparing (1) and (2), we get: 𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜖
𝑜
𝟏 𝒒
⟹𝑬=
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝒓𝟐
5
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. Two point charges + 3 𝜇C and – 3 𝜇C are located 20 cm apart in vacuum (a) What is the electric
field at the mid-point of the line joining the two charges (b) If a negative test charge of magnitude
1.5 x 10−9 C is placed at this point .What is the force experienced by the test charge? (Ans: E =
5.4 x 𝟏𝟎+𝟔 N𝐂 −𝟏 , F = 8.1 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 N)
2. Three charges each equal to +4 nC are placed at three corners of side 2 cm. Find the electric field
at the fourth corner. (Ans: 1.73 × 105 N/C, bisects angle between 𝑬𝟏 and 𝑬𝟐 )
2. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Define electrostatic potential at a point.
Electrostatic potential at a point is the amount of work-done to move a unit positive charge from
infinity to that point.
2. Write the S.I. unit of electrostatic potential.

S. I. unit of electrostatic potential is volt (V).
3. What is an equipotential surface?

An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of potential at all points on the surface
OR An equipotential surface is a surface of constant electric potential.
4. Give one example for an equipotential surface.

The surface of a charged conductor.
5. What is the work-done to move a charge from one point to another point on an equipotential
surface?
Zero.
6. What are dielectrics?

Dielectrics are insulators which undergo electric polarization in an electric field.
7. What is electric polarisation?

The electric dipole moment acquired by a dielectric per unit volume is known as electric
polarisation.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. Write the expression for electric potential at a point due to an electric dipole and explain the
terms.
1 𝑝 cos 𝜃
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2 where p is electric dipole moment, r is distance between the point and the
0
centre of the dipole, 𝜃 is angle between 𝑝 and 𝑟.
2. Write the expression potential energy due to a system of two charges in the absence of
external electric field.
1 𝑞 𝑞
𝑈 = 4𝜋∈ 𝑟1 2 where 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 are charges, 𝑟12 is distance between them.
0 12
3. What is electrostatic shielding? Mention one use of it.

The field inside the cavity of a charged conductor is always zero and it remains shielded from
outside electric influence. This property is known as electrostatic shielding. This can be used to
protect sensitive instruments from outside electric field.
4. Define capacitance of capacitor. Write its SI unit.

Capacitance is the ratio between charge collected by a capacitor and the PD between the plates.
The S.I. unit is farad (F).
5. Give examples for polar and non-polar molecules.

Polar molecules: Water, HCl, etc. Non-polar molecules: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc.
6
THREE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Derive the relation between electric potential and electric field.
A and B are two equipotential surface with the potential
difference dV and dl is the perpendicular distance
between them. Let 𝐸⃗ is the electric field normal to the
surface.
Work-done to move unit positive charge from B to A:
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉 – (𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉) = − 𝑑𝑉
But 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑙. Therefore:

𝒅𝑽
⸫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = − 𝑑𝑉 ⇒ 𝑬 =−
𝒅𝒍
2. Draw the equipotential surface for (a) point charge (b) electric dipole (c) uniform electric
field.
(a) (b) (c)

3. Mention any three factors on which capacitance of a capacitor depends.
Dielectric medium between the plates, area of each plate, separation between the two plates.
4. Derive the expression for potential energy of a system of two charges in the absence of
external electric field
𝑞1 𝑟12 𝑞2
A B
The figure shows two charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the two charges separated by a distance 𝑟12.
The work done to bring 𝑞1 from infinity to A = 𝑊1 = 0

1 𝑞
Electric potential at B due to 𝑞1 = 𝑉𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 1
𝑜 12
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Work-done to move 𝑞2 from infinity to point B = 𝑊2 = 𝑞2 𝑉𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑟12
𝑜
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Therefore, total work done = 𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 =
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟12
But 𝑊 = 𝑈 = Potential energy.
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
∴𝑼=
𝟒𝝅𝜖𝑜 𝒓𝟏𝟐
5. Derive the expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

Let A be the area of the plates, d be the plate
𝑄
separation, 𝜎 = 𝐴 the surface charge density on plates.
Electric field between the plates is:
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝑄
𝐸= + = =
2 ∈0 2 ∈0 ∈0 𝐴 ∈0
𝑉 𝑉 𝑄 𝑄𝑑
We know that: 𝐸 = ⟹ = ⇒ 𝑉 =
𝑑 𝑑 𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝑄 𝑄
𝐶 = =
𝑉 𝑄𝑑
𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
⟹𝐶=
𝒅
7
6. Derive the expression for energy stored in a capacitor.
Let C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
At any intermediate stage, +q and –q the charges on plates and 𝑉′ be the p. d. between the plates.
𝑞
Small work-done to transfer charge dq is: 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉 ′ 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑞
𝑄 1 𝑄 𝑄2
Total work done = 𝑊 = ∫0 𝑑 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑞𝑑𝑞
𝐶 0
= 2𝐶
𝑸𝟐
But W = energy stored = U = 𝟐𝑪
7. Derive the expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in series.
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑆
𝑄 −𝑄 𝑄 −𝑄 𝑄 −𝑄
𝑉2
𝑉
𝑉
In series combination, charge Q same and 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑄 𝑄
But 𝑉1 = and 𝑉2 =
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑄 𝑄
⟹𝑉= +
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑄 𝑄
If 𝐶𝑆 is the effective capacitance, then: 𝐶𝑆 = 𝑉 ⟹ 𝑉 = 𝐶
𝑆
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
⟹ = +
𝐶𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⟹ = +
𝑪𝒔 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
8. Derive the expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in parallel.
𝐶1 𝐶𝑃
𝑄1 −𝑄1
𝑄 −𝑄
𝐶2
𝑄2 −𝑄2
𝑉
𝑉
In parallel combination V is same and charge 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 ⋯ (1)
But 𝑄1 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 and 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉2
If 𝐶𝑃 is the effective capacitance, 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑉
Substituting these into (1) we get: 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉

⟹ 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Derive the expression for electric potential at a point due to a point charge.
Consider a point charge q at O. P be a point at a distance r from it.
𝑂 P A B 𝐸⃗
q
x
r dx
8
The force experienced by +1 C charge at A is:
1 𝑞
𝐹= along OA
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 2
The work-done to move +1 C charge from B to A is:

1 𝑞
𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 2
The potential at P is work-done to move +1C from ∞ to r. Therefore:
𝑟
1 𝑞 𝑞 1 𝑟
𝑉=𝑊=∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = − (− )
∞ 4𝜋 ∈0 𝑥 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 ∞
𝟏 𝒒
∴𝑽=
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates, each plate has an area 8 × 10−3 𝑚2 and
distance between the plates is 2 mm. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this capacitor is
connected to 50 V supply, what is the charge on each plate of the capacitor? (Ans: 35.4 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
F, 1.77 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝐂)
2. ABCD is a square of side 2 m. Charges of 5 nC, 10 nC and – 5 nC are placed at corners A, B and
C respectively. What is the work-done in transferring a charge of 5 nC from D to the point of
intersection of the diagonals? (Ans: 159.12 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 J)
3. When two capacitors are connected in series and connected across 4 kV line, the energy stored is
8 J. The same capacitors if connected in parallel across the same line, the energy stored is 36 J.
Find the individual capacitances. (Ans: 3 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 F, 1.5 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 F)
4. A 900 pF capacitor is charged by 100 V battery. (a) How much electrostatic energy is stored by
the capacitor? (b) The capacitor is disconnected from the battery and connected to another 900 pF
capacitor. What is the electrostatic energy stored in the system? (c) How much energy is lost in
the process? (Ans: 4.5 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 J, 2.25 × 𝟏𝟎-6 J, 2.25 × 𝟏𝟎-6 J)
5. Three capacitors 2 µF, 4 μF and 6 μF are connected in parallel across 60 V battery. Calculate (a)
Equivalent capacitance of combination, (b) The total charge collected by the combination and (c)
Charge collected by each capacitor.(Ans: 12 𝝁𝑭, 720 𝝁𝑪, charges on each capacitor are: 120
𝝁𝑪, 240 𝝁𝑪, 360 𝝁𝑪)
3. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Define mobility of free electrons.

The magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field.
2. Define drift velocity of electrons.

The average velocity with which free electrons are drifted in a conductor under the effect of
electric field is called drift velocity.
3. Define relaxation time.

The average time between two successive collisions of free electrons is called relaxation time.
4. A resistor is marked with colours red, red, orange and gold. Write the value of its resistance.
22 × 103 ± 5% Ω
5. Write the SI unit of mobility of charges.

The SI unit is m2 /Vs
6. Write the colour code for resistor having the resistance 25 × 103 ± 10% Ω
Red, green, orange and silver.
7. How does the resistivity of a conductor vary with temperature?

Resistivity is directly proportional to the temperature.
9
8. Define internal resistance of a cell.
The resistance offered by the cell to the flow of current through it is called its internal resistance.
9. Define emf of a cell.

The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when it is in open circuit is called emf of the
cell.
10. Define terminal potential difference.

The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when the cell is in closed circuit is called
terminal potential difference.
11. How does the resistivity of a semiconductor vary with temperature?

Decreases with the increase of temperature.
12. Define equivalent resistance.

Equivalent resistance of a number of resistance is that single resistance which produce the same
effect as that of due to the combination.
13. What is the significance of Kirchhoff’s first law (Current rule or Junction rule)?
Law of conservation of charge.
14. What is the significance of Kirchhoff’s second law (Voltage rule or Loop rule)?
Law of conservation of energy.
15. Write the balancing condition for Wheatstone’s network.

The current through the galvanometer is zero.
16. Name a device which works on the principle of Wheatstone’s network.

Meter Bridge.
17. How does the resistance of a conductor vary with its length?
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length.
18. How does the resistance of a conductor vary with its area of cross-section?
The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section.
19. What is the internal resistance of an ideal cell?

Zero.
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
1. State and explain OHM’S law.

The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between its
ends when temperature and other physical conditions remain constant.
Voltage (𝑉) ∝ Current (I) ⟹ 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
where R is the resistance of the conductor.
2. Define electrical resistance. What is its SI unit?

Resistance of a conductor is the opposition offered by the conductor for the flow of current
through it. Its SI unit is ohm.
3. Mention the factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends.
1. The length of the conductor (𝑅 ∝ 𝑙).
2. Area of cross section of the conductor (𝑅 ∝ 1⁄𝐴).
3. Temperature of the conductor (𝑅 ∝ 𝑇).
4. Material of the conductor.
4. Mention the limitations of ohm’s law.
1. It is applicable only for conductors at constant temperature and if all physical conditions
remain the same.
2. It is not applicable for non-ohmic devices like semiconductors (Diode, transistors).
3. It is not applicable for conductors at very low and very high temperatures.
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5. What are ohmic and non-ohmic devices?
Devices which obey ohm’s law are called ohmic devices. Examples: Conductors
Devices which do not obey ohm’s law are called non-ohmic devices. Examples: Thermister,
Transistor, diode
6. On what factors does the resistivity of a conductor depend?
1. Material of the conductor
2. Temperature of the conductor.
7. Why are alloys used for making standard resistance coils? Which alloys are used?
Alloys have low temperature co-efficient of resistance and hence their resistance is almost
remains constant with change their temperature. Examples: Manganin, nichrome
8. State and explain Kirchhoff’s junction rule (I rule/ Current rule)
In an electric network, Algebraic sum of the currents at a node is zero.
At a node, ∑ 𝐼 = 0.
In the given figure,
At the node, 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0
OR 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5
9. State and explain Kirchhoff’s loop rule (II rule/ Voltage rule)
In an electric network, the algebraic sum of changes in potentials
around a closed loop containing resistors and cells is zero.
For a loop, ∑ 𝑉 = 0.
Consider the loop ABCDA as shown in the figure.
By loop rule, we have:
−𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼3 𝑅3 − 𝐸2 + 𝐼4 𝑅4 + 𝐸1 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 0
1. Derive the expression for drift velocity in terms of relaxation time.

𝐹 𝐸⃗
Acceleration of a free electron due to electric field 𝐸⃗ is: 𝑎 = 𝑚 = −𝑒 𝑚 where e is the charge on
an electron and m its mass.
Let 𝑢
⃗ be the velocity of an electron just before a collision then its velocity after a time t is:
𝐸⃗
𝑣=𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑢 ⃗−𝑒 𝑡
𝑚
Taking average of the above equation we get:
𝐸⃗ 𝐸⃗
〈𝑣 〉 = 〈𝑢
⃗ − 𝑒 𝑡〉 = 〈𝑢 ⃗ 〉 − 𝑒 〈𝑡〉
𝑚 𝑚
𝐸⃗ 𝐸⃗
⟹ 〈𝑣 〉 = 0− 𝑒 〈𝑡〉 = − 𝑒 〈𝑡〉
𝑚 𝑚
But 〈𝑣 〉 = 𝑣𝑑 and 〈𝑡〉 = 𝜏. Therefore:
⃗𝑬
⃗ 𝒅 =−𝒆 𝝉
𝒗
𝒎
2. Obtain the relation between current and drift velocity OR Show that 𝑰 = 𝒏𝒆𝑨𝒗𝒅 where the
symbols have their usual meanings.
Let the area of the conductor be A and its length be l. Let the number of free electrons per unit
volume (free electron density) be n. Consider the movement of electrons in a time t. In this time
electrons will move a distance 𝑙 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑡.
∴ the number of electrons moved in time t = (free electron density)×(volume) = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑙 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑡
Therefore the total charge moving in this time, 𝑄 = 𝑒 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑡
Charge Flowing 𝑒 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑡
∴ Current, 𝐼 = =
Time 𝑡
⟹ 𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅
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3. Derive the 𝒋 = 𝝈𝑬 from Ohm’s law.
𝜌𝑙
From Ohm’s law: 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅. But 𝑅 = 𝐴 . Substituting this in Ohm’s law, we get:
𝜌𝑙 𝑉 1 𝐼
𝑉=𝐼 ⟹ × =
𝐴 𝑙 𝜌 𝐴
𝑉 1 𝐼
Here 𝑙 = electric field= E, 𝜌 = 𝜎 = conductivity and 𝐴 = 𝑗 = current density. Therefore:
𝐸𝜎 = 𝑗 OR 𝒋 = 𝝈𝑬
4. Derive the expression for equivalent resistance when two resistors are connected in series.
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 connected in series as shown in the circuit. From Ohm’s law:
PD across R1 = V1 = I R1 and PD across R2 = V2 = I R2 ---- (1)
If RS is the equivalent resistance of the series combination, then: V = I RS ----- (2)
As R1 and R2 are in series, V = V1 +V2 ----- (3)
Substituting (1) and (2) into (3), we get: I RS = I R1 + I R2 = (R1 + R2)
Therefore, RS = R1 + R2
5. Derive the expression for equivalent resistance when two resistors are connected in parallel.
Consider two resistors R1 and R2 which are connected in parallel. From Ohm’s law:
𝑉 𝑉
Current through 𝑅1 = 𝐼1 = 𝑅 and Current through 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 = 𝑅 ----- (1)
1 2
𝑉
If RP is the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination, then 𝐼 = 𝑅 ----- (2)
𝑃
As R1 and R2 are in parallel, I = I1 +I2 ----- (3)
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
Substituting equations (1) and (2) into (3), we have: 𝑅𝑃
= 𝑅1
+𝑅
2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⟹ = +
𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS

𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
1. Derive the expression for conductivity of a conductor OR Derive 𝝈 = where symbols
𝒎
have usual meanings.
Let the area of the conductor be A and its length be l. Let the number of free electrons per unit
volume (free electron density) be n. Consider the movement of electrons in a time t. In this time
electrons will move a distance 𝑙 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑡.
∴ the number of electrons moved in time t = (free electron density)×(volume) = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑙 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑡
Therefore the total charge moving in this time, 𝑄 = 𝑒 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑡
Charge Flowing 𝑒 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑡
∴ Current, 𝐼 = =
Time 𝑡
𝐼
⟹ 𝐼 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 ⟹ = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝐴
12
𝐼 𝑒𝐸𝜏
But 𝐴 = 𝑗 = the current density and 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚
𝑒𝐸𝜏 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
∴ 𝑗 = 𝑒𝑛( )= 𝐸
𝑚 𝑚
𝒋 = 𝝈𝑬
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
where 𝝈 = 𝒎
is the conductivity of the conductor.
2. Derive the expression for equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance when two cells
connected in series.
Consider two cells ε1, r1 and ε2, r2 connected in series as shown in the figure. Let I be the current
flowing through the combination. Let 𝜀𝑒𝑞 , 𝑟𝑒𝑞 be the equivalent cell.
Potential difference between A and B: 𝑉1 = 𝜀1 – 𝐼𝑟1
Potential difference between B and C: 𝑉2 = 𝜀2 – 𝐼𝑟2
Therefore, potential difference between A and C is:
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝜀1 – 𝐼𝑟1 + 𝜀2 – 𝐼𝑟2
⇒ 𝑉 = 𝜀1 + 𝜀2 – 𝐼 (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )
For the equivalent cell, 𝑉 = 𝜀𝑒𝑞 – 𝐼 𝑟𝑒𝑞
Comparing the two equations we get: 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝜺𝒆𝒒 = 𝜺𝟏 + 𝜺𝟐 and
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝒓𝒆𝒒 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐
3. Derive the expression for equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance when two cells
connected in parallel.
Consider two cells ε1, r1 and ε2, r2 connected in parallel as shown in the figure. Let I be the main
current, I1 and I2 be the currents through the cells. 𝜀𝑒𝑞 , 𝑟𝑒𝑞 be the equivalent cell.
For the first cell, potential difference between A and B:

𝜀1 − 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝜀1 – 𝐼1 𝑟1 ⟹ 𝐼1 =
𝑟1
For the second cell, potential difference between A and B:

𝜀2 − 𝑉
𝑉 = 𝜀2 – 𝐼2 𝑟2 ⟹ 𝐼2 =
𝑟2
As the cells are in connected in parallel, 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2

𝜀1 − 𝑉 𝜀2 − 𝑉 𝜀1 𝜀2 1 1
⟹ 𝐼= + = ( + ) − 𝑉 ( + ) … … (𝟏)
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
For the equivalent cell, 𝑉 = 𝜀𝑒𝑞 − 𝐼 𝑟𝑒𝑞 ⇒ 𝐼 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝜀𝑒𝑞 – 𝑉
𝜀𝑒𝑞 1
⟹ 𝐼= −𝑉 … … (𝟐)
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑒𝑞
13
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get:
𝜀𝑒𝑞 𝜀1 𝜀2 1 1 1
=( + ) and =( + )
𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑟1 𝑟2
Simplifying these two equations we get:
𝜺𝟏 𝒓𝟐 + 𝜺𝟐 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝜺𝒆𝒒 = and 𝒓𝒆𝒒 =
𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐
4. Deduce the balancing condition for Wheatstone’s network.

The figure shows a Wheatstone bridge consisting of four
resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4 connected in a cyclic order.
The Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced if current

through the galvanometer is zero (IG = 0). Let the bridge be
balanced and hence IG = 0.
Applying loop rule to loop MABM, we have:

−𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 0 ⟹ 𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 … … (𝟏)
Applying loop rule to loop ANBA we have:

−(𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐺 )𝑅3 + (𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐺 )𝑅4 + 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 = 0 ⟹ 𝐼1 𝑅3 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 … (𝟐)
Dividing equation (1) by (2) we have:

𝐼1 𝑅1 𝐼2 𝑅2
=
𝐼1 𝑅3 𝐼2 𝑅4
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
⇒ = OR =
𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. When two resistors are connected in series with a cell of emf 2V and negligible internal resistance,
a current of 2/5 A flows in the circuit. When the resistors are connected in parallel the main current
is 5/3A. Calculate the resistances.
2. Two cells of emf 2V and 4V and internal resistance 1Ω and 2Ω respectively are connected in
parallel so as to send the current in the same direction through an external resistance of 10 Ω. Find
the potential difference across 10 Ω resistor. (ANS: 2.5 V)
3. (a) Three resistors of resistance 2 Ω, 3 Ω and 4Ω are combined in series. What is the total resistance
of the combination? (ANS: 9 Ω)
(b) If the combination is connected to battery of emf 10 V and negligible internal resistance, obtain
the potential drop across each resistor. (ANS: 2.22 V, 3.33 V and 4.44 V)
4. Two identical cells either in series or in parallel combination, give the same current of 0.5 A
through external resistance of 4 Ω. Find emf and internal resistance of each. (ANS: 3 V, 4 Ω)
5. 100 mg mass of nichrome metal is drawn into a wire of area of cross section 0.05 mm2. Calculate
the resistance of this wire. Given: density of nichrome 8.4 × 103 kgm-3 and resistivity of the material
is 1.2 × 10-6 Ωm. (ANS: 1.57 Ω)
4. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM

ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Mention the sources of Magnetic field.

Moving charged particles are the sources of magnetic field.
2. Mention the S.I. unit of magnetic field.
SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T)
3. What is the path of charged particle moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field?
Circular path
14
4. State Ampere’s circuital law.
The line integral of magnetic field around any closed path in free space is equal to µo times the
net current enclosed by the path.
∮𝐵 ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
5. What is a solenoid?
It is a cylindrical coil made of large number of turns of insulated conducting wire.
6. What is the nature of force between two parallel conductors carrying currents in same
direction?
Force is attractive in nature.
7. What is the nature of force between two parallel conductors carrying currents in opposite
direction?
The force is repulsive in nature.
8. Mention the value of Bohr magneton.
The value is 9.27 × 10-24 Am2.
9. Mention the principle on which moving coil galvanometer works.
It works in the principle that a current carrying coil placed in magnetic field experiences a torque.
10. What is be the resistance of an ideal ammeter?
Resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.
11. What is be the resistance of an ideal voltmeter?
Resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.
TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

1. When is the force acting a charged particle moving in magnetic field (a) maximum? (b)
minimum?
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃 When θ = 90o, force is maximum.
When θ = 0o OR 180o, force is minimum.
2. Write the expression for the magnetic force on a current carrying wire placed in a magnetic
field.
Force, 𝐹 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝐵 sin 𝜃
where I is the current, dl is the length of the wire, B is the magnetic field and θ the angle between
dl and B.
3. Write the expression for Lorentz force in vector form and explain the symbols.
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐸⃗ + 𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)
where q is the magnitude of charge, E is electric field, B is magnetic field and v is velocity of
charge.
4. Mention the principle on which cyclotron works. Mention one of its uses.
The electric field speeds up charged particles and magnetic field makes the charged particles to
move in circular path. It is used to accelerate the positively charged particles.
5. Write the expression for magnetic field at a point inside a current carrying solenoid.
Explain the terms.
Magnetic field, 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼 where 𝜇𝑜 is the permeability of free space, I is the current and n
number of terms per unit length of the solenoid.
6. What is a Toroid? Mention an expression for magnetic field at a point inside toroid.
The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire are closely wound.
𝜇0𝑁𝐼
Magnetic field = 2𝜋𝑟
= 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼
7. Define magnetic dipole moment of current loop. Mention its SI unit.

It is the product of total current flowing through the loop and area of the loop. Its unit is Am2.
15
8. Mention the expression for the torque acting on a current loop placed in a uniform magnetic
field in vector form and explain the terms.
𝜏=𝑚 ⃗ OR 𝜏 = 𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
where m is the magnetic dipole moment and B is the magnetic field.
9. A galvanometer coil has resistance of 12 Ω and the meter shows full scale deflection for a
current of 3 mA. How will you convert it into a voltmeter of range 0 to 18 V?
𝑉 18
𝑅 = −𝐺 = − 12 = 5988 Ω
𝐼𝑔 3 × 10−3
By connecting a resistance of 5988 Ω in series with the galvanometer.
10. A galvanometer coil has resistance of 15 Ω and the meter shows full Scale deflection for a
current of 4 mA. How will you convert it into ammeter of range 0 to 6A?
𝐼𝑔𝐺 4 × 10−3 × 15
𝑆= = = 0.01 Ω
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 6 − 4 × 10−3
By connecting a resistance of 0.01 Ω in parallel with the galvanometer.
THREE MARKS QUESTIONS
1. State and explain Biot – Savart’s law. Write its vector form.
Statement: The magnitude of the magnetic field (dB) at any
point ‘P’ due to the current element (dl) is
(1) directly proportional to strength of the current (I)
(2) directly proportional to length of the current element (dl)
(3) directly proportional to sine of the angle between the
current element and the line joining the given point and
mid-point of the current element and
(4) inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the current element and the point.
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝒅𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ )
𝝁 𝑰 (𝒅𝒍 ×𝒓
Vector form: 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟒𝝅𝒐 where µ0 is the permeability of free space.
𝒓𝟑
2. Derive the expression for radius and angular frequency of circular motion of a charge
moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
Force experienced by a charged particle in magnetic field is 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 (as θ = 90o, sin θ = 1). This
force centripetally accelerates the charge.
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑞𝐵𝑟
𝑞𝑣𝐵 = ⟹𝑣=
𝑟 𝑚
We know that: 𝜔 = 𝑣/𝑟. Therefore:
𝒒𝑩
⟹𝝎=
𝒎
3. Derive the expression for magnetic field at a point due to an infinitely long straight
conductor carrying current.
By Ampere’s circuital law:
⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
Here 𝜃 = 0 and hence cos 𝜃 = 1
𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟 and 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝐼.
𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝒐 𝝁 𝑰
⟹ 𝑩 = 𝟐𝝅𝒓
16
4. What is Cyclotron? Draw its neat labelled diagram.
A cyclotron is a device to accelerate charged particles or ions to high energies.
5. Explain with circuit diagram how to convert a galvanometer into an ammeter.
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by

connecting a low resistance in parallel with it. The value of
low resistance (shunt resistance) is given by
𝐼𝑔 𝐺
Shunt resistance, 𝑆 =
𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔
where Ig is the current through galvanometer, I is the range
of the ammeter and 𝐺 is the galvanometer resistance.
6. Explain with circuit diagram how to convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter.

A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by
connecting a high resistance R which is connected in
series with the galvanometer. The value of resistance is:
𝑉
𝑅= −𝐺
𝐼𝑔
where V is the range of voltmeter, 𝐼𝑔 current for full

deflection and G galvanometer resistance.
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Derive the expression for magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular current loop.
Consider a circular coil of radius r and carrying a current I. Let P be a point on the axis of the coil
at a distance x from the centre O of the coil.
17
The magnetic field at P due to a small element AB is (Here θ = 90o):
µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝐿
4𝜋 𝑎2 4𝜋 𝑎2
The magnetic field at P due to another element 𝐴′𝐵′ opposite to AB is:
µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵′ = = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑀
4𝜋 𝑎2 4𝜋 𝑎2
We see that 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑑𝐵′. When ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵′ are added vectorially, their vertical components cancel
and horizontal components are added up. Hence, the total magnetic field due to AB and 𝐴′𝐵′ is:
µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵′′ = 2 𝑑𝐵 sin 𝛼 = 2 × × sin 𝛼
4𝜋 𝑎2
Total magnetic field at P is: 𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝐵′′
µ0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 µ 𝐼
⟹ 𝐵 = ∫2 × 2
× sin 𝛼 = 2 × 0 2 × sin 𝛼 × ∫ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑎 4𝜋 𝑎
𝑟
In fig. sin 𝛼 = , 𝑎 = (𝑟 2 + 𝑥 2 )1⁄2 and ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟. Putting these into the above equation:
𝑎
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑟
𝐵 =2× × × 𝜋𝑟
4𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) (𝑟2 + 𝑥2 )1⁄2
𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒓𝟐
⟹𝑩=
𝟐 (𝒓𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑⁄𝟐
The direction of the field is along the axis of the coil.
2. Derive the expression for the force between two parallel conductors carrying current. Hence
define ampere.
Consider two infinitely long straight parallel conductors carrying currents I1 and I2 in same
direction. Let us consider a small length l of the wire.
The magnetic field B1 due to current I1 at second

µ0 𝐼1
conductor is given by: 𝐵1 = 2𝜋𝑟
The force on the second conductor due to this

magnetic field is given by:
µ 𝐼1
0
𝐹2 = 𝐼2 𝑙𝐵1 sin 𝜃 = 𝐼2 𝑙 2𝜋𝑟 × sin 90°
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
⟹ 𝐹2 = 𝑙 towards the first conductor (𝟏)
2𝜋𝑟
µ0 𝐼2
The magnetic field B1 due to current I1 at second conductor is given by: 𝐵2 = 2𝜋𝑟
The force on the second conductor due to this magnetic field is given by:
µ0 𝐼2
𝐹1 = 𝐼1 𝑙𝐵2 sin 𝜃 = 𝐼1 𝑙 × sin 90°
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
⟹ 𝐹1 = 𝑙 towards the second conductor (𝟐)
2𝜋𝑟
From equations (1) and (2), we see that the two conductors experience same amount of the force
and they attract each other.
𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬, 𝑭 = 𝒍
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑭 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐬, 𝒇= =
𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝒓
18
Definition of ampere: One ampere is the equal steady current which when flowing through two
infinitely long straight parallel conductors placed one meter apart in free space produces a
force per unit length of 2 × 10—7 N/m between them”
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. An electron is moving with a speed of 3 × 107 ms-1 perpendicular to magnetic field 6 × 10-4 T.
Calculate the radius of the circular path, period and its kinetic energy. (Ans: 0.28 m, 5.88 × 10-8 s,
2.5 keV)
2. A current of 5 A flows through a circular coil of 500 turns and of radius 5 cm. Calculate the
magnetic field at (i) the centre of the coil, (ii) a point 12cm away from the centre of the coil along
its axis. (Ans: 3.14 × 10-2 T, 1.8 mT)
3. Two long and parallel straight wires A and B carrying currents of 8 A and 5 A respectively in the
same direction are separated by the distance of 4cm. Estimate the force on a 10 cm section of
wire A. (Ans. FA = 200 × 10-7 N)
5. MAGNETISM AND MATTER
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Draw magnetic field lines due to a bar magnet.
2. Write the expression for torque acting on a compass needle kept in a uniform magnetic field
in vector form.
𝜏 =𝑚 ⃗⃗ × 𝐵⃗
3. What is Curie’s temperature? OR What is Curie’s point?
It is the temperature above which a ferromagnetic material becomes paramagnetic material.
4. What is the significance of the area of the hysteresis loop?
It indicates the energy loss per unit volume of the specimen per cycle of magnetization.
5. How does magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance depend on temperature?
1
Inversely proportional to its absolute temperature OR 𝜒𝑚 ∝ 𝑇
6. Write the relation between relative permeability and magnetic susceptibility?
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑚
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. Write the expression for magnitude of torque acting on a magnetic dipole placed in a
uniform magnetic field and explain the terms.
𝜏 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 where m = magnetic dipole moment, B = uniform magnetic field
2. State and explain Gauss’s law in magnetism.
The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.
⃗ ∙ Δ𝑠 = 0
(𝜙𝐵 )𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = ∑𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐵
where 𝐵⃗ = magnetic field, ∆𝑠 = small area element
3. State and explain Curie’s law in magnetism.
The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to its absolute
𝜇
temperature. That is: 𝜒𝑚 = 𝐶 𝑇0
where 𝜒𝑚 is magnetic susceptibility, T is absolute temperature and C is Curie’s constant
4. Write the expression for magnetic potential energy of a magnetic dipole kept in a uniform
magnetic field and explain the terms.
Potential energy, 𝑈 = − 𝑚 ⃗ = −𝑚 𝐵 cos 𝜃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝐵
where m is magnetic dipole moment and B is uniform magnetic field.
19
5. When is the magnetic potential energy of a magnetic dipole kept in a uniform magnetic field
is (i) minimum? and (ii) maximum?
(i) When 𝜃 = 0° , PE is minimum and is called stable equilibrium
(ii) When 𝜃 = 180° , PE is maximum and is called unstable equilibrium
where θ is the angle between magnetic dipole moment and magnetic field.
6. Write the expression for time period of oscillation of magnetic needle in a uniform magnetic
field and explain the terms.
𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ where I is moment of inertia of magnetic needle, m is magnetic moment of the
𝑚𝐵
dipole, B is the magnetic field
7. Define magnetization of a sample? Mention its SI unit.
Magnetization is the net magnetic moment per unit volume. Its SI unit is Am-1
8. Define magnetic susceptibility? For which material it is low and positive?
Susceptibility of material is defined as the ratio of magnetization in the material to the magnetic
𝑀
intensity. 𝜒 = 𝐻 . For paramagnetic material susceptibility is low and positive.
9. Define permeability? Mention its SI unit.
Permeability of material is defined as the ratio of magnetic field in the material to the magnetic
𝐵
intensity. 𝜇 = 𝐻 SI Unit: Hm-1
10. At what place on the earth magnetic dip is (i) maximum and (ii) minimum.
(i) Maximum at magnetic poles (θ = 900) (ii) Minimum at magnetic equator (θ = 00)
11. Draw the variation of magnetic field with magnetic intensity when a ferromagnetic material
is subjected to a cycle of magnetization OR Draw the hysteresis curve for a ferromagnetic
material.
12. Mention the uses of electromagnets.

a) used in electric bells b) used in loud speakers c) in garages to lift vehicles
1. Write any three properties of magnetic field lines.
1) Magnetic field lines form closed loops.
2) The tangent to the field line represents the direction of the magnetic field.
3) Magnetic field lines do not intersect.
4) Density of magnetic field lines is a measure of magnetic field at a given point.
2. Mention earth’s magnetic elements.
1) Magnetic declination
2) Magnetic dip (inclination)
3) Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field
3. Define the terms (a) Magnetic declination (b) Magnetic dip (inclination) and (c) Horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field.
a) The angle between the geographic meridian and the magnetic meridian is called magnetic
declination.
b) The angle between the earth’s total magnetic field and the horizontal in the magnetic meridian
is called magnetic dip (inclination).
c) The component of earth’s total magnetic field along the horizontal in magnetic meridian is
called horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field.
20
4. What is hysteresis? Define the terms coercivity and retentivity of a ferromagnetic
substance?
Hysteresis: Hysteresis is lagging of magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ behind the magnetic intensity 𝐻
⃗ when a
ferromagnetic substance is taken through a cycle of magnetization.
Retentivity: The property of the magnetic substance to retain magnetization even after the
removal of magnetizing field.
Coercivity: The property of the magnetic substance by which it gets demagnetized in the
presence of reverse magnetizing field is called coercivity.
5. Derive an expression for magnetic potential of a dipole in a magnetic field.
The magnetic potential energy = work done = 𝑈𝑚 = ∫ 𝜏 𝑑𝜃
The torque acting on needle is 𝜏 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⟹ 𝑈𝑚 = ∫ 𝑚𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝑩
⟹ 𝑼𝒎 = − 𝒎𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = −𝒎 ⃗
where m is magnetic dipole moment and B is uniform magnetic field.
FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Show that a current carrying solenoid is equivalent to a bar magnet.
The magnitude of the magnetic field at P due this element dx is:
𝜇0 2𝜋(𝑛𝑑𝑥)𝐼𝑅 2
𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 [𝑅 2 + (𝑟 − 𝑥)2 ]3/2
When r ≫ 𝑅 and 𝑟 ≫ 𝑥, [𝑅 2 + (𝑟 − 𝑥)2 ]3/2 = 𝑟 3
𝜇0 2𝜋(𝑛𝑑𝑥)𝐼𝑅 2
⟹ 𝑑𝐵 =
4𝜋 𝑟3
The total magnetic field at P is:
+𝑙
𝜇0 2𝜋(𝑛𝑑𝑥)𝐼𝑅 2 𝜇0 2𝜋𝑛𝐼𝑅 2 +𝑙
⟹𝐵 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
−𝑙 4𝜋 𝑟3 4𝜋 𝑟3 −𝑙
𝜇0 2𝜋𝑛𝐼𝑅 2 +𝑙
𝜇0 2𝜋𝑛𝐼𝑅 2
⟹𝐵 = [𝑥]−𝑙 = 2𝑙
4𝜋 𝑟3 4𝜋 𝑟3
𝝁𝒐 𝟐𝒎
⟹𝑩=
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑
2
where 𝑚 = 𝑛 2𝑙 𝐼 𝜋𝑅 is the magnetic dipole moment
This is similar to the expression for magnetic field on axis of a short bar magnet. Hence a
solenoid carrying current is equivalent to a bar magnet.
2. Compare Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic substances.
DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FERROMAGNETIC
SUBSTANCES SUBSTANCES SUBSTANCES
Diamagnetic substances Paramagnetic substances are Ferromagnetic substances are
are weakly repelled by weakly attracted by strong strongly attracted by magnetic
strong magnetic field. magnetic field. field.
Magnetic field lines are Magnetic field lines are Magnetic field lines are strongly
expelled weakly concentrated concentrated
Susceptibility is small Susceptibility is small and Susceptibility is large and
and negative. positive. positive
Relative permeability is Relative permeability is Relative permeability is much
slightly less than one slightly more than one greater than one
Susceptibility does not Susceptibility depends on Susceptibility depends on
depends on temperature temperature temperature
Ex:Copper, Gold, Water Ex:. Aluminium, Oxygen, Ex: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel
21
6. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is electromagnetic induction?

The phenomenon of induction of an emf in a circuit by varying magnetic flux is called
electromagnetic induction.
2. Mention the significance of Lenz’ law.
Conservation of energy OR It gives the polarity of the induced emf.
3. What is motional emf?
Emf induced in a rod moving in a magnetic field is called motional emf.
4. On what principle AC generator works?
Electromagnetic induction
5. What is eddy current?
Circulating currents induced in a bulk conductor due to the change in the magnetic flux linked
with it is called eddy current.
6. How does the self-inductance of a coil depend on the number turns in the coil?
Directly proportional to the square of the number of turns.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. State and explain Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
The magnitude of the induced emf in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the coil.
𝑑𝜙
Induced emf, 𝜀 ∝ 𝑑𝑡𝐵
where 𝜙𝐵 is magnetic flux through the coil.
2. Mention two methods of reducing eddy current.
Eddy current can be minimized by
1) using a set of laminated metal sheets instead of single metal block.
2) using slotted metal sheets instead of whole metal sheets.
3. Give an expression for self-inductance of a coil and explain the terms.
Self inductance, 𝐿 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜋𝑛2 𝑟 2 𝑙
where l - length of the solenoid, n - number of turns per unit length and r - radius of the solenoid
4. Mention any two factors on which the self-inductance of a coil depends.
Self-inductance of a coil depends on (1) length of the coil, (2) number of turns per unit length of
the coil, (3) length of the solenoid and (4) medium inside the solenoid
5. Current in the coil falls from 2.5 A to 0 A in 0.1 second, inducing an emf of 200 V. Calculate
the value of self-inductance.
𝑑𝐼 0 − 2.5
𝜺= −𝐿 ⟹ 200 = − L
𝑑𝑡 0.1
200 = 25𝐿 ⟹ 𝐿 = 8 𝐻
6. What is meant by self-induction and mutual induction?
The phenomenon in which an emf is induced in a coil due to the change in the current through it is
called self-induction.
The phenomenon in which an emf is induced in a coil due to the change in the current in a
neighbouring coil is called mutual induction.
7. The magnetic flux linked with a coil varies as 𝝓 = 𝟑𝒕𝟐 + 𝟒𝒕 + 𝟗 Wb. Find the magnitude of
emf induced at t = 2 second.
𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑
|𝜀| = = (3𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 + 9 ) = 6𝑡 + 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At 𝑡 = 2 s, |𝜀| = 6 × 2 + 4 = 16 V
22
1. Describe the coil and magnet experiment of Faraday and Henry to demonstrate
1. When a magnet is moved towards a
coil, the galvanometer attached to the
coil shows a deflection in one side.
2. When the magnet is moved away from
the coil, galvanometer shows deflection
but in opposite side.
3. When there is no relative motion
between the magnet and the coil, the
galvanometer shows no deflection.
It shows that there is a production of
electric current (emf) in the coil when
there is a change in magnetic flux.
2. Describe the coil and coil experiment of Faraday and Henry to demonstrate electromagnetic
induction.
1. When a current carrying coil is moved towards another
coil, the galvanometer attached to it shows deflection on
one side.
2. When the current carrying coil moved away from the
second coil, galvanometer shows deflection in opposite
side.
3. When the current carrying coil held rest near the second
coil no deflection observed in the galvanometer.
It shows that the change in magnetic flux is responsible
for production of electric current in the coil.
s
8. State and explain Lenz’ law.

Statement: The polarity of induced emf in a coil is such that it tends to
produce a current that opposes the change in magnetic flux that
produces it.
𝑑𝜙𝐵
Induced emf, 𝜀 = −
𝑑𝑡
When the north pole of a magnet moved towards a coil, a
current is induced such that the end of the coil nearer to the magnet
behaves like a north pole. This opposes the magnet’s motion.
When the north pole of a magnet moved away from the coil, a
current is induced such that the end of the coil nearer to the magnet
behaves like a south pole. This opposes the magnet’s motion.
3. Derive the expression for motional emf in a conducting rod moving in a uniform magnetic
field.
The magnetic flux linked with the area
SPQR is:
𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵 𝑙 𝑥 cos 0 = 𝐵 𝑙 𝑥
𝑑𝜙𝐵
Induced emf, 𝜀 = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐵𝑙𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
⟹𝜀=− 𝑑𝑡
= −𝐵𝑙 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
But 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑣 = speed of the rod. Hence:
⟹ 𝜺 = 𝑩𝒍𝒗
23
4. Mention any three applications of eddy current.
(1) Induction furnaces (2) Electric power meters (3) Magnetic braking in trains
5. Obtain the expression for energy stored in a solenoid.
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝐼
Power, 𝑃 = = |𝜀|𝐼 = 𝐿 𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐿 𝐼 𝑑𝐼
Work needed (energy spent) to build the current I is:
𝐼
1
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐿𝐼 2
0 2
𝟏 𝟐
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐨𝐢𝐝, 𝑼 = 𝑾 = 𝑳𝑰
𝟐
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Derive an expression for the instantaneous emf induced in an AC generator.
Consider a coil with N number of turns, area A
and rotating with angular frequency ω in a
magnetic field B.
The flux through the coil 𝜙𝐵 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
From Faraday’s law:
𝑑𝜙𝐵 𝑑(𝑁𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡)
𝜀=− =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑(cos 𝜔𝑡)
⟹ 𝜀 = −𝑁𝐵𝐴 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
⟹ 𝜺 = 𝜺𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
where 𝜀𝑜 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔 = peak emf
7. ALTERNATING CURRENT
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is electrical resonance of a series LCR circuit?
At a particular frequency of input AC, the impedance of the circuit is minimum and the current
through the circuit is maximum. This is called resonance.
2. What is wattless current?
The current through a circuit for which the average power over an AC cycle is zero is called
wattles current.
3. What is transformer?
Transformer is a device used to increase or decrease AC voltage.
4. On what principle does a transformer work?
Mutual induction
5. Define Q-Factor of LCR circuit.
Q-Factor is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to the bandwidth.
6. How does the capacitive reactance vary with the frequency of AC?
Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency of AC.
7. How does the inductive reactance vary with the frequency of AC?
Inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency of AC.
8. If the peak value of an AC current is 4.24 A, what is the rms value?
𝐼0 4.24
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = =3𝐴
√2 1.414
24
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. Write the relationship between rms and peak value of AC current and voltage.
𝑖𝑜 𝑣𝑜
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = and 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2 √2
2. What is inductive reactance? Mention the expression for the same.
It is the opposition offered by an inductor to the flow of ac through it.
Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜈𝐿
3. What is capacitive reactance? Mention the expression for the same.
It is the opposition offered by a capacitor to the flow of ac through it.
Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝐶 = 1⁄2𝜋𝜈𝐶
4. Mention the expression for frequency of LC Oscillations.
1
Frequency of LC oscillations, 𝜈=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
where L = Inductance of the inductor, C = Capacitance of the capacitor
5. What is power factor of an AC circuit? Write the expression for it.

Power factor is the ratio between resistance and the impedance of the circuit.
𝑅
Power factor = cos 𝜙 =
𝑍
6. Write the expression for sharpness of resonance (Q – factor). Explain the terms.
Quality factor, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝑜 𝐿⁄𝑅 = 1⁄𝜔𝑜 𝐶𝑅 where 𝜔𝑜 is the resonant frequency, L is the inductance, C
is the capacitance and R is the resistance.

1. Show that voltage and current are in the same phase, when AC voltage applied to pure
resistor.
The input AC voltage is 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 and for a resistor 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅.
Therefore we have: 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑣𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝒗𝒎 𝑣𝑚
𝒊= 𝑹
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 = 𝒊𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 where 𝑖𝑚 = 𝑅
is the maximum current through the circuit.
From the expressions for v and i we see that voltage and current are in phase with each other.
2. Show that voltage leads current by 𝝅/𝟐 when AC voltage applied to pure inductance.
𝑑𝑖
The input voltage is 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 and for an inductor 𝑣 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑖
Applying Kirchhoff’s law, 𝑣𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
25
𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚
⟹ 𝑑𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 ⟹ ∫ 𝑑𝑖 = ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡
𝐿 𝐿
𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚 𝜋
⟹𝑖=− cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin (𝜔𝑡 − )
𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿 2
𝝅
⟹ 𝒊 = 𝒊𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝎𝒕 − 𝟐 )
𝑚𝑣 𝑣𝑚
where 𝑖𝑚 = 𝜔𝐿 = 𝑋𝐿
= maximum current through the circuit and 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = inductive reactance.
From the expressions for 𝑣 and 𝑖 we see that current lags behind the voltage by 𝜋/2.
3. Show that voltage lags the current by 𝝅/𝟐 when AC voltage applied to a pure capacitor.
The input voltage is 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 and for a capacitor 𝑣 = 𝑞/𝐶.
𝑞
Therefore, we have: 𝐶 = 𝑣𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 ⟹ 𝑞 = 𝑣𝑚 𝐶 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
Differentiating this equation, we have: 𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 (𝑣𝑚 𝐶 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑(sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝑣𝑚 𝜋
⟹ 𝑖 = 𝑣𝑚 𝐶 = 𝑣𝑚 𝜔𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
𝑑𝑡 (1/𝜔𝐶) 2
𝝅
⟹ 𝒊 = 𝒊𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝎𝒕 + )
𝟐
𝑣
𝑚 𝑣𝑚 1
where (1/𝜔𝐶) = 𝑋𝐶
= 𝑖𝑚 is the maximum current through the circuit and 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 = capacitive
reactance.
From the expressions for 𝑣 and 𝑖 we see that current leads the voltage by 𝜋/2.
4. Derive the condition for the resonant frequency of a series LCR circuit.
At resonance, 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑜 and 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
We know that 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 𝜔𝑜 𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 = 1⁄𝜔𝐶 = 1⁄𝜔𝑜 𝐶

1 1
Therefore, 𝜔𝑜 𝐿 = 𝜔 ⟹ 𝜔𝑜2 = 𝐿𝐶
𝑜𝐶
𝟏
⟹ 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲, 𝝎𝒐 =
√𝑳𝑪
5. Draw a neat diagram of a transformer. Explain its working.
Transformer works on the principle of mutual
induction. It consists of two coils wound over a
soft iron core as shown in the figure. When
current in the primary coil is changed the flux
linked to the secondary coil also changes.
Consequently, an EMF is induced in the
secondary coil due to Faraday law of
6. Mention the sources of energy losses in transformer.
(1) Loss due to Eddy current (2) Loss due to flux leakage
(3) Loss due to hysteresis (4) Loss due to resistance of windings
26
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Arrive at the expression for the impedance of a series LCR circuit using phasor diagram
method and hence write the expression for the current through the circuit.
V = Vm sin ωt
Consider a series LCR circuit connected to an AC source 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
⃗ 𝑅, 𝑉
The applied maximum voltage 𝑣𝑚 is the vector sum of the phasors 𝑉 ⃗ 𝐿 and 𝑉
⃗ 𝐶 . That is:
⃗𝑚 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗𝑅 + 𝑉
⃗𝐶 + 𝑉
⃗𝐿
⃗ 𝐶 and 𝑉
Since 𝑉 ⃗ 𝐿 are opposite to each other, their net effect is 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 along 𝑉
⃗ 𝐶 as shown in figure.
By applying Pythagoras theorem to the right triangle OAB:
𝑉𝑚2 = 𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2
But we know that: 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑅, 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐶
∴ 𝑉𝑚2 = (𝑖𝑚 𝑅)2 + (𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐶 )2
⟹ 𝑉𝑚2 = 𝑖𝑚
2
(𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 )
2 (𝑅 2 + (𝑋 − 𝑋 )2 ) = 𝑖 √𝑅 2 + (𝑋 − 𝑋 )2
⟹ 𝑉𝑚 = √𝑖𝑚 𝐶 𝐿 𝑚 𝐶 𝐿
𝑉𝑚
⟹ = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑖𝑚
We call 𝑽𝒎 /𝒊𝒎 = 𝒁, the impedance of the circuit. Impedance is the opposition for the flow of AC
through a LCR circuit.
∴ 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳 )𝟐
From the figure, the phase difference ϕ between the current i and the voltage v is given by:
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
tan 𝜙 = = =
𝑉𝑅 𝑖𝑚 𝑅 𝑅
𝑿𝑪 − 𝑿𝑳
∴ 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝝓 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝑹
Therefore the current through the circuit is given by: 𝒊 = 𝒊𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to LCR circuit in which
R = 3 Ω, L = 25.48 mH and C = 786 µF. Find: (a) Impedance in the circuit (b) The phase
difference between the voltage across the source and the current (c) The power factor.
(ANS: Impedance = 5 Ω, Phase difference = 53o, Power factor = 0.6)
2. A coil has resistance 100 Ω and inductance 200 µH is connected in series with a 100 pF capacitor.
The circuit is connected with a 10 V variable frequency source. Calculate: (a) Resonant frequency
and (b) Current in resonance. (ANS: (a) 1.125 × 106 Hz (b) 0.1 A)
3. A circuit has a 50 Ω resistor, 0.3 H inductor of resistance 2 Ω and a capacitor of 40 µF, all
connected in series with a 220V, 50Hz AC supply. Calculate (a) Inductive reactance (b)
Capacitive reactance (c) Impedance (d) The rms current (e) The power factor.
(ANS: (a) 94.25 Ω, (b) 79.58 Ω, (c) 54.03 Ω, (d) 4.07A, (e) 0.962)
27
4. A resistance of 600 Ω, an inductor of 0.4 H and a capacitor of 0.01 µF are connected in series to
an AC source of variable frequency. Find the frequency of AC source for which the current in the
circuit is maximum. Also calculate the band width and quality factor for the circuit.
(ANS: Resonant frequency = 2.51 kHz, Quality factor = 10.54, Band width = 238.8 Hz)
8. ELECTROMAGNTIC WAVES
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is displacement current?

Displacement current is the current term in Ampere-Maxwell equation which is arises due to
changing electric flux.
2. Write the expression for displacement current.
𝑑𝜙
Displacement current, 𝑖𝐷 = 𝜖𝑜
𝑑𝑡
3. Write the expression for speed of light in vacuum in terms of permittivity and permeability.
1
Speed of light, 𝑐 = 𝜇 𝜖
√ 0 0
4. What is electromagnetic spectrum?

The ordered arrangement of electromagnetic waves according to their frequencies or wavelengths
is called electromagnetic spectrum.
5. What is the source of an electromagnetic wave?
An accelerated charged particle is the source of electromagnetic waves.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. Write any two properties of electromagnetic waves.

a) Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
b) Electromagnetic waves do not require any material medium for propagation.
2. Write Ampere-Maxwell’s equation and explain the terms.
𝑑𝜙𝐸
∮𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑖𝐶 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜
𝑑𝑡
where B is the magnetic field, 𝜇𝑜 is the permeability of free space, 𝜖𝑜 is the permittivity of the free
space, 𝜙𝐸 is the electric flux.
3. Derive an expression for displacement current.
Let 𝐸 be the electic field between the plates of a capacitor with an instantaneous charge 𝑞. Then:
𝜎 𝑞
𝐸= = ⟹ 𝑞 = 𝜖𝑜 𝐸𝐴 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜙𝐸
𝜖𝑜 𝐴𝜖𝑜
Here A is the area of the plates and 𝐸𝐴 = 𝜙𝐸 = electric flux.

𝒅𝒒 𝒅(𝜖𝑜 𝝓𝑬 ) 𝒅𝝓𝑬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭, 𝒊𝑫 = = = 𝜖𝑜
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

Type of Wavelength Frequency
Uses Production
wave range range
Treatment of cancer,
Gamm Radioactive
<10-12 m 1018-1022 Hz sterilization of medical
a rays decay.
equipment
X-ray tubes or
Detect fractures in bones,
X-rays 1 nm to 10-12 m 1016-1018 Hz inner shell
treatment of cancer
electrons.
28
Sterilization of medical
UV 1014 Hz -1016 Transition of inner
400 nm to 1 nm instruments, LASIK eye
rays Hz shell electrons
surgery
4 × 1014 Hz- We are able to see the world Transition of
Visible 700 nm to 400 nm
8 × 1014 Hz through visible rays electrons.
Vibrations of
Night vision cameras, TV
IR rays 1 mm to 700 nm 1011-1014 Hz atoms and
remotes
molecules.
Microw Mobile communication, Klystron valve or
0.1 m to 1 mm 109-1011 Hz
ave microwave ovens, RADAR magnetron valve.
Rapid acceleration
Radio Radio and TV
>0.1m 105-109 Hz of electrons in
waves communication, RADAR
aerials.
9. RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is linear magnification?
Linear magnification is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
2. State Snell’s Law of refraction of light
When refraction takes place, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle
of refraction is a constant (called refractive index) for a given pair of media and for light of given
wavelength.
3. What is refraction of light?
When light passes from one medium to another, it changes its direction of propagation at the
interface of the two media. This phenomenon is known as refraction of light.
4. Define refractive Index of a medium:
Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to the
𝑐
velocity of light in the given medium. 𝑛 = 𝑣
5. Define critical angle of a medium.

Critical angle for a medium is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of
refraction is 90˚.
6. What is total internal reflection?
Total internal reflection is a phenomenon in which when a light rays tends pass from denser
medium to rarer medium, the light completely reflected back to the medium when the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle.
7. Define Normal Shift.
When an object in one medium observed normally from another medium then the object appears
to be shifted normally. The distance through which the object appears to be shifted is called
normal shift.
8. Define Power of a lens.
Power of a lens is its ability to converge or diverge light rays and is measured by the reciprocal of
its focal length.
9. Give the SI unit of the power of the lens.
The SI unit of power of a lens is dioptre (D).
10. Define SI unit of power of a lens (dioptre).
One dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is one metre.
11. How does the power of the lens vary with its focal length?
Power of the lens is inversely proportional to its focal length.
29
12. Define Linear magnification.
Magnification produced by a lens is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of
the object.
13. Write the expression for magnification produced by the telescope.
𝒇
m = 𝒇𝒐 where fo and fe are the focal length of objective lens and eye lens.
𝒆
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. State Laws of reflection.

First law: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Second law: When reflection takes place, the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the
reflecting surface at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
2. State Laws of Refraction.
First law: When refraction takes place, the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the
refracting surface at the point of incident lie in the same plane.
Second law: When refraction takes place, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine
of the angle of refraction is a constant for a given pair of media and for light of given wavelength.
sin 𝑖 𝑛2
= constant = 𝑛21 =
sin 𝑟 𝑛1
3. Mention the conditions for total internal reflection.
For total internal reflection
i) Light should be passing from denser medium to rarer medium
ii) The angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle.
4. What are optical fibres? What is the principle of optical fibres?
Optical fibres are thin transparent fibres of glass or plastic with a coating of a material of lower
refractive index. It works on the principle of total internal reflection.
5. Draw a neat labelled diagram of image formation in simple microscope.
(1) Image formed at near point (2) Image formed at infinity

6. Draw a neat labeled diagram of image formation in compound microscope.
30
7. Write the expression for magnification produced by the compound microscope and explain
the terms.
𝑳 𝑫
𝒎 = ( )( )
𝒇 𝒐 𝒇𝒆
where L — is tube length, fo and fe are the focal length of objective lens and eye lens.
8. Draw a neat labelled diagram of image formation in compound telescope.

1. Write the sign conventions used in ray optics.
(a) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
(b) The distances measured in the direction of the incident light are taken as positive while those
measured in the direction opposite to the incident light are taken as negative.
(c) Heights or distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are considered
positive while those measured downwards are considered negative.
2. Derive the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a spherical mirror
𝐑
or Prove that f = for a mirror where symbols have usual meanings.
𝟐
Consider a ray of light AM parallel to the principal
axis and incident on the mirror at M. MC is the
perpendicular to the mirror at M. Let θ be the angle of
incidence and MD be the perpendicular from M on
the principal axis.
Then MCP = θ and MFP = 2θ
𝑀𝐷
Now tan θ = 𝐶𝐷
and
𝑀𝐷
tan 2θ = 𝐹𝐷
…….….. (1)
For small θ, i.e., for paraxial rays, tan θ ≈ θ and tan 2θ ≈ 2θ. Therefore, the above equation gives
𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
𝐹𝐷
= 2 𝐶𝐷
𝐶𝐷
or FD = 2
…………………. (2)
From figure, FD = f, and CD = R. Equation (2) then gives:

𝑹
𝒇=
𝟐
3. Obtain the relation between refractive index and critical angle.
Consider a light ray travelling from a denser medium (RI = n) falling on the interface of a rarer
medium. Let the angle of incidence be equal to critical angle (𝑖 = 𝑖𝐶 ).
31
From Snell’s law:
𝑛 sin 𝑖 = 1 × sin 𝑟
Here 𝑖 = 𝑖𝐶 and 𝑟 = 90°. Therefore:
𝑛 sin 𝑖𝐶 = sin 90° = 1
𝟏
⟹𝒏=
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝑪
4. Give the Applications of optical fibres.

1. Optical fibres are used in endoscopy to examine the inner parts of human body
2. They are widely used in telecommunication
3. They are used to transmit light signal and two-dimensional pictures.
5. Mention the factors on which focal length of a lens depends.

1. Refractive index of the material of the lens.
2. Refractive index of the surrounding medium.
3. Radii of curvature of the two surfaces of the lens.
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
1. Derive the mirror equation 𝐮
+𝒗 =𝒇
Consider an object AB placed on the principal axis,

at a distance u from the pole of a concave mirror.
The image is formed at a distance v from the pole P.
From fig, the two right-angled triangles A1B1F and
MPF are similar. Therefore:
𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐹
=
𝑃𝑀 𝐹𝑃
But: PM = BA. Therefore:
𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑃
= … (1)
𝐵𝐴 𝐹𝑃
Since APB = A1PB1 ( i = r ) the right angled triangles A1B1P and ABP are also similar.
Therefore
𝐵′ 𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝑃
= … (2)
𝐵𝐴 𝐵𝑃
𝐵′ 𝐹 𝐵′ 𝑃
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get: 𝐹𝑃
= 𝐵𝑃
𝐵′ 𝑃 ─ 𝐹𝑃 𝐵′ 𝑃
⟹ = … (3)
𝐹𝑃 𝐵𝑃
By applying sign convention, we have 𝐵′ 𝑃 = ─ v, FP = ─ f and BP = ─ u. Substituting these
values in equation (3), we get:
─𝑣 + 𝑓 ─𝑣 𝑣─𝑓 𝑣
= ⟹ =
─𝑓 ─𝑢 𝑓 𝑢
𝑣 𝑣
−1=
𝑓 𝑢
32
Divide throughout by v and rearranging, we get:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝒖 𝒗 𝒇
𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐 𝐧𝟐 − 𝐧𝟏
2. Derive the relation ─ 𝐮
+ 𝐯
= 𝐑
for a refraction through a spherical surface OR
Derive the relation connecting n, u, v and R for refraction through a spherical surface.
Consider a spherical surface XY separating two media of refractive indices n1 and n2 such that n2 >
n1. Let I is the image of an object O on the principal axis.
For small angle approximation we have

𝑀𝑁
tan NOP = NOP = 𝑂𝑃
𝑀𝑁
tan NCP = NCP = 𝑃𝐶
𝑀𝑁
tan NIP = NIP =
𝑃𝐼
Now for ∆NOC, i = NOP + NCP

𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
i= 𝑂𝑃
+ 𝑃𝐶
……………….. (1)
Similarly r = NCP ─ NIP

𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
r= 𝑃𝐶
─ 𝑃𝐼
……………….. (2)
Now, by Snell’s law 𝑛1 sin i = 𝑛2 sin r

For small angles 𝑛1 i = 𝑛2 r
Substituting in equation (1) and (2) we get
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝑁
𝑛1 ( 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝐶
) = 𝑛2 ( 𝑃𝐶 ─ 𝑃𝐼
)
𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛
𝑂𝑃
+ 𝑃𝐶1 = 𝑃𝐶
─ 𝑃𝐼2
𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛2 ─ 𝑛1
𝑂𝑃
+ 𝑃𝐼2 = 𝑃𝐶
Here, OP = ─ u, PI = +v and PC = +R
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
─ + =
𝒖 𝒗 𝑹
33
3. Derive Lens maker’s formula.
Consider a convex lens of RI 𝑛2 be placed in a medium of RI 𝑛1 . The formation of image I of an
object O is considered in two stages.
Refraction at first surface ABC:

For I surface, O is the object and I1 is the image. Let OB = u, BI1 = v1.Then:
𝑛1 𝑛 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
𝑂𝐵
+ 𝐵𝐼2′ = 𝑅1
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 ─ 𝑛1
─ 𝑢
+ 𝑣′
= 𝑅1
…………. (1)
Refraction at second surface ADC:

For II Surface, I1 is the object and I is the image. Let DI = v then and I1D = — 𝑣 ′
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 ─ 𝑛1
─ + =─
𝐷𝐼′ 𝐷𝐼 𝑅2
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 ─ 𝑛1
─ + = ─ ……………. ( 2)
𝑣′ 𝑣 𝑅2
Adding equation (1) and (2):

𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 ─ 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
─ + = ─
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 1 1 1
𝑛1 (─ 𝑢 + 𝑣
) = ( 𝑛2 ─ 𝑛1 ) (𝑅 ─ 𝑅2
)
1
1 1 𝑛 1 1
(─ 𝑢
+ 𝑣) = ( 𝑛2 ─ 1 )(𝑅 ─ 𝑅2
) ………………… ( 3 )
1 1
𝑛2
Suppose the object is placed at infinity, i.e., u → ∞ then v = f. Also = 𝑛21 . Therefore:
𝑛1
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= ( 𝒏𝟐𝟏 ─ 1 ) ( ─ )
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
4. Obtain the expression for equivalent focal Length of a combination of two thin lenses in
contact.
Consider two thin lenses L1 and L2 of focal lengths f1 and f2 kept in contact as shown in the figure.
34
Refraction at first lens: For I lens, O is the object and I1 is the image. Therefore:
1 1 1
′
─ = … (1)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓1
Refraction at second lens: For II lens, I1 is the object and I is the image.
1 1 1
─ ′= … (2)
𝑣 𝑣 𝑓2
Adding (1) and (2) we get

1 1 1 1
─ = + … (3)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓1 𝑓2
Let the two lenses be replaced by a equivalent lens of focal length f then:
1 1 1
─ = … (4)
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
From equations (3) and (4) we get 𝒇
= 𝒇𝟏
+ 𝒇𝟐
5. Obtain the expression for refractive index in terms of angle of the prism A and angle of
𝐀 + 𝐃𝐦
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐
minimum deviation D OR Derive the expression n = 𝐀
𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐
ABC is a principle section of an equilateral prism. Let a light ray PQ incident on face AB and
emergent as RS from the face AC.
 XTR = δ = angle of deviation and AQM = ARM = 90˚

From AQMR is a cyclic quadrilateral
Hence A + M = 180˚ …..…… (1)
In the l e QRM
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + M =180˚ …………………..(2)
From (1) and (2)
A = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 …………….…… (3)
From the figure δ = ( i1 – r1 ) + ( i2 – r2 ) = ( i1 + i2 ) – ( r1 + r2 )
δ = ( i1 + i 2 ) – A
A + δ = i1 + i2 ……… …… (4)
For minimum deviation position, δ = Dm, i1 = i2 = i and r1 = r2 = r.
35
Substituting these values into equations ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) we get
𝐴
A = 2r ⟹ 𝑟 = ……………….. ( 5 )
2
𝐴+𝐷𝑚
A + Dm = 2i ⟹ 𝒊 = 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
If n is the refractive index of the material of the prism. By Snell’s law n =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
𝑨 + 𝑫𝒎
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐
𝒏=
𝑨
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. The radii of curvature of two surfaces of a convex lens is 0.2 m and 0.22 m. Find the focal length
of the lens if refractive index of the material of the lens is 1.5. Also find the change in focal length,
if it is immersed in water of refractive index 1.33.
2. Two lenses of focal length 0.2 m and 0.3 m are kept in contact. Find the focal length of the
combination, Calculate powers of two lenses and combination.
3. A prism of angle 60˚ produces angle of minimum deviation of 40˚. What is its refractive index?
Calculate the angle of incidence.
4. An object of 3 cm is placed 14 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 21 cm. Find the
position, nature and size of the image formed.
10. WAVE OPTICS
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is wave front?
Wave front is a surface of constant phase.
2. State the Huygens principle of secondary wave front.
All points of a primary wave front acts as independent sources of light and they emit light in all
directions.
3. What is interference of light?
Interference is the modification in the distribution of light intensity due to superposition of two or
more waves.
4. Define fringe width.
The distance between two consecutive bright fringes or dark fringes is known as fringe width.
5. What are coherent sources?

The sources of light which emit the light with same frequency and constant phase difference are
called coherent sources.
6. How does the fringe width of interference pattern vary with the wavelength of light?
Fringe width is directly proportional to the wavelength of light.
7. What is diffraction of light?
Diffraction of light is the phenomenon of bending of light around the edges of an obstacle and
hence its encroachment into geometrical shadow region.
8. What is resolving power of an optical instrument?
Resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to form two distinctly separate images of
two closely lying point objects.
9. How do you increase the resolving power of a telescope?
By increasing the radius of the objective (by increasing the aperture of the objective).
10. What is polarisation of light?
The phenomenon of restricting the vibration of electric field vector of light wave to a particular
direction in a plane perpendicular to the propagation of light is called polarization.
36
11. What are Polaroids?
Polaroids are large sheets which are used to produce and analyse plane polarized light.
12. What is polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle?
The angle of incidence on a transparent medium for which the reflected light is completely plane
polarised is called as polarizing angle or Brewster angle.
13. For what angle of incident for a transparent medium, is the reflected ray is completely plane
polarized?
For polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle of incidence the reflected ray is completely plane
polarized.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. Give the conditions for constructive interference of light in terms of path difference and
phase difference.
i) the phase difference between the two waves 𝜙 = 2𝑛𝜋
ii) the path difference 𝛿 = 𝑛𝜆 where λ is the wavelength and n = 0, 1, 2, 3……….
2. Give the conditions for destructive interference of light in terms of path difference and
phase difference.
(i) the phase difference between the two waves 𝜙 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋
(2𝑛+1)𝜆
(ii) the path difference 𝛿 = 2
where λ is the wavelength and n = 0, 1, 2, 3……….
3. Mention any two factors on which fringe width of interference pattern depends.
i) Separation between the slits ii) Wavelength of light used and
iii) Distance between the screen and slits
4. Draw a graph which shows the variation of intensity with the distance from central
maximum for diffraction a slit.
5. Write the expression for resolving power of a telescope and explain the terms.
𝒅
Resolving power of a telescope = 𝟏.𝟐𝟐 
where d is the diameter of the objective lens, λ is the wavelength of light
6. Write the expression for resolving power of a microscope and explain the terms.
2𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Resolving power of a microscope = 1.22
where 𝛽 is the semi vertical angle subtended at the objective lens, λ is the wavelength of light and
n is the refractive index of the medium.
7. How do you increase the resolving power of a microscope?

Resolving power of a microscope can be increased either by using light of lesser wavelength or by
using a medium of higher refractive index.
8. Mention any two methods to produce polarised light.
Polarized light can be produced by (a) Scattering (b) reflection.
37
9. State and explain Malus’ law of polarization.
Statement: When completely plane polarized light is incident on the analyser, the intensity of the
light transmitted by the analyser is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle
between the transmission axes of the analyzer and the polarizer.
Mathematically: 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 cos2 𝜃
where 𝐼𝑜 is the intensity of polarized light falling on the analyzer from the polarizer, I is the
intensity of light coming out of the analyzer and θ is the angle between the pass axes.

1. Derive Snell’s law of refraction on the basis of Huygens wave theory of light.
Consider a plane wavefront AB falling on the
interface of the media PP’. Let the speed of light
in medium – 1 and medium – 2 be 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 and
the time taken by the light to travel distance BC
be τ. From the figure:
𝑣1 𝜏 𝑣2 𝜏
sin 𝑖 = and sin 𝑟 =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝑣1 𝜏
sin 𝑖 ( 𝐴𝐶 ) 𝑣1
∴ = = … … … (1)
sin 𝑟 (𝑣2 𝜏) 𝑣2
𝐴𝐶
If n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the media,
then:
𝑐 𝑐
𝑛1 = and 𝑛2 =
𝑣1 𝑣2
𝑐
𝑛2 (𝑣2 ) 𝑣1
⟹ = = … … … (2)
𝑛1 ( 𝑐 ) 𝑣2
𝑣1
From equations (1) and (2), we have:
sin 𝑖 𝑣1 𝑛2
= =
sin 𝑟 𝑣2 𝑛1
⟹ 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
2. Derive the law of reflection on the basis of Huygens wave theory of light.
Consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i
on a reflecting surface MN. If v is the speed of
the wave then the distance BC = vt
Draw a sphere of radius vt from the point A as
reflected wavefront. Let CE represent the
tangent plane drawn from the point C. Then
AE = BC = vt
The triangles EAC and BAC are congruent and
therefore i = i = r. (Law of reflection).
3. Give any three applications of polaroids.
i) Polaroids are used in sunglasses.
ii) Polaroids are used in windowpanes of trains and aero planes.
iii) Polaroids are used in three dimensional movie cameras.
iv) Polaroids are used for viewing three-dimensional pictures.
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Give the theory of interference and arrive the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference.
38
Consider two light waves of equal amplitude a. The displacement of the waves are 𝑦1 = 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡
and 𝑦2 = 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) where ϕ is the constant phase difference between them. The resultant
displacement after superposition of these waves is given by:
𝑌 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) + 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑎(cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) + cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 − 𝜔𝑡
⟹ 𝑌 = 𝑎 {2 cos ( ) cos ( )}
2 2
2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 𝜙 𝜙 𝜙
⟹ 𝑌 = 𝑎 {2 cos ( ) cos ( )} = (2𝑎 cos ( )) cos (𝜔𝑡 + )
2 2 2 2
𝜙
This resultant wave has an amplitude 𝐴 = 2𝑎 cos ( 2 ) (𝟏)
𝜙
When ϕ = 0, + 2π, + 4π, + 6π, …=2nπ, amplitude A = 2𝑎 cos ( 2 ) = 2𝑎 x 1 = 2𝑎.
The resultant intensity is maximum and the intensity is A2 = 4a2. This is called constructive
interference.
In terms of path difference, for constructive interference:
𝝀 𝝀
𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐡 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞, 𝜹 = 𝐱 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 = 𝐱 𝟐𝒏𝝅 = 𝒏𝝀
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝜙
From equation (1), when ϕ = π, + 3π, + 5π, + 7π, …= (2n+1)π, amplitude A = 2𝑎 cos ( 2 ) =
2𝑎 x 0 = 0.
The resultant intensity is minimum and the intensity is A2 = 0. This is called destructive
interference.
In terms of path difference, for destructive interference:
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀
𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐡 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 = 𝐱 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 = 𝐱 (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝅 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐
2. Obtain the expression for fringe width in Young’s double slit experiment.
Let d be the slit separation and D be the distance between slits and the screen. The path difference
between rays reaching P from sources A and B is 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃 = 𝛿 (𝟏).
From the triangle BFP:

𝑑 2
𝐵𝑃2 = 𝐵𝐹 2 + 𝐹𝑃2 = 𝐷 2 + (𝑥 + )
2
From the triangle APE:
𝑑 2
𝐴𝑃2 = 𝐴𝐸 2 + 𝐸𝑃2 = 𝐷 2 + (𝑥 − )
2
2
𝑑 𝑑 2
∴ 𝐵𝑃2 − 𝐴𝑃2 = (𝐷2 + (𝑥 + ) ) − (𝐷2 + (𝑥 − ) )
2 2
⟹ (𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃)(𝐵𝑃 + 𝐴𝑃) = 2𝑥𝑑
Since d ≪ D, and P is very close to O, (𝐵𝑃 + 𝐴𝑃) ≈ 𝐷 + 𝐷 = 2𝐷
⟹ (𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃) × 2𝐷 = 2𝑥𝑑

𝒙𝒅
But from (1), (𝐵𝑃 − 𝐴𝑃) = 𝛿. Therefore: 𝛿 × 2𝐷 = 2𝑥𝑑 ⟹ 𝜹 = 𝑫
𝒙𝒅
For bright fringe at P, 𝜹 = = 𝒏𝝀
𝑫
𝑛𝜆𝐷
∴𝑥=
𝑑
𝑛𝜆𝐷
Thus the distance of the nth bright fringe from O is 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑑
(𝑛+1)𝜆𝐷
Distance of the (n + 1)th fringe from O is 𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑑
39
The distance between two consecutive bright fringes (fringe width) is:
(𝑛 + 1)𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆𝐷 𝜆𝐷 𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝛽 = 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 = − = + −
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝝀𝑫
𝐅𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐰𝐢𝐝𝐭𝐡, 𝜷 =
𝒅
3. State and prove Brewster’s law.
Statement “The refractive index of a transparent medium is equal to the tangent of the polarizing
angle”.
Mathematically: 𝑛 = tan 𝜃𝑃
Proof: Consider a light ray PQ is incident on the surface of a
refracting medium of refractive index n at polarizing angle (𝑖 =
𝜃𝑃 ). From fig:
𝜃𝑃 + ∠𝑆𝑄𝑅 + 𝑟 = 180°
But ∠𝑆𝑄𝑅 = 90°. Therefore
𝜃𝑃 + 90° + 𝑟 = 180° ⟹ 𝜃𝑃 + 𝑟 = 90°
⟹ 𝑟 = 90° − 𝜃𝑃
According to Snell’s law
sin 𝑖 sin 𝜃𝑃 sin 𝜃𝑃
𝑛= = =
sin 𝑟 sin(90° − 𝜃𝑃 ) cos 𝜃𝑃
⟹ 𝒏 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽𝑷
4. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.
Sl.
Interference Diffraction
No
Interference is the modification in the light

Diffraction of light is the bending of light
1. intensity due to superposition of two or
around the corners of an obstacle.
more light waves.
It is due to superposition of number of

It is due to superposition of light from
2. waves emitted from different coherent
different portion of same wave front.
sources.
3. Interference fringes are of equal width Diffraction bands are of unequal width
Intensity of all bright bands remains

4. Intensity of all bright bands is not constant.
constant.
Minimum two coherent sources are Diffraction is produced whenever a wavefront

5.
required coming from a single source is obstructed.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. In Young’s double slit experiment distance between the slits is 1mm. The fringe width is found to
be 0.6 mm. When the screen is moved through a distance of 0.25 m away from the plane of the
slit, the fringe width becomes 0.75 mm. Find the wavelength of the light used.
2. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 4200 A˚ and 5000 A˚ is used to obtain interference
fringes in Young’s double slits experiment. The distance between the slits is 0.3 mm and the
distance between slits and screen is 1.5 m. Compute the least distance of the point from the central
maximum, where the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide.
40
3. In Young’s double slits experiment, fringes of certain width are produced on the screen kept at a
certain distance from the slits. When screen is moved away from the slits by 0.1 m, fringe width
increases by 6 × 10−5 m. The separation between the slits is 1 mm. Calculate the wavelength of the
light used.
4. In Young’s double slits experiment while using a source of light of wavelength 4500 A˚, the
fringe width is 5mm. If the distance between the screen and the plane of the slits is reduced to
half, what should be the wavelength of light to get fringe width 4 mm?
5. Light of wavelength 6000 A˚ is used to obtain interference fringes of width 6 mm in a Young’s
double slits experiment. Calculate the wavelength of light required to obtain fringe of width 4 mm
when the distance between the screen and slits is reduced to half of its initial value.
6. In Young’s double slit experiment distance between the slits is 0.5 mm. When the screen is kept at
a distance of 100 cm from the slits the distance of the ninth bright fringe from the centre of the
fringe system is 8.835 mm. Find the wavelength of the light used.
7. In Young’s double slits experiment, the slits are separated by 0.28 mm and the screen is placed at
a distance of 1.4 m away from the slits. The distance between the central bright fringe and fifth
dark fringe is measured to be 1.35 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the light used. Also find the
fringe width if the screen is moved 0.4 m towards the slits for same experimental setup.
11. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is Thermionic Emission?
It is the phenomenon of emission of free electrons from a metal surface by heating the surface.
2. What is Photoelectric Emission?
The process of emission of free electrons from a metal surface when a light of suitable frequency
incident on it is called Photoelectric Emission.
3. What is Field Emission?
The process of emission of free electrons from a metal surface by applying a strong electric field
is called Field Emission.
4. Define Stopping Potential.
The minimum negative potential applied to anode to stop the photoelectrons from reaching the
anode is called stopping potential.
5. Define Threshold Frequency.
Minimum frequency of the incident radiation below which photoelectric emission cannot take
place is called threshold frequency.
6. What is de Broglie wave or matter wave?
The wave associated with moving material particle.
7. What is de Broglie wavelength?
Wavelength of de Broglie wave is called de Broglie wavelength.
8. How does photoelectric current vary with intensity of incident radiation?
Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
9. How does photoelectric current change with frequency of light?
Photoelectric current is independent of frequency of incident radiation.
10. On what factor does the stopping potential depend?
Frequency of incident radiation.
11. What is Experimental outcome of Davisson and Germer Experiment.
It proves the wave nature of electrons.
12. How does Kinetic Energy of photoelectrons vary with frequency of incident radiation?
Kinetic Energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiation.
41
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. Mention the different methods of electron emission.
Thermionic Emission, Photoelectric emission, Field Emission
2. Draw graphs showing (a) variation of photoelectric current with intensity of light and (b)
variation of photoelectric current with anode potential for different intensities of light.
(a) (b)
3. Draw graphs showing (a) variation of photoelectric current with collector potential for
different frequencies of light. (b) variation of stopping potential (or maximum kinetic energy
of photoelectrons) with frequency of light.
(a) (b)
4. Write an expression for de Broglie wavelength and explain the terms.
ℎ
𝜆= 
𝑚𝑣
where h is Planck’s constant, m is mass and v is the speed of the particle.
5. Name any two phenomena in which light behaves as wave.
Interference and Diffraction.
6. Name any two phenomena in which light behaves as particle.
Photoelectric Effect and Scattering of light
7. Write any two properties of Photon?
i) Rest mass of photon is zero.
ii) Photons are electrically neutral.
8. Write the Einstein’s photoelectric equation and explain the terms.
ℎ𝜈 = 𝜙𝑜 + 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥
where h is Planck’s constant, ν is the frequency of the incident light, 𝜙𝑜 is the work-function and
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron.
1. Mention Lenard and Hallwach’s observations on photoelectric effect.
(i) Uncharged zinc plate becomes positive when it was illuminated by UV radiation.
(ii) Positively charged zinc plate becomes more positive when illuminated by UV radiation.
42
(iii) As soon as UV radiation is incident on emitter plate, a current flows in the circuit.
(iv) The current flow stops when the UV radiation stopped.
2. Describe the experiment to study photoelectric effect.

The experimental setup consists of photo cathode C and
anode A connected to battery through microammeter.
Both C and A are enclosed inside an evacuated glass bulb.
A radiation of suitable frequency is allowed to fall
on the cathode through side quartz window. Cathode emits
photoelectrons. These electrons move towards anode and
constitute photoelectric current which is recorded by
microammeter.
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS

1. Write the Experimental observations of Photoelectric Effect.
1. Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.
2. For a given metal surface and frequency, the photoelectric current is directly proportional to
intensity of incident radiation.
3. For given metal surface, saturation current is proportional to intensity of radiation.
4. For given metal surface, stopping potential is independent of intensity.
5. For given metal surface, there is minimum frequency of incident radiation below which there
is no photoelectric emission. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
6. Above threshold frequency, maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases linearly with
frequency of incident radiation.
7. Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons does not depend on intensity of the incident
radiation.
2. Give Einstein’s Explanation of Photoelectric Effect.
Einstein assumed that one photon is responsible for the emission one photoelectron. Therefore, as
the intensity increases, photoelectric current also increases.
He also assumed that the energy of each photon is 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈. Consider a photon of energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
incident on a metal surface. Energy of photon absorbed by electron is utilised in two ways:
i) Part of it is used by electron to come out of the metal surface (work function).
ii) Remaining energy used as kinetic energy of electron.
i.e., Energy of incident photon = Work function + Kinetic Energy of Photoelectron
⟹ 𝒉𝝂 = 𝝓𝒐 + 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙
We see from the equation that kinetic energy is proportional to frequency.
From this equation we see that there should be a minimum frequency 𝜈𝑜 such that 𝜈𝑜 = 𝜙𝑜 /ℎ
otherwise the kinetic energy will have a negative value which is impossible.
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. The work-function of Caesium metal is 2.14 eV. A beam of light of frequency 6 × 1014 Hz is
incident on metal surface. Find (a) energy of incident photon, (b) maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectron. Given: h = 6.63 × 10-34 Js (ANS: (a) 2.48 eV (b) 0.34 eV)
2. The threshold frequency of certain metal is 3.3 × 10 Hz. If light of frequency 8.2 × 1014 Hz
14
incident on metal. Calculate the stopping potential. (ANS: 202.74 V)
12. ATOMS
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is the value of Rydberg constant?
R = 1.097 × 107 m-1
43
2. In which region of electromagnetic spectrum does the a) Lyman b) Balmer c) Paschen d)
Brackett e) Pfund series lie?
a) UV region (b) Visible region (c) Infrared region (d) Infrared region (e) Infrared region
3. What is Impact Parameter?
It is the perpendicular distance between initial velocity vector of 𝛼 particle from centre of the
target nucleus.
4. What is angle of scattering for impact parameter b = 0?
θ = 180o
5. How does radius of electron orbit vary with principal quantum number ‘n’?
𝑅𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2
6. How does energy of electron in hydrogen atom vary with principal quantum number ‘n’?
𝐸𝑛 ∝ 1⁄𝑛2
7. Define Excitation Energy.
Energy required by an electron to jump from a given orbit to a higher energy orbit is called
Excitation Energy.
8. What is ionization energy?
It is the minimum energy required to free the electron that is in the ground state of an atom.
9. What is the total energy of an electron in the highest energy state?

Zero.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. Mention the limitations of Rutherford’s Atomic Model.
a) Model could not explain stability of atom.
b) Model could not explain origin of spectral lines.
2. Mention the merits of Rutherford Atomic Model.
a) Large angle scattering of 𝛼 particles could be explained.
b) The existence of nucleus and size of nucleus could be estimated.
3. Mention the limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Model.
a) Not applicable to atoms having more than one electron.
b) Cannot explain fine structure of spectral lines.
4. Mention the merits of Bohr’s Atomic Model.
a) It successfully explains the spectra of hydrogen-like atoms
b) Value of Rydberg constant is arrived at theoretically.

1. Explain Rutherford Atomic Model.
a) The entire mass and positive charge of the atom is concentrated at centre of atom called
nucleus.
b) Size of nucleus is estimated to be of the order of 10-15m and that of atom is 10-10m.
c) Atom is electrically neutral.
d) Centripetal force required for electron revolving around the nucleus is provided by
electrostatic force of attraction.
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑍𝑒 2
= ( 2)
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
2. Write the postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model.
a) The electron in an atom revolves only in certain permitted orbits called stationary orbits
without radiating energy
44
ℎ
b) The angular momentum of revolving electron in stationary orbit is an integral multiple of 2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
That is 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋 where n = 1, 2, 3……….
c) An atom radiates energy only when an electron jumps from one stationary orbit of higher
energy to lower energy orbit.
That is, ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸𝑖 – 𝐸𝑓 where 𝐸𝑖 and 𝐸𝑓 are the energies of the initial and final states.
3. Derive an expression for radius of nth stationary orbit of Hydrogen atom.
By Rutherford postulate, for hydrogen:
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑒2
= ( 2) (1)
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
From Bohr’s Second Postulate,

𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
Squaring on both sides
𝑛 2 ℎ2
𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑟 2 = (2)
4𝜋 2
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1):

𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝜺𝟎
𝒓=
𝒎𝝅𝒆𝟐
4. Give de Broglie explanation of Bohr’s Quantization Rule.
According to de Broglie, an electron in circular orbit must be considered as a wave.
Total distance travelled = Circumference of orbit= 2𝜋𝑟𝑛 . For a particular orbit:
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 (1)
ℎ
For de Broglie wave, 𝜆=
𝑝
ℎ
𝜆= (2)
𝑚𝑣𝑛
𝑛ℎ
 Substitute equation (2) in equation (1),2𝜋𝑟𝑛 =
𝑚𝑣𝑛
𝒏𝒉
⟹ 𝒎𝒗𝒏 𝒓𝒏 =
𝟐𝝅
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Describe 𝜶-particle scattering experiment with a labelled diagram.
𝛼 particles emitted by radioactive source 214

83Bi were collimated into narrow beam. Then the beam
was allowed to fall on thin gold foil. The scattered 𝛼 particles were observed through rotatable
45
detector consisting of ZnS screen and microscope. 𝛼 particles produce light flashes on screen may
be viewed through microscope.
2. Derive an expression for total energy of electron in the nth stationary orbit of H - atom.
We know that electrostatic force provides the centripetal force for the revolving electron.
𝑚𝑣𝑛2 1 𝑒2
=
𝑟𝑛 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛2
1 𝑒2
⟹ 𝑚𝑣𝑛2 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛
1 1 𝑒2
Kinetic energy = 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛2 = (1)
2 8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛
Potential energy of the electron is given by:

1 𝑒2
Potential energy = 𝑈 = − (2)
The total energy of the electron is the sum its kinetic and potential energies.
1 𝑒2 1 𝑒2
Total energy = 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = −
8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛
1 𝑒2
⟹ 𝐸𝑛 = − (3)
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀𝑜
From Bohr’s atom model: 𝑟𝑛 = (4)
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
1 𝑒2 𝑒2 𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
𝐸𝑛 = − =− × 2 2
8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑛 8𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑛 ℎ 𝜀𝑜
𝒎𝒆𝟒
𝑬𝒏 = −
𝟖𝜺𝟐𝒐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the longest wavelength in Balmer series and the series limit. (ANS: 656.3 nm, 364.6
nm)
2. The first member of Balmer series of Hydrogen atom has wavelength 656.3nm. Calculate the
wavelength of second member of same series. (ANS: 486.2 nm)
13. NUCLEI
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Define a.m.u or 1 u
1 th
1 a. m. u. is defined as 12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
2. How does nucleus radius of an atom depend on its mass number A?
Radius ∝ A1/3
3. Define activity of a radioactive substance.

Activity of a radioactive substance is the number of disintegration per second.
4. Mention the SI unit of activity.
SI unit of activity – becquerel (Bq)
5. What is mass defect?
It is the difference between masses of a nucleus and the sum of masses of its constituents.
46
6. Define Binding Energy?
The minimum energy required to split a nucleus and separate all the nucleons is called binding
energy.
7. What is Specific Binding Energy?
Binding energy per nucleon.
8. What is the significance of Binding Energy per nucleon?
It measures the stability of a nucleus.
9. Define half-life of a radioactive substance.
Time during which half of the original atoms disintegrate is called half-life.
10. Define mean-life of a radioactive substance.
Ratio of sum of lives of all atoms present in the sample to the number of atoms present in the
sample is called as mean life.
11. Give the relationship between half-life (𝑻𝟏/𝟐 ) and mean-life (𝝉).
𝑇1/2 = 0.693𝜏
12. In which type of β-decay does the neutrino is emitted?
𝛽 + − decay
13. In which type of β-decay does the antineutrino is emitted?
𝛽 − decay
14. In the following reaction, 𝒏 → 𝒑 + 𝒆+ + 𝑿, identify the particle X.
Neutrino (ν)
15. In beta decay, which particle is accompanied with the emission electron?
Anti-neutrino (𝜈̅ )
16. What is the principle of a nuclear reactor?
Controlled nuclear fission chain reaction.
17. What is the principle of atom bomb?
Uncontrolled fission chain reaction.
18. Define Isotopes/Isobars/Isotones.
Nuclei having same atomic number but different mass number are called isotopes.
Nuclei having same mass number but different atomic number are called isobars.
Nuclei of different elements having same number of neutrons are called as isotones.
19. Write Einstein’s mass- energy relation.
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 where E is the energy, m is the mass and c is the speed of light in vacuum.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS
1. Draw the Schematic diagram of nuclear reactor and mention the parts.
47
2. Write the expression for mass defect and explain the terms.
Mass defect, Δ𝑀 = (𝑍 𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 ) − 𝑀 where Z is the atomic number, A is the
mass number, M is the rest mass of the nucleus, 𝑚𝑝 is the mass of proton and 𝑚𝑛 is the mass of
neutron
3. Write the binding energy formula and Explain the terms.
Binding energy, 𝐸𝑏 = Δ𝑀𝑐 2 where c is the velocity of light in vacuum and ∆𝑀 is
mass defect.
1. Obtain an expression for half-life period of radioactive element.
𝑁𝑜
At 𝑡 = 𝑇1/2 ,𝑁 =
2
Substituting these into 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 , we get:
𝑁𝑜
= 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2
2
1
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2 ⟹ 2 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑇1/2
2
Taking logarithm on both sides,
ln 2 = 𝜆𝑇1/2
𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
⟹ 𝑻𝟏/𝟐 = =
𝝀 𝝀
2. Write any three properties of nuclear force.
1. They are strongest force in nature.
2. They are short range forces.
3. They show the property of saturation.
4. They are charge independent.
5. They are spin dependent.
6. They are non-central forces.
7. They are exchange force.
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS

1. State radioactive decay law. Derive 𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕 .
STATEMENT: The rate of decay of a radioactive sample at any instant is directly proportional
to number of atoms present in the sample at that instant.
If N is the number of radioactive atoms present in a sample at an instant, then:

𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
∝𝑁⟹ = −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
where 𝜆 is called decay constant. ⟹ 𝑁 = −𝜆 𝑑𝑡
Integrating the above equation, we get (𝑁𝑜 = initial number of atoms):

𝑡
𝑁
𝑑𝑁
∫ = −𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑁0 𝑁
0
𝑁
⟹ ln ( ) = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜
𝑁
⟹ = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜
⟹ 𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕
2. Distinguish between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion.

NUCLEAR FISSION NUCLEAR FUSION
1. Process in which heavy nucleus splits into 1. Process of combining two light nuclei to
two light nuclei of comparable masses. form heavy nucleus.
48
2. Energy released per fission is large. 2. Energy released per fusion is less.
3. Energy released per unit mass is less. 3. Energy released per unit mass is large.
4. Reaction products are harmful. 4. Reaction products are harmless.
5. Neutrons are link particles. 5. Protons are link particles.
6. No high temperature is required. 6. High temperature is required.
3. Write the salient features of B. E (Binding Energy) curve.
1. The curve rises sharply in the beginning and slowly reaches maximum value of 8.8 MeV for
A=56 (Fe), then gradually falls to 7.6 MeV for A=238 (U).
2. The B. E per nucleon is low for lighter as well as heavy nuclei, hence they are less stable.
3. Specific Binding Energy is close to maximum for nuclei in the range of atomic mass A= 30
to170.
4. Heavy nuclei having less specific binding energy undergo fission to form lighter nuclei by
releasing energy.
5. Lighter nuclei having less specific binding energy undergo fusion to form nucleus by
releasing energy.
FIVE MARK PROBLEMS
1. Calculate mass defect and specific binding energy of the nucleus 147𝑁. Given the rest mass of
nucleus is 147𝑁=14.00307 u, mp=1.00783 u and mn=1.00867u. (ANS: ∆M = 0.11243 u, S.B.E =
7.486 MeV)
2. Determine mass of Na22 which has activity of 5 mCi and half-life = 2.6 years. (ANS: 8 × 10-10 kg)
14. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

ONE MARK QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by doping?
The process of adding impurity to pure semiconductor is called doping.
2. Name an element which can be used as a dopant to obtain p-type semiconductor.
Trivalent elements such as Aluminium, indium, boron, etc.
3. Name an element which can be used as a dopant to obtain n-type semiconductor.
Pentavalent element such as Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony etc.
4. What is depletion region or potential barrier in p-n junction diode?
It is a region in p-n junction diode where no mobile charge carriers are present.
5. What is junction potential in p-n junction?
The potential difference required to overcome the barrier voltage at P-N junction.
49
6. Define breakdown voltage in PN junction diode
At some particular reverse biased voltage, potential barrier breaks and large current flows through
the diode. This voltage is called break-down voltage of the diode.
7. Define cut in voltage of p-n junction.
At some forward biased voltage of PN junction diode, the current increases suddenly. This voltage
is called cut in voltage.
8. What is light emitting diode. (LED)
It is heavily doped PN junction which emits light when working in forward biased condition.
9. What is Solar cell?
It is PN junction diode which generates an e.m.f when solar radiation falls on the junction.
10. What is photo diode?
It is PN junction diode used under reverse biased condition to convert light into electric signal.
11. Draw the circuit symbol of (a) p-n junction diode (b) Zener diode
(a) PN junction diode (b) Zener diode

12. What are logic gates?
Logic gates are the digital circuits that produce a relevant output corresponding to inputs based on
Boolean algebra.
13. What are energy bands?
A group of closed packed energy levels in a solid is called an energy band.
14. What is valence band?
The energy band consisting valence electrons at zero kelvin is called valence band.
15. What is conduction band?
The energy band just above the valence band is called conduction band.
16. What is energy gap?
The difference between energies of conduction band and valance band is called energy gap.
17. Which logic gate is called inverter?

NOT gate.
18. Which logic gate is called universal gate?
NAND gate.
19. Why is NAND gate called universal gate?
Because any other gate can be constructed from NAND gates.
20. What is the use of a Zener diode?

A Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator.
TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. Explain the formation of energy bands in solids.
When a large number of atoms are brought together to form a solid, each energy level of the
atoms split-up into a large number of closely lying energy levels. These closely lying energy
levels are called energy bands. The energy band formed by valance electrons at 0 K is called
valance band. The energy band next to it is called conduction band. The energy difference
between these two bands is called energy gap.
50
1. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
It is the purest form of semiconductor It is doped with suitable impurity
The no. of electrons in conduction and the The no. of electrons in conduction and the
no. of holes in valance band are equal no. of holes in valance band are unequal
Has small conductivity Has large conductivity
Insulator at zero kelvin Conducts at zero kelvin
Limited practical application Widely used in electronic circuits
2. Distinguish between p-type and n-type semiconductor.

P - type semiconductor N - type semiconductor
Prepared by doping a pure semiconductor Prepared by doping a pure semiconductor
with trivalent impurities with pentavalent impurities
Holes are majority carriers Electrons majority carriers
Conductivity is due to electrons Conductivity is due to holes
At 0 K, conductivity is due to holes At 0 K, conductivity is due to electrons
3. Mention any three applications of photodiode.

(i) It is used in switching circuit
(ii) Used as light meters in cameras.
(iii) Used in optical communication devices.
4. Mention three applications of LED
(i) Used in indicator lamps
(ii) Used in T.V. Remote control
(iii) Used in displays TV, mobile-phone, watch etc.
5. Mention three applications of solar cell.
(i) used to supply power for calculator
(ii) used to supply power to homes in remote places
(iii) used in space vehicles as a power source
6. Mention the principle behind working of (a) Photo-diode (b) LED and (c) Solar cell.
(a) Photo-diode – Photovoltaic effect
(b) LED – Emission of spontaneous radiation due to recombination of electron and holes
(c) Solar cell – Photovoltaic effect
7. Explain working of Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
A Zener diode is heavily doped special type of P-N
junction diode that operates in reverse biased condition.
It is used as a voltage regulator.
The unregulated voltage connected to the Zener diode
through resistance 𝑅𝑆 such that Zener diode is reverse
biased. If input voltage changes, the current through 𝑅𝑆
and the current across Zener diode also changes. If the
input voltage is sufficiently high, the voltage across
Zener diode is constant and is independent of the current
through it. Thus Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.
51
FIVE MARK QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between conductor, semi-conductor and insulator on the basis of band theory
of solids.
Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
The energy gap between The energy gap between The energy gap between
conduction band valance is conduction band and valance is
conduction band valance
almost zero (𝐸𝑔 ≈ 0) less than 3 eV (𝐸𝑔 < 3 eV) greater than 3 eV (𝐸𝑔 > 3 eV)
Conduction band is completely Conduction band is partially Conduction band is completely
filled with electrons at above 0 K filled with electrons above 0 K
empty above 0 K
High Conductivity, Low Does not conduct even at high
Conducts at high temperature
resistivity temperature
Conductivity is due to free Conductivity is due to both No electrons or holes for
electrons electrons and holes conductivity.
Ex : All Metals Ex : Germanium, Silicon Ex : Diamond
2. What is rectifier or What is rectification? Explain the construction and working of half wave
rectifier.
Rectifier is a device used to convert A.C into D.C./ Rectification is a process of converting A.C
into D.C.
The figures show the circuit diagram and input/output waveforms of a half wave rectifier.
During positive half cycle of A.C, A becomes positive and B is negative. Then the diode is
forward biased and it conducts. The output is obtained across resistance 𝑅𝐿 .
During negative half cycle of A.C, B becomes positive and A is negative. Then the diode is
reverse biased and it does not conduct and no output is obtained across resistance 𝑅𝐿 .
Hence the circuit acts as half wave rectifier.
3. What is rectifier/What is rectification? With suitable circuit diagram describe the action of a
full wave rectifier by drawing input and output waveforms.
Rectifier is a device used to convert A.C into D.C. Rectification is a process of converting A.C into
D.C.
The figures show the circuit diagram and input/output waveforms for a full wave rectifier.
52
During positive half cycle of A.C, A becomes
positive and B is negative. Then the diode 𝐷1 is
forward biased and 𝐷2 is reverse biased. Hence 𝐷1
conducts and 𝐷2 does not conduct. The output is
obtained across resistance 𝑅𝐿 .
During negative half cycle of A.C, B becomes positive
and A is negative. Then the diode 𝐷2 is forward biased
and 𝐷1 is reverse biased. Hence 𝐷2 conducts and 𝐷1
does not conduct. The output is obtained across resistance 𝑅𝐿 . Hence the circuit acts as full wave
rectifier.
LOGIC GATES
Sl. LOGIC
CIRCUIT SYMBOL TRUTH TABLE DEFINITION
No. GATE
A gate that produces a

AND
1 high output only when
GATE
all the inputs are high

OR
2 low output only when
GATE
all the inputs are low
A gate that produces

NOT
3 an output that is the
GATE
inversion of the input

NAND
4 low output only when
GATE
all the inputs are high

NOR
5 high output only when
GATE
all the inputs are low
53
DESIGN OF QUESTION PAPER
Question No. of questions No. of questions

Part Type of questions Marks
Main to be set to be answered
A I Very short answer (VSA) 1 10 10
B II Short answer (SA1) 2 8 5
C III Short answer (SA2) 3 8 5
IV Long answer (LA) 5 3 2
D V Long answer (LA) 5 3 2
VI Numerical problems (NP) 5 5 3
NOTE:
IV Main Questions must be set from Units I to V
V Main Questions must be set from Units VI to IX
VI Main questions must be set such that one numerical problem is from every 2 successive units
PHYSICS MODEL PAPER

BLUE PRINT
(PLEASE NOTE: This is the blue print for the following model question paper. The blue print is
different for different question papers.)
Unit 5M 5M
No. TOPIC Hours Marks 1 M 2 M 3 M
No. (T) (NP)
I 1 Electric charges and fields 10 9 ✓ ✓ ✓
II 2 Electric potential & capacitance 9 8 ✓ ✓✓
III 3 Current Electricity 15 13 ✓ ✓ ✓
IV 4 Moving charges and magnetism 12 10 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
5 Magnetism and matter 8 7 ✓ ✓
V
6 Electromagnetic induction 7 6 ✓ ✓ ✓
7 Alternating current 8 7 ✓ ✓
VI
8 Electromagnetic waves 3 3 ✓ ✓
VII 9 Ray optics & optical instruments 10 9 ✓ ✓ ✓
VIII 10 Wave optics 10 9 ✓ ✓ ✓
11 Dual nature of radiation & matter 6 5 ✓✓ ✓
IX
12 Atoms 5 5 ✓
13 Nuclei 7 6 ✓ ✓
X
14 Semiconductor electronics 10 9 ✓ ✓ ✓
TOTAL 120 105 10 16 24 30 25
54
PHYSICS (33)
MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Time : 3 hours 15 minutes Max Marks:70

Instructions:
1) All parts are compulsory.
2) Answer without relevant diagram / figure/circuit, where ever necessary will not carry any marks.
3) Direct answers to the numerical problems without the relevant formulae and detailed solutions will
not carry any marks.
PART – A
I. Answer ALL the questions: 10 × 1 = 10
1. What is the net force experienced by a dipole placed in a uniform electric field?
2. Mention any one application of potentiometer.
3. State Lenz law.
4. Give one use of infrared rays.
5. How does power of a lens very with its focal length?
6. To get a cylindrical wave front, what should be the shape of the light source?
7. What is thermionic emission?
8. Write the expression for de Broglie wavelength for a moving particle.
9. In β-decay, which particle is emitted with the emission of a positron?
10. On what principle does a photodiode work?
PART – B
II. Answer ANY FIVE of the following questions: 5 × 2 = 10
11. Write any two properties of electric field line.
12. Distinguish between polar and non-polar molecules.
13. Mention any two limitations of Ohm’s law.
14. What is the nature of force between two straight parallel long conductors carrying currents in
opposite directions? Define ampere.
15. Which are the two properties required for a material to be used for the preparation of permanent
magnets?
16. A coil of inductance 0.5 H carries a steady current of 2 A. What is the energy stored in it?
17. Why transformers are used for transmission of electric power? Explain
18. Derive the expression for displacement current.
PART – C
III. Answer ANY FIVE of the following questions: 5 × 3 = 15
19. What is an equipotential surface? Draw equipotential surfaces for (i) Uniform electric field (ii) A
dipole.
20. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
21. Explain how do you convert a galvanometer into an ammeter of desired range.
22. Derive an expression for motional emf.
23. Mention the conditions for total internal reflection. Write one use of total internal reflection.
55
24. Show that the refractive index of a transparent medium is equal to tangent of the polarising angle.
25. Write experimental observations of photoelectric effect.
26. What are logic gates? Give the logic symbol and truth table for NAND gate.
PART – D
IV. Answer ANY TWO of the following questions: 2 × 5 = 10
27. Derive the expression for the effective emf and the effective internal resistance of two cells
connected in parallel.
28. Arrive at an expression for Bohr magneton.
29. Differentiate between diamagnetic materials and ferromagnetic materials.
V. Answer ANY TWO of the following questions: 2 × 5 = 10
𝐴+𝐷𝑚
sin( )
2
30. Derive for formula 𝑛 = 𝐴 prism here the symbols have their usual meaning.
sin( )
2
31. State the postulates of Bohr’s hydrogen atom model. Mention any two limitations of the model.
32. What is rectification? With a circuit diagram, explain the working of a full wave rectifier. Draw
input and output waveforms.
VI. Answer ANY THREE of the following questions: 3 × 5 = 15
33. Two pith balls of mass 10 mg each are suspended by two threads from the same support are
charged identically. They move apart by 0.08 m and threads make an angle 60° with each other.
Find the charge on each pith ball
34. In the given circuit, determine the current through the cell.
35. A resistor and a capacitor are connected in series to a 50 Hz ac source. The rms voltage across the
resistor and capacitor are 151 V and 160.3 V respectively. Calculate the rms voltage of the source.
Also find the capacitive reactance and impedance of the circuit, if the current in the circuit is
0.755 A.
36. In a Young’s double-slit experiment, the slits are separated by 2.8 mm and the screen is placed 1.4
m away. The distance between the central bright fringe and the fourth dark fringe is measured to
be 1.2 mm. Determine the wavelength of light used in the experiment. Also find the distance of
fifth dark fringe from the second bright fringe.
37. Calculate the energy released in the following fusion reaction of 1 kg of 21𝐻.
2
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 → 32𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛 + 𝑄
Given: Mass of 21𝐻 is 2.0141 u, mass of 32𝐻𝑒 is 3.0161 u and mass of 10𝑛 is 1.0087 u.
****************
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CONTENTS

1. ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS ································ 1

Unit Chapter No. of teaching

1. Write the S.I. unit of charge

3. What is an electric dipole?

4. What is an electric field line?

1. State and explain Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.

Explanation: Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r.

According to Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force between them is:

2. Write Coulomb’s law in vector form and explain the terms.

The electrostatic force acting on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 is:

3. State and explain Gauss’s law in electrostatics.

The S.I. unit of electric dipole moment is C m (coulomb metre)

(i) An electric dipole (ii) Two equal positive point charges

7. Define linear charge density at a point. Write its S.I. unit.

8. Define surface charge density at a point. Mention its S.I. unit.

9. Define volume charge density at a point. Mention its S.I. unit.

11. What is an electric flux? Give its S.I. unit.

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS

1. Mention any three basic three properties of electric charges.

From Gauss’s law,

Total electric flux through the cylinder is:

But 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 𝐸𝐴 and 𝜙3 = 0. Therefore,

But force = 𝑞𝐸 and moment arm = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 = 2𝑎 sin 𝜃.

∴ 𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 × 2𝑎 sin 𝜃 = (2𝑎𝑞)𝐸 sin 𝜃

But (2𝑎𝑞) = 𝑝 = dipole moment. Therefore:

FIVE MARKS QUESTONS

Substituting (1) and (2) into (3), we have:

𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 1 4𝑟𝑎𝑞

Here: 4𝑟𝑎𝑞 = 2𝑎𝑞 × 2𝑟 = 2𝑝𝑟 where 𝑝 = 2𝑎𝑞 is the dipole moment.

For large distances, r ≫ a. Then:

Electric field at C due to –q is:

We see that 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 . When 𝐸⃗1 and 𝐸⃗2 are added

We know that: 2𝑎𝑞 = 𝑝 = dipole moment.

𝜙𝐸 = ∑ 𝐸 Δ𝑠 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 (1)

2. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

2. Write the S.I. unit of electrostatic potential.

3. What is an equipotential surface?

4. Give one example for an equipotential surface.

6. What are dielectrics?

7. What is electric polarisation?

TWO MARK QUESTIONS

3. What is electrostatic shielding? Mention one use of it.

4. Define capacitance of capacitor. Write its SI unit.

5. Give examples for polar and non-polar molecules.

But 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑙. Therefore:

(a) (b) (c)

The work done to bring 𝑞1 from infinity to A = 𝑊1 = 0

5. Derive the expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

If 𝐶𝑃 is the effective capacitance, 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑉

Substituting these into (1) we get: 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉

FIVE MARK QUESTIONS

Consider a point charge q at O. P be a point at a distance r from it.

The work-done to move +1 C charge from B to A is:

1. Define mobility of free electrons.

2. Define drift velocity of electrons.

3. Define relaxation time.

5. Write the SI unit of mobility of charges.

7. How does the resistivity of a conductor vary with temperature?