Objective

Statistics: What it is?

Types of Statistics

Terminologies

Data

Introduction
Variables

Level of Measurement

Some hint to design

Questionnaire

Method of Collecting data

Sampling
to Statistics
Types of Sampling
Techniques

Exercise1

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

Reference
Objective
Previous

 To define the types of statistics Next

 To define the terms in statistics Home

 To identify method of collecting data

 To identify types of various sampling techniques
Statistics : what it is?
Previous

Statistics is a branch of
mathematics dealing
Next

with gathering, Home

analyzing, and making

inferences from data.

Example:
• 1. The number of cars accident in Johor.
• 2. Trend of student’s enrollment at UiTM Pahang.
• 3. Manufacturing production control.
Application Areas of
Statistics Previous

Accounting Management
Next
 Auditing  Describe employees
Home
 Costing  Quality
improvement

Marketing
Finance  Consumer

 Financial trends
preferences
 Marketing mix
 Forecasting
effects
Types of statistics
Previous

Next

DESCRIPTIVE Home

STATISTICS
•Data are collected,
organized, summarized INFERENTIAL
and presented in suitable STATISTICS
visual forms which are
easy to understand and •Used to draw conclusion
suitable for use. or decision about a
population by analyzing
•(use graphical/numerical the sample.
techniques such as
tables, charts, graphs,
percentage and
average)
Basic terms in statistics
Previous

• Measure on a variables of
interest obtained from a sample
Next

DATA
Home

• Complete set of all items

POPULATION

• A subset of items that are

SAMPLE chosen from the population
Basic terms in statistics
(cont…)
• A study conducted
• A study involves a to measure a • A small exploratory
subgroup or sample variable for every study on small
of a population item in the number of
population of respondents before
interest. (Sample is the actual survey is
the whole conducted
population)
SAMPLE PILOT STUDY
SURVEY
CENSUS
Previous

Next

Home
Basic terms in statistics
(cont…)
•Measures the
characteristics of the
VARIABLE population that the
researcher wants to
study

STATISTIC •A summary measures

for a sample

•A summary measures
PARAMETER for the entire
population Previous

Next

Home
Types of data
Previous

Next

SECONDARY
PRIMARY DATA Home

DATA
• Raw data or
firsthand data (Data • Published data
are collected or collected by other
obtained by the researcher. (Can be
researcher obtained from
himself/herself) newspaper, internet,
economic report)
• ***Discuss
advantages and • ***Discuss
disadvantages advantages and
disadvantages
Variables
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE Data in numerical form
VARIABLE VARIABLE for example: age,
weight and height.

DISCRETE
Data in non-
numerical Can be measured precisely by
form for counting such as number of flower,
example: number of pen and number of students
gender,
religion and
race CONTINUOUS
Data that can only be approximated to
some accuracy using measuring devices
such as height, temperature and time

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Home
Level of measurement
Previous

Next

(variables scale)
If the different
Home

between data
values are A scale in which
meaningful but the numbers or
cannot be letters are
manipulated assigned to
with
INTERVAL NOMINAL objects serve as
multiplication labels for
and division identification or
such as classification for
temperature example
gender
A scale that is
Starting point RATIO ORDINAL can be arranged
cannot be in ranking, orders
negative value or rating. For
(absolute/true example,
zero point) such education level,
as body weight rate of services
and income and perception
level
Some hint Designing Previous

questionnaire Next

Home

 What is questionnaire?
 Written instrument that contain a series of
questions of interest
 Some steps when designing a questionnaire
SOME STEPS DESIGN A
QUESTIONNAIRE
Questions must be
Specify the Questionnaire should kept simple and
information to be be as short as phrased to imply the
collected. possible. same meaning to all
respondents.

Avoid leading
questions such as Questions should be
Avoid questions that
“Don’t you think the organized
need calculation.
courts are too harsh systematically.
with drug trafficker?”

Avoid questions on
sensitive issue or may
be confidential to the
respondents.
EXAMPLES OF
QUESTIONNAIRE
Method of collecting data
Previous

Methods of
Next

Collecting Data Home

Direct Others
Intervie Telephone
Direct
w Interview Mailed Observation
Questionnair
e
 A trained interviewer gets the information from
Direct Interview /
respondents depending on the objective of the
Personal Interview
survey and based on the questionnaire.

Conducted using telephone service lines and

Telephone Interview respondents are asked to respond to the questions
asked.

Questionnaires are mailed to the respondent. A

Mailed
carefully constructed questionnaire will encourage
Questionnaire
participation by the respondents.

Observation is used in work-study and in

Direct Observation organization. Also used by social scientists in
learning the habits and customs of communities.

A cheap way to reach respondents globally.

Response rates are higher than mailed
Online Surveys
questionnaire method. Nevertheless, respondents
have to be reminded through emails.
DATA COLLECTION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
METHOD

• Obtained higher percentage

• The cost is high.
of response than other
Direct Interview / • Error may occur in recording
methods.
Personal Interview statements / response.
• The interviewer can ask a lot of
• Time consuming.
questions.

• Only short questions can be

• Lesser time is needed to obtain
asked.
Telephone Interview the information.
• Limitation to only among the
• Less expensive.
telephone users.

• Enough times is provided to the • Respondents might not

Mailed Questionnaire respondents to complete the understand the question
questionnaires. asked.

• The observer will not get an

• It records what actually
accurate data if the
Direct Observation happened rather than what
respondents know that they
people say would happen.
are being observed.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES FOR

EACH METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
SAMPLING

SAMPLING SAMPLING FRAME ADVANTAGES

Process of selecting a List of individuals or Cost and time
sample from a items from which the Less work
population sample can be obtained
 Sampling will
reduce the costs

An interviewer can
give better
Produce adequate
attention due to the
information in a
small number of
shorter period
respondents in the
survey

ADVANTAGES
OF
SAMPLING

Provide information
Reduce non-
that is almost as
sampling errors due
accurate as that
to a small number
resulting from a
of respondents.
complete census

Use for destructive

test in which
samples may be
damage usually in
testing quality of
products in a
production run.
Sampling (cont…)
Previous

PROBABILITY SAMPLING Next

Any method of
sampling that utilizes NON-PROBABILITY Home

some form of random SAMPLING

selection. Does not involve
In order to have a random selection.
random selection Used when sampling
method, you must set frames are difficult to
up some process or obtain.
procedure that Is considerably less
assures that the expensive than doing
different units in your probability sampling,
population have but the results are of
equal probabilities of limited value.
being chosen.
Sampling Techniques
QUOTA
SAMPLING

JUDGEMENTAL
SAMPLING

SIMPLE CONVENIENT
RANDOM SAMPLING
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
SAMPLING SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING

STRATIFIED
SAMPLING
CLUSTER NON-PROBABILITY
Previous
SAMPLING SAMPLING
MULTISTAGE
SAMPLING Next

Home
 Used when the items are from a group of the same
characteristics, but this technique is not suitable if
the population is divided into several
heterogeneous.

SIMPLE
RANDO
M Group because biasness may occur.

SAMPLIN
G (SRS)
Consists of two techiques;

Small population (N<300). Using ‘lottery

method’ where each item will be given a Large population (N>300). Using random
number on a piece of paper and place in a number table. Numbers will be selected one
box. Numbers will be selected at random one at a time.
at a time.
 Example
 Kembara society consisting of 600 members plans to have
some activities for its members. Its committee members would
like to hear opinions from its members on the activities they like
most. Due to budget and time constraints, the committee
intends to collect information from only 10% of its members.

 1) If the sample of students was drawn using simple random

sampling, explain how the sample was selected.
Step 1: Prepare list name of 600 members of kembara society.

Step 2: Give number to each name in the sampling frame.

Step 3: Using random number table, select 60 numbers and

match with the list.
 Portion of a Table of Random Digits:

ROW
0 00157 37071 79553 31062 42411 79371 25506 69135
1 38354 03533 95514 03091 75324 40182 17302 64224
2 59785 46030 63753 53067 79710 52555 72307 10223
3 27475 10484 24616 13466 41618 08551 18314 57700
4 28966 35427 09495 11567 56534 60365 02736 32700
5 98879 34072 04189 31672 33357 53191 09807 85796
6 50735 87442 16057 02883 22656 44133 90599 91793
7 16332 40139 64701 46355 62340 22011 47257 74877
8 83845 41159 67120 56273 67519 93389 83590 12944
9 12522 20743 28607 63013 60346 71005 90348 86615

25
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE
A random sample in which the items are selected from
the population at a ‘uniform interval’ of a listed order
providing that there no regularity within the list

This technique should have a complete sampling frame

Method used either using equal interval method or

constant skip method [I = N/n ]

where I = Interval, N = Population size, n = Sample size

 Example
 Kembara society consisting of 600 members plans to have
some activities for its members. Its committee members
would like to hear opinions from its members on the
activities they like most. Due to budget and time
constraints, the committee intends to collect information
from only 10% of its members
 2) If the sample of students was drawn using systematic
sampling, explain how the sample was selected.
  solution

Prepare Sampling For every 10 number

frame: List name of Calculate Uniform only one
600 members of interval=I=600/60=10
kembara society. numbers is selected.

The next number will

be 5+10,15+10,… 1st number will be
The selected 60
selected at random
numbers match with The no. selected will between 1-10. eg
the list. be 5,15,25,35,…until no.5
60 number selected.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING

This method is used if There are two methods The same proportion of
the population is divided to calculate the each group will be
into suitable sub- population which is represented in correct
populations where simple random sampling proportion using
between groups : or systematic sampling. Proportional Stratified
Sampling.
a) Homogenous = Similar
characteristic in a group
b) Heterogeneous = Different
characteristic between all the group
Stratified samping

 if the population is divided into suitable sub-

populations where between groups are
heterogeneous and within groups are
homogenous.
 item from each group will be selected
proportionately

Ni
ni = x n
N
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
(cont..)

 Kembara society consisting of 600 members
plans to have some activities for its members. Its
committee members would like to hear opinions
from its members on the activities they like most.
Due to budget and time constraints, the
committee intends to collect information from
only 10% of its members. The members in the
society consist of
Year Number of members
1 190
2 170
3 180
4 60

If the sample of students was drawn using stratified

sampling, explain how the sample was selected.
 solution

Year Number of n=sample of

members members
1 190 190/600*60=19
2 170 170/600*60=17
3 180 180/600*60=18
4 60 60/600*60=6
Total 600 60

Members from each group will be selected using

Simple Random Sampling or Systematic
Sampling.
Cluster sampling
❖ if the population is divided into sub
population where between groups are
homogenous and within groups are
heterogeneous
❖ The groups will be selected at random
❖ All the items in each group will be chosen
example
 A manager of an accounting firm wishes to
estimate the average number of days of
medical leave taken by the employees in his
company throughout malaysia. The company
has 6 branches. The following table shows the
number of employees in each branch.
company Number of employee
A 170
B 220
C 160
D 180
E 140
F 130
 If the sample of 2 company was drawn using
cluster sampling, explain how the sample was
selected.
solution

➢ List all the 6 company.

➢ Give number to each company.
➢ Select 2 number randomly and match with the
list.
➢ All the employee in the selected company will
be selected as sample
In the automobile industry, customer service is a crucial
factor affecting car sales. The management of a reputed
automobile company is interested in determining the level
of customer satisfaction with the service centers. The
company has altogether 60 service centers in the Klang
Valley. A sample of 6 service centers was selected at
random. Then all customer, who service their cars at these 6
service centers were selected for the study. A questionnaire
was posted to these customer.

i) Objective
ii) Population
iii) What is the suitable sampling technique for this study
and give reason.
iv) Suggest 2 technique can be used to select 6 out of 60
centers and explain one of the techniques.
v) Suggest 2 ways that the company could use to increase
the response rate.
Multistage sampling

 Suitable for very large population.

 Eg. Immunization survey of schoolchildren in a
particular state.
 Eg. Family expenses among household in Pahang.
 END OF
CHAPTER 1

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Exercise 1
Previous

1. Define each of the following terms: Next

i. Census
Home

ii. Nominal scale

iii. Pilot study

2. Discuss the difference between:

i. Statistic and parameter
ii. Qualitative and quantitative data
iii. Sampling error and non-sampling error
Exercise 2
Previous

Next

Home

▪ The market researcher was interested in studying the

effect of television advertisement in Malaysia. To obtain
the data, questionnaires were mailed out to selected
respondents. The researcher uses a type of sampling to
save time and money. First, he randomly selected 5 out of
13 state and from each selected state he obtain a list of
districts. Finally, a sample of respondents from each
selected districts was chosen for the final sample. At the
end of the survey, he realized that the response rate was
very low.

a. Name the type of sampling used.

b. What was the method used in collecting data.
c. In your opinion, why was the response rate very poor?
Give some suggestion to improve the rate of
response.
Exercise 3
Previous

A sampling frame consists of 3000 names of Next

telephone subscribers in Kuantan area. The Home

names are arranged alphabetically. A sample
size of 150 subscribers was chosen from the
sampling frame to estimate the average
monthly payments per subscriber.

a. Briefly explain how to obtain a random

sample of 150 using systematic
sampling.
b. Why is systematic sampling is the most
appropriate sampling method here.
c. State the most appropriate method of
data collection for the above study.
d. Give two reasons why you choose your
method of data collection.
Exercise 4
 A group of student is doing short survey for their statistics
project. The survey is to study the demographic
characteristics of drug users at rehabilitation center in town X.
There are 1000 trainees and a sample of 200 will be chosen as
respondents.
 i) what is the sampling frame for the survey?
 Ii) state the types of variable (qualitative or quantitative) for
the following demographic characteristics:
 ---race
 ---education level
 ---number of siblings
 ---age

 iii) identify one possible probability sampling technique to choose 200

trainees as sample. State one advantage of the technique used.
 iv) Explain how to select the sample using the sampling technique
chosen in iii).
Exercise 5

 A manufacturing industry is considering implementing a new

retirement policy and want to estimates the proportion of
employees that in favour with the new policy. The industry has
12 separate factories located throughout Malaysia. A sample
of 4 factories is selected and the opinions of all employees
from the factories are chosen.

a) State the population for the above study.

b) State the sample for the above study.
c) What is the sampling frame for the survey?
d) State the type of variable and the variable scale of
measurement.
e) What is the sampling technique used in this survey?
f) If systematic sampling used to select four factories from the
twelve factories, explain how this will be done.
Reference Previous

Home

 Sa’diah Sahat, Azizah Aris, Zulkifli Ab-Ghani, Hajar

Mohamed, & Jamaludin Ahmad. (2002). Statistics for
Business and Accounting. Mardani: Pahang.
 Salkind, N.J. (2004). Statistics for people who (think they)
hate Statistics. Sage: London.
 Triola, M.F (2008). Elementary Statistics with multimedia
study guide. 10th ed. Pearson: Boston.
 Upton, G. & Cook, I. (2006). Dictionary of Statistics. 2nd ed.
Oxford University Press: New York.
 Lau, T. K., Phang, Y. N. & Zainudin, A. (2009). Statistics for
UiTM. 2nd ed. Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd.