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Mohamed Elzagheid
Water Chemistry, Analysis and Treatment
Also of Interest
Chemical Technicians.
Good Laboratory Practice and Laboratory Information Management Systems
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Chemical Laboratory.
Safety and Techniques
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Macromolecular Chemistry.
Natural & Synthetic Polymers
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Bioremediation Technologies.
For Wastewater and Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy
Edited by Riti Thapar Kapoor, Mohd Rafatullah, 
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BioChar.
Applications for Bioremediation of Contaminated Systems
Edited by Riti Thapar Kapoor, Maulin P. Shah, 
ISBN ----, e-ISBN ----
Mohamed Elzagheid

Water Chemistry,
Analysis and
Treatment
Pollutants, Microbial Contaminants, Water and
Wastewater Treatment
Author
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim Elzagheid
Chemical Engineering Department
Jubail Industrial College
Jubail Industrial City
Jubail 31961
Saudi Arabia
[email protected];
[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-133242-0
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-133246-8
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-133261-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2023945078

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: Irina Vodneva/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
This book is dedicated to everyone who has worked day and night
to offer clean and safe water to people all across the world.
Preface
The book covers water chemistry, water sources, water pollutants, and microbiolog-
ical contaminants. Water chemistry principles are explained in a straightforward
manner. The book also looks at the theoretical foundations of several water treatment
and analysis processes, as well as stormwater management and green infrastructure.
This book would be useful for graduate and advanced undergraduate students, as
well as environmental researchers, chemists, and lab technicians working in water
and environmental laboratories. Because the bulk of books on the market are aimed
toward chemical engineers and operators, chemists and technicians alike can benefit
greatly from this book. The book's language is clear, short, and easy to understand for
all readers, including those with only a basic understanding of water chemistry.
I hope students, technicians, researchers, chemists, and scientists enjoy reading
this book and find what they need to further their education.

Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim Elzagheid, Chemistry Professor

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
2023

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111332468-202
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I want to express my gratitude to my entire family for always as-
sisting and supporting me during my academic career.
I would also like to thank everyone in the Chemical Engineering Department at
Jubail Industrial College, and special thanks to those who joined me in teaching the
water and wastewater treatment course for regular students and Aramco company
trainees in Saudi Arabia, as well as my former colleagues at the water desalination
plant in north Benghazi, Libya.
Last but not least, a heartfelt thanks to the entire publishing team, particularly
Ute Skambraks, Helene Chavaroche, and Suruthi Manogarane whose assistance and
hard work cannot be overstated.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111332468-203
The Author
Mohamed Elzagheid is an Associate Professor of Chemistry at Jubail Industrial College (JIC), which is
affiliated with the Saudi Royal Commission for Jubail and Yanbu. He also serves as a professor and
consultant for the Libyan Authority for Scientific Research, which is associated with the Libyan Ministry of
Education.
During his 23-year career at McGill University, SynPrep Inc. in Montreal (Canada), and JIC in Saudi
Arabia, he was directly involved in the education of laboratory technicians and chemists, as well as
supervised many undergraduate and graduate chemistry students, and has significantly contributed to
numerous short-term and long-term training programs for chemistry-based laboratory technicians for
local companies in Saudi Arabia.
He also served on JIC's Research, Publications, Projects, and Academic Promotion Team; Academic
Promotion Committee; Curriculum Development Committee; Industrial Chemistry Technology Program
Advisory and Evaluation Committee; CTAB Steering Accreditation Committee; Industrial Outreach
Committee; and Chemical Engineering Department Safety Committee.
Dr. Elzagheid is the author of five textbooks that are now used to train chemistry-based technicians:
Introductory Organic Chemistry, Thoughts on Organic Chemistry, Macromolecular Chemistry: Natural and
Synthetic Polymers, Chemical Laboratory Safety and Techniques, and Chemical Technicians: Good Laboratory
Practice and Laboratory Information Management Systems.
His work at Turku University in Finland, McGill University in Canada, and JIC in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia has helped him establish a solid name in chemistry and chemical education in general, as
evidenced by his research papers and publications.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111332468-204
Contents
Preface VII

Acknowledgments IX

The Author XI

Chapter 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Water Importance 2
1.3 Safe Drinking Water Act 3
1.4 Water Contaminants or Pollutants 3
1.4.1 Contaminant Candidate List 4
1.5 Questions 7

Chapter 2
Water Chemistry 8
2.1 Properties of Water (Physical and Chemical Properties) 8
2.1.1 Density 8
2.1.2 Solubility 9
2.1.3 Polarity 10
2.1.4 Acid–Base Behavior 11
2.1.5 Water States 12
2.1.6 Water Redox Reaction (Water Redox Process) 13
2.1.7 Water’s Cohesive and Adhesive Properties 13
2.2 Hard Water 14
2.3 Soft Water 16
2.4 Heavy Water 16
2.5 Water Hydrates 17
2.6 Questions 18

Chapter 3
Water Sources 19
3.1 Natural Resources 19
3.2 Water Cycle 21
3.3 Water Supply 22
3.3.1 Surface Water 23
3.3.2 Groundwater 29
XIV Contents

3.3.3 Rainwater 34
3.4 Questions 35

Chapter 4
Water Pollution and Pollutants 36
4.1 Water Pollution 36
4.2 Water Pollution Causes 36
4.2.1 Agricultural Sector 36
4.2.2 Sewage and Wastewater 37
4.2.3 Oil Spills 38
4.2.4 Radioactive Waste 38
4.3 Pollution Impacted Water Type 40
4.3.1 Groundwater Pollution 40
4.3.2 Surface Water Pollution 41
4.4 Effects of Water Pollution 42
4.4.1 On Human Health 42
4.4.2 On the Environment 42
4.5 Water Pollutants 43
4.6 Questions 43

Chapter 5
Microbial Contaminants in Water 44
5.1 Water Consumption as a Source of Disease 44
5.1.1 Cholera 45
5.1.2 Salmonellosis 46
5.1.3 Shigellosis or Bacillary Dysentery 46
5.1.4 Pathogenic Escherichia coli Strains 48
5.2 Microbial Contaminants in Potable Drinking Water 48
5.3 Bottled Water Microbiology 49
5.3.1 Source Water 49
5.3.2 Water Treatment Before Bottling 49
5.4 Questions 50

Chapter 6
Water Analysis 51
6.1 Common Water Tests 51
6.1.1 Color, Odor, and Taste 51
6.1.2 Turbidity 53
6.1.3 Jar Test 55
6.1.4 pH Measurements 55
 Contents XV

6.1.5 Alkalinity 56
6.1.6 Hardness 58
6.1.7 Residual Chlorine 60
6.1.8 Chlorides 63
6.1.9 Sulfates 63
6.1.10 Dissolved Oxygen 65
6.1.11 Total Dissolved Solids 66
6.1.12 Total Suspended Solids 67
6.1.13 Coliform Bacteria Test 67
6.2 Questions 71

Chapter 7
Water Quality 72
7.1 Parameters of Water Quality 73
7.1.1 Physical Parameters of Water Quality 73
7.1.2 Chemical Parameters of Water Quality 76
7.1.3 Biological Parameters of Water 77
7.2 Question 78

Chapter 8
Water Treatment 79
8.1 Drinking Water 79
8.2 Seawater 80
8.2.1 Distillation (Desalination) 80
8.2.2 Reverse Osmosis 80
8.2.3 Electrodialysis 81
8.2.4 Advantages of Seawater Desalination 82
8.2.5 Disadvantages of Seawater Desalination 82
8.3 Municipality and Industrial Water Waste 82
8.3.1 Sources 82
8.3.2 Methods of Treatment 83
8.3.3 Treatment Processes 83
8.4 Questions 84

Chapter 9
Water and Wastewater Treatment Techniques 85
9.1 Coagulation 85
9.1.1 Coagulants in Water Treatment 85
9.1.2 Coagulant Aids 86
9.2 Flocculation 86
XVI Contents

9.2.1 Flocculants 87
9.3 Sedimentation 88
9.3.1 Conventional Basins 89
9.3.2 High-Rate Basins 89
9.3.3 Sedimentation Influencing Factors 91
9.4 Softening 92
9.4.1 Softening Methods 93
9.5 Stabilization 97
9.5.1 Scale Formation or Deposition 99
9.5.2 Corrosion 99
9.5.3 Sequestration or Sequestering 101
9.5.4 CaCO3 Deposition Determination 101
9.6 Filtration 104
9.6.1 Granular Media (Bed) Filtration 104
9.6.2 Membrane Filtration 105
9.7 Disinfection 106
9.7.1 Chlorination 106
9.7.2 Chloramination 106
9.7.3 Chlorine Dioxide 108
9.7.4 Ultraviolet Light Water Treatment 108
9.7.5 Ozonation 108
9.7.6 Photocatalytic Disinfection 109
9.8 Fluoridation 110
9.9 Questions 110

Chapter 10
Stormwater Management and Green Infrastructure 111
10.1 Introduction 111
10.2 Types of Green Infrastructure 112
10.2.1 Green Roofs 112
10.2.2 Rain Gardens 113
10.2.3 Permeable Pavement 113
10.3 Questions 114

Chapter 11
Water as a Renewable Energy Source 116
11.1 Introduction 116
11.2 Endless Energy Sources 116
11.3 Natural Resources 116
11.4 Renewable Energy Resources 117
 Contents XVII

11.5 Hydroelectric or Hydropower Stations 117

11.6 Types of Hydropower Energy Plants 118
11.7 Questions 118

Essential Terms 119

Abbreviations 123

Resources and Further Readings 125

Index 129
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Background

Water is a clear fluid that composes the world’s streams, lakes, oceans, and rain as
well as the primary component of organism fluids. A water molecule is a chemical
substance composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms linked by covalent
bonds. At typical ambient temperature and pressure, water is a liquid, yet it coexists
on Earth alongside its solid state, ice, and its gaseous state, steam.
Liquid water is essential for life on Earth because it acts as a solvent. It can dis-
solve molecules and enable important chemical reactions in animals, plants, and mi-
crobial cells. Because of its chemical and physical properties, it can dissolve more
compounds than most other liquids. Every day, water is needed for a variety of pur-
poses. We need water for a variety of reasons, including drinking, washing, cleaning,
and cooking. There is no existence without water, and no life without air.
Water is locked up in the crystal lattices of minerals that make up rocks; it occurs
in the innumerable microscopic pore spaces of rocks, from the surface to depths of
over 5 km. Water is a simple enough substance, consisting of two hydrogens and one
oxygen, yet it has some fascinating and essential features. Water’s boiling and freez-
ing temperatures are particularly high in comparison to other compounds of equal
molecular weight, allowing it to exist at the Earth’s surface in all three phases: solid,
liquid, and vapor.
Although water is in a continuous cycle on Earth, it is consumed before it com-
pletes its cycle due to population expansion, environmental pollution, cost, mindless
water usage, and climatic variations. It becomes increasingly challenging to obtain ag-
ricultural, industrial, drinking, and utility water.
Water, as a natural resource, is required for all living species to survive. The
amount of water on the Earth’s surface, however, is limited. The world’s 1.4 billion km3
of water is made up of 97.5% saline water and 2.5% fresh water. The percentage of
freshwater distribution is 69.5% for polar glaciers, 30.1% for groundwater, and 0.4%
for surface water resources.
In addition to issues with the number of freshwater supplies, there have also
been issues concerning water quality on a worldwide scale. Rapid population expan-
sion, technological advancements, urbanization, and global climate change are the
primary causes of the deterioration of natural resources in terms of quantity and
quality.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111332468-001
2 Chapter 1 Introduction

1.2 Water Importance

Water is essential for people and our prosperity. Because of its high dielectric con-
stant, it is regarded as a universal solvent. Water accounts for about 60% of an adult’s
body weight on average ranging from 31% in bones to 83% in the lungs. Water per-
forms numerous critical functions in the body, including waste removal, temperature
regulation, nutrition transfer, and digestion. Water is the best hydrator for the body.
It also moisturizes the tissues around the eyes, nose, and mouth. It safeguards the
body’s organs and tissues. It transports nutrients and oxygen to cells. Joint lubricant.
Draining away waste materials reduces the stress on the kidneys and liver. Drinking
water has many health benefits, some are illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Improves skin health

Keeps you energized

Improves your workout

Elevates one's mood

Promotes kidney health

Aids in weight loss

Prevents dehydration

Figure 1.1: Drinking water health benefits.

Water is required by all living organisms including humans, plants, and animals to
survive. It is actually necessary for life on the Earth to continue. Human bodies re-
quire water to help regulate body temperature and sustain all critical processes. Due
to the body’s loss of water through breathing, sweating, and digesting, it is vital to
rehydrate and replenish water through beverages and foods containing water. Water
is the most abundant component of saliva. It is required for the digestion of solid
foods and the maintenance of oral health.
Maintaining a normal body temperature requires staying hydrated. When we
sweat or are in a hot environment, our bodies lose water. Sweating keeps our bodies
cool, but if we don’t replenish the water we lose, our body temperatures rise. Dehy-
dration results from a lack of water, which causes electrolyte and plasma levels to
decline. Proper hydration is essential for maintaining optimal brain health. Inade-
quate water consumption has a negative impact on our focus, alertness, and short-
term memory. Water helps to lubricate and cushion our joints, spinal cord, and tis-
sues. This pushes us to be more physically active and relieves the pain produced by
 1.4 Water Contaminants or Pollutants 3

disorders such as arthritis. We all need water to restore fluids lost via sweating.
Drinking enough water assists our kidneys to function more efficiently, lowering the
risk of kidney stones.
It is critical to drink plenty of water while working out, participating in sports, or
simply being active. Keeping hydrated has an impact on our strength, power, and en-
durance. Water assists to increase our metabolic rate. Exercising in the heat without
staying hydrated can lead to major medical complications. In fact, severe dehydration
can result in convulsions and, in some cases, death. Dehydration occurs when the
body does not receive enough water. And, because water is essential for the proper
functioning of many biological functions, dehydration can be quite harmful. It can
even have fatal implications. Severe dehydration can have significant consequences.
Drink plenty of water to avoid dehydration.

1.3 Safe Drinking Water Act

The WHO standards for safe drinking water employ a daily per capita consumption
value of 2 L of drinking water for adults weighing 60 kg in the computation. A 10-kg child
is considered to drink 1 L of water per day, while a 5 kg infant consumes 0.75 L/ day. The
potable water that can be given to the user is suitable for drinking, food preparation,
personal hygiene, and washing. At the point of supply to the consumers, this water must
meet the requisite chemical, biological, and physical quality criteria. Any country’s Safe
Drinking Water Act is intended to ensure reliable and safe drinking water supplies while
also protecting public health by regulating public water systems. This necessitates the for-
mulation and enforcement of standards for public drinking water systems. To control
water quality, we should consider controlling:
– microbiological caliber,
– chemical efficiency,
– by-products of disinfection and disinfectants,
– by-products of corrosion,
– chemicals used in agriculture,
– organic substances that are volatile, and
– radionuclides are radioactive unstable chemical elements that emit radiation as
they degrade and become more stable. Radionuclides include radium-226, cesium-
137, and strontium-90.

1.4 Water Contaminants or Pollutants

The term “contaminant” in the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is defined as any
physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter in water. As a re-
sult, the legislation defines “contaminant” broadly as anything other than water mole-
4 Chapter 1 Introduction

cules. Some pollutants could be reasonably expected to be present in drinking water.

Some contaminants in drinking water may be dangerous if taken in specific quanti-
ties, while others may be innocuous. The presence of pollutants does not always
imply that the water is unsafe to drink.
The Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) contains just a subset of the universe of
pollutants defined above. The CCL is the first stage of examination for unregulated
drinking water contaminants that may require additional investigation of potential
health impacts and levels observed in drinking water. The broad types of drinking
water pollutants and examples of each are as follows:
– Physical contaminants have a great impact on the physical appearance and prop-
erties of water. Physical contaminants include sediment and organic detritus sus-
pended in lakes, rivers, and streams.
– Substances or elements form chemical contaminants. These can be natural or
man-made. Chemical contaminants include nitrogen, bleach, salts, pesticides, met-
als, bacterial toxins, and human or animal pharmaceuticals.
– Biological contaminants are organisms that live in water. Microbes and microbio-
logical contaminants are other terms for them. Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and
parasites are examples of biological or microbiological contaminants.
– Radiological contaminants are chemical elements having an uneven number of pro-
tons and neutrons that produce unstable atoms capable of emitting ionizing radia-
tion. Cesium, plutonium, and uranium are examples of radioactive contaminants.

1.4.1 Contaminant Candidate List

1.4.1.1 Microbial Contaminant Candidates

Bacteria, viruses, and fungi are examples of microbial contaminants. Some of the po-
tential consequences of microbial contamination may include health consequences
such as sickness, agony and suffering, starvation, and, in the worst-case scenario,
death. Economic consequences for the affected person include pay loss, time away
from work owing to illness, and healthcare-related costs. Time and money spent on
consultations, treatment, investigations, and hospital stays, giving drugs and care
have an impact on healthcare services. Figure 1.2 depicts a few instances of these
contaminants.

1.4.1.2 Chemical Contaminant Candidates

Chemical contaminants are substances that are toxic to aquatic plants and animals.
Chemicals are considered contaminants when they are present in places they should
not be or in greater quantities than would naturally exist. Drinking water is also af-
fected, which has serious health implications not just for humans but also for marine
life and other organisms that consume contaminated water. These contaminants orig-
 1.4 Water Contaminants or Pollutants 5

Acanthamoeba

Coxsackieviruses Adenoviruses

Microbial Contaminant Candidates

Cyanobacteria Aeromonas Hydrophila

Echoviruses Helicobacter Pylori

Microsporidia

Figure 1.2: Selected examples of microbial contaminants.

inate in a variety of places, including industrial and municipal discharges, natural

geological formations, urban and rural run-off, drinking water treatment processes,
and water delivery materials.
Human activities such as hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling have also
contaminated drinking water. Drinking water supplied from groundwater may also
be contaminated with heavy metals such as nickel, mercury, copper, and chromium,
potentially leading to an increase in cases of carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic health
abnormalities. This type of source of drinking water contamination is very common
in poor nations.
Chemical contaminants in drinking water include disinfection by-products, phar-
maceutical by-products, pesticides, and other chemicals too. They have a wide range
of health impacts, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, poor reproductive results,
and neurological illnesses. Selected chemical contaminants are listed in Table 1.1, and
selected chemical structures are shown in Figure 1.3.

1.4.1.3 Contaminants Levels

Long-term exposure to concentrations over the maximum contaminant level goal
(MCLG, the highest contamination level in drinking water at which no known or pre-
dicted harmful effect on human health will occur, allowing for an adequate margin of
safety) can result in liver damage, skin sores, appetite loss, blood and CNS issues, and
skin sores. Maximum contaminant level (MCL, the highest level of a contaminant per-
mitted in drinking water) are enforceable standards that must be set as closely as pos-
6 Chapter 1 Introduction

Table 1.1: Examples of chemical contaminants.

,,,-Tetrachloroethane ,-Dichloropropane Bromobenzene

,,-Trimethylbenzene ,-Dichlorophenol DDE
,-Dichloroethane ,-Dinitrophenol Diazinon
,-Dichloropropene ,-Dinitrotoluene Dieldrin
,-Diphenylhydrazine ,-Dinitrotoluene Disulfoton
,-Dichloropropane o-Cresol Diuron
,-Dichloropropene Acetochlor EPTC
,,-Trichlorophenol Boron Fonofos
Linuron Hexachlorobutadiene Molinate
Manganese p-Isopropyltoluene Naphthalene
Methyl bromide Metolachlor Nitrobenzene
MTBE Metribuzin Organotins
Perchlorate Vanadium Terbacil
Prometon Pesticides Terbufos
RDX Disinfection by-products Triazines

Figure 1.3: Chemical structures of selected chemical contaminants.

sible to the MCLG where the level of a contaminant in drinking water below which
there is no known or anticipated risk to health. These standards are based on treat-
ment technologies, affordability, and other factors that are feasible, such as the avail-
ability of analytical methods and treatment technology.
The examination of the negative effects brought on by the substance in question
and the doses required to bring about such effects is the first step in establishing an
 1.5 Questions 7

MCL. The end result of this procedure is a reference dose (RfD), a safe dose based on
research findings that have been extrapolated to humans from outcomes of animal tests.
MCLG is created for substances that don’t cause cancer by first translating the
safe dosage into a water concentration. Then, on the supposition that exposure to the
chemical by drinking water represents just one-fifth of all possible exposure, this
number is divided by five. The MCLG number is often the same as the MCL in most
situations.
The MCLG is set at zero for substances that are thought to cause cancer, meaning
that no level of the substance is thought to be acceptable. The MCL is based on the
lowest concentration that can be consistently measured because 0 cannot be mea-
sured. The MCL is the lowest measured level for known or suspected carcinogens, not
a safe level.
A number equivalent to the MCLG is determined for substances that are poten-
tially carcinogenic, that is, there is some evidence that they might cause cancer, but
this is not particularly compelling. The final MCLG is obtained by dividing this value
by a factor of 10. This offers an additional level of safety in the event that the sub-
stance is ultimately shown to be carcinogenic.

1.5 Questions

1.5.1 What are the percentages of saline and fresh water in the world?
1.5.2 List three health benefits of drinking water.
1.5.3 Define chemical contaminants.
1.5.4 Give four examples of chemical contaminants.
1.5.5 Draw the chemical structures of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, 1,2,4-trimethylben-
zene, and terbufos.
1.5.6 Give examples of disinfection by-products.
1.5.7 What does MCLG stand for?
1.5.8 Give three examples of microbial contaminants.
1.5.9 Define MCL.
1.5.10 What is the reference dose (RfD)?
Chapter 2
Water Chemistry

2.1 Properties of Water (Physical and Chemical Properties)

The earth is mostly made up of water (H2O). Almost everything, including drinking,
bathing, and cooking, requires water. Water makes up 60–70% of the human body.
The survival of life on Earth depends on water. The earth’s surface is unevenly cov-
ered in water. It dissolves practically all polar solutes and creates a significant sol-
vent. At room temperature, water is a polar inorganic substance that is a tasteless,
odorless liquid and is almost colorless. It is referred to as the “universal solvent” and
the “solvent of life” and is by far the chemical compound that has been investigated
the most. It is the most prevalent substance on Earth’s surface and the only one that
can be found as solid, liquid, and gas at the same time. Aside from carbon monoxide
and molecular hydrogen, it is the third most prevalent molecule in the cosmos.
Water molecules are highly polar and form hydrogen bonds with one another.
Because of its polarity, it can dissolve other polar substances such as alcohols and
acids by interacting with them and dissociating the ions in salts. Its hydrogen bonding
is responsible for several of its distinguishing properties, including a less dense solid
form than its liquid form, a fairly high boiling point of 100 °C for its molar mass, and
a large heat capacity. Water is amphoteric, which implies that it can exhibit acidic or
basic properties depending on the pH of the solution. Because of its amphoteric na-
ture, it undergoes a process of self-ionization. Figure 2.1 summarizes the unique fea-
tures of water. Water molecules have multiple hydrogen bonds, which results in
distinct properties when condensed. As a result, the melting and boiling points are
both very high. Other liquids have lower specific heat, thermal conductivity, surface
tension, and dipole moment than water. These qualities support its significance in the
biosphere. Water assists in the transfer of ions and molecules required for metabo-
lism. It has a high latent heat of vaporization, which helps regulate body temperature.

2.1.1 Density

The weight of water per unit volume, which fluctuates with temperature, is the defini-
tion of water’s density. Grams per cubic centimeter, or 1 g/cm3, is roughly how dense
the water is. It responds to changes in temperature. Although liquid water, like other
liquids, generally thickens as it is chilled at room temperature, pure water is thought
to reach its maximum density at roughly 4 °C. It expands and loses density as the cool-
ing process continues. This exceptional negative thermal expansion is the result of
strong intermolecular interactions. Water lacks an absolute density due to its temper-
ature-dependent density. It is denser in the liquid state than in the solid state. The

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111332468-002
 2.1 Properties of Water (Physical and Chemical Properties) 9

Possesses both cohesive Has a high vaporization

and adhesive qualities temperature

Has a high thermal

Universal solvent
capacity

Has a lower density as a

Polar
solid than as a liquid

Figure 2.1: Unique features of water.

Table 2.1: The density of water for different

temperature scale.

Temperature Density (g/cm)

 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
 °C .
– °C .
– °C .
– °C .

density of water varies with temperature. The density (in g/cm3) of water for various
temperature ranges (from 100 to −30 °C) is given in Table 2.1.

2.1.2 Solubility

Water solubility is a measurement of how much a chemical compound may dissolve in

water at a given temperature. Solubility is usually measured in mg/L (milligrams per
liter) or ppm (parts per million). Intermolecular interactions determine a substance’s sol-
ubility in a liquid, which also determines whether two liquids are miscible. Solutes are
classed as hydrophilic (water-loving) or hydrophobic (water-fearing). For example, water
10 Chapter 2 Water Chemistry

is poorly soluble in aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons but miscible with polar solvents
such as acetonitrile, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethoxyethane, dimethylformamide, acetalde-
hyde, sulfolane, tetrahydrofuran, 1,4-dioxane, glycerol, acetone, isopropanol, propanol,
ethanol, and methanol. Salt and sugar, for example, dissolve in water. Warm or hot
water usually dissolves them faster and better. Water also provides a vital life-sustaining
force that functions at the biological level by assisting cells in transporting and utilizing
substances like oxygen or nutrients. Figure 2.2 depicts a simple solubility curve that is
commonly used to calculate the mass of solute in 100 g (or 100 mL) of water at a given
temperature. When it reaches the line, it has become saturated and cannot hold any
more solute. Below the line indicates unsaturation and the ability to store more solute.
Above the line, the solute concentration is higher than it should be.

Supersaturated
Solute in grams per
100 grams of water Saturated

Unsaturated

Temperature

Figure 2.2: Simple water solubility curve.

2.1.3 Polarity

One of the most important characteristics of water is that it is a polar molecule, with
the hydrogen and oxygen in water molecule (H2O) forming polar covalent bond. The
polarity of a water molecule results in a slightly positive charge on hydrogen and a
slightly negative charge on oxygen despite the fact that a water molecule has no net
charge. Because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, a shared electron is
more likely to be located there than close to the hydrogen nucleus, which results in a
partial negative charge near the oxygen.
Due to the polarity of water, nearby water molecules are pulled to one another by
their opposing charges and form hydrogen bonds. Water also attracts or repels other
polar molecules and ions as shown in Figure 2.3. A polar chemical that easily interacts
with or dissolves in water is said to be hydrophilic. Hydro- is the prefix for “water,” and -
philic is the suffix for “loving.” Oils and fats, which are non-polar substances, do not mix
well with water and separate from it rather than dissolve in it. These nonpolar substan-
ces are referred to as hydrophobic (hydro- = “water” and -phobic = “fearing”) substances.
 2.1 Properties of Water (Physical and Chemical Properties) 11

O
H H Covalent bonds H Carboxylic acid

O Hydrogen bond H O C R
H H H H O H H
Primary amine
N R
O O H
Covalent bonds Hydrogen bond
O R

Hydrogen bonds between H Alcohol

water molecules

Figure 2.3: Hydrogen bond formation due to water polarity.

2.1.4 Acid–Base Behavior

When water can operate as both an acid and a base in solution, it can become both an
acid and a base to itself during the autoionization process as shown in Figure 2.4.
Water absorbs hydrogen ions and behaves as a base when combined with an acid.
When water is combined with a base, it behaves like an acid because hydrogen ions
are produced.

H+
O
OH-
H+
O
O H+
O OH-

H+
O O
OH-

Figure 2.4: Water autoionization process.

The hydrogen (H+) ions in acids are what cause their acidic nature. In the presence of
water, they release hydrogen ions. The fact that water is a polar solvent aids in breaking
down the link between the ions and making them soluble. On the other hand, when
12 Chapter 2 Water Chemistry

placed in water, bases draw hydrogen atoms. Sodium hydroxide, or NaOH, is an illustra-
tion of a base. Hydrogen ions are drawn to it when it is submerged in water, and as hy-
droxyl (OH−) ions build up, a basic or alkaline solution is created. Figure 2.5 illustrates the
amphoteric characteristic of water, which can function as both an acid and a base.

Figure 2.5: An illustration of the amphoteric characteristic of water.

2.1.5 Water States

The ability of liquid water to generate hydrogen bonds is a significant property that is
essential to life. Since living organisms have a high-water content, understanding
these chemical traits is essential to understanding life. As water molecules form hy-
drogen bonds with one another, the water acquires several distinct chemical proper-
ties compared to other liquids. As the water molecules flow by one another in liquid
water, hydrogen bonds are continuously made and broken. These bonds are broken
as a result of the water molecules moving because of the heat in the system, which
gives them kinetic energy. The hydrogen bonds between water molecules entirely dis-
solve when the heat is increased during the boiling process, allowing water molecules
to escape into the air as gas (steam or water vapor). However, as the temperature of
water drops and it freezes, the water molecules create a crystalline structure that is
sustained by hydrogen bonds, which results in ice that is less dense than liquid water,
a phenomenon that is not observed when other liquids solidify. Since the hydrogen
bonds between water molecules are forced away when it freezes, the solid form of
water has a lower density than liquid water. When the temperature drops, the kinetic
energy between molecules in the majority of other liquids also decreases, allowing
the molecules to pack even more closely than they would in liquid form and providing
the solid a higher density than the liquid. Because of its unusually low density, ice
floats at the surface of liquid water, as seen in icebergs and ice cubes in ice water. Ice
that accumulates on the surface of lakes and ponds functions as an insulator, keeping
 2.1 Properties of Water (Physical and Chemical Properties) 13

animals and plant life from freezing. Plants and animals in the pond would freeze in
the solid block of ice and die if this layer of insulating ice was not present.

2.1.6 Water Redox Reaction (Water Redox Process)

When molecular hydrogen (H2) is oxidized by molecular oxygen (O2) to form water
(H2O), the reaction can be thought of as two coupled processes, as shown in Figure 2.6:
electron transfer from hydrogen to oxygen (reduction of oxygen) and electron accep-
tance from hydrogen by oxygen (oxidation of hydrogen). The oxidizing agent is oxy-
gen, and the reducing agent is hydrogen.
Water splitting is the process by which two molecules of water are broken down
into their basic elements: two molecules of hydrogen gas (H2) and one molecule of
oxygen gas (O2). The overall breakdown of water into oxygen and hydrogen is the
same whether either half reaction pair is combined. The amount of hydrogen pro-
duced is double that of oxygen.
The importance of redox reactions in aqueous solutions in biological and environ-
mental systems cannot be overstated. They support and sustain life by collecting and
dispersing energy in order to develop and spread low-entropy living systems.

2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e− (Oxidation)

H
O O O
H
2H2O → 2H2 + O2 Total Reaction +
+
H H
H
H H
O
H

4H+ + 4e− → 2H (Reduction)

Figure 2.6: Water redox process.

2.1.7 Water’s Cohesive and Adhesive Properties

When a glass of water is filled to the brim and then a few drips are carefully added
till the glass overflows, the water forms a dome-like shape above the rim. This water
can float over the glass due to its cohesion. In this case, water molecules are attracted
to each other due to hydrogen bonding, which keeps the molecules together at the
water-air interface.
14 Chapter 2 Water Chemistry

Surface tension is usually promoted by cohesion. When water is dropped on a

dry surface, it forms droplets rather than being flattened out by gravity. The paper
floats despite the fact that paper is denser (heavier) than water when a small scrap of
paper is placed on top of a droplet of water. Cohesion and surface tension keep water
molecules’ hydrogen bonds intact and the item afloat. If placed correctly and without
breaking the surface tension, a needle can also “float” on top of a glass of water.
The adhesion property of water, or the attraction of water molecules to other
molecules, is related to these cohesive forces. When water comes into touch with
charged surfaces, such as those found on the interior of tiny glass tubes known as
capillary tubes, this attraction can be stronger than the cohesive forces in the
water. Figure 2.7 shows how water “climbs” up the tube submerged in a glass of
water, giving the impression that the water is higher on the sides of the tube than in
the center. This is due to the fact that water molecules stick to the charged glass walls
of the capillary more so than they do to other molecules. This kind of adherence is
referred to as capillary action.

Meniscus
Water "climbs" up the tube
Capillary Tube higher on the sides of the
tube than in the center

Water

Figure 2.7: Water adhesion by capillary action.

Cohesive and adhesive forces also influence water transfer from a plant’s roots to its
leaves. Water molecules that evaporate from the plant’s surface remain attached to
water molecules below them, causing them to be dragged along. Plants employ this
natural process to help move water from the roots to the leaves. Plants would be un-
able to receive the water and dissolved minerals they require if these water qualities
were not present. Due to surface tension, aquatic insects such as water striders can
also float on the water’s surface.

2.2 Hard Water

Hard water contains a high concentration of mineral ions. The metal cations, calcium
(Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+), are the most prevalent ions found in hard water, while
iron (Fe2+), aluminum (Al3+), and manganese (Mn2+) may also be present in some re-
gions (Figure 2.8). These metals are water soluble, which means they dissolve in
water. These ions’ relatively large concentrations can saturate the solution, causing
 2.2 Hard Water 15

Aluminum

Iron Hard water

Al 3+ Mn 2+
Calcium Mn 2+
Fe 2+
Fe 2+
Al 3+
Manganese Ca2+
Mg 2+ Mg 2+
Ca2+

Magnesium Ca2+ Fe 2+ Al 3+ Mg 2+
Mn 2+

Figure 2.8: Hard water.

the equilibrium of these solutes to move to the left, toward reactants. In other words,
the ions have the ability to precipitate out of the solution. The calcination, or precipi-
tation of calcium or magnesium carbonate, visible on water faucets is caused by the
displacement of minerals from the solution. Furthermore, hard water can react with
other substances in a solution, such as soap, to form a precipitate known as “scum.”
There are two forms of hard water: temporary and permanent. Temporary hard
water is made up mostly of calcium (Ca2+) and bicarbonate (HCO3−) ions. The bicar-
bonate ion in temporary hard water decomposes upon heating into carbonate ions
(CO32−), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O). The carbonate ion (CO32−) formed can
then combine with other ions in the solution to generate insoluble compounds such
as CaCO3 and MgCO3. The interactions of carbonate ions in solution also generate the
well-known mineral build-up visible on the sides of boiling pots, rust known as “boiler
scale.” The breakdown of the bicarbonate ion caused by increasing the temperature
of transient hard water represents a shift in the equilibrium equation. This shift is
responsible for the white scale seen in the boiling containers as well as the mineral
deposits that form inside water pipes, resulting in inefficiency and, in extreme cases,
explosion due to overheating. Because CaCO3 or other scale is relatively insoluble, it
does not entirely dissolve back into the water when cooled. As a result, this form of
hard water is considered “temporary” since boiling can alleviate the hardness by re-
moving the problematic ions from the solution.
Another random document with
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Andes the petroleum is of high grade. Samples of oil from Espejos
Spring, 12 leagues from Santa Cruz, indicate the quality expected
north to the Madre de Dios. This has 78 per cent kerosene, 17
lubricating oil, and 4 per cent coke. From indications it is believed
that gushers would come by boring to proper depth. It is said that
deposits of good quality are indicated at Calacoto on the Arica
Railway, a continuation of the Titicaca fields of Peru. These are
obviously much more accessible but less assured.
Mining properties of various kinds may be acquired and worked to
good advantage, some with a moderate outlay of capital; with larger
returns, naturally, from greater expenditure for the best equipment
and more extensive properties. There is work for centuries.

Industries

Other than mining industries are slightly developed, being local in

character for lack of proper transportation. There is therefore
opportunity for their introduction, the needs meanwhile being
supplied by importation.
Weaving. The weaving industry is one for which the natives are
peculiarly adapted; the Indians and the mestizos now produce with
crude equipment goods of excellent quality for strength and often for
color. In certain Provinces good strong cotton cloth is made which,
used for sheeting, clothing, etc., lasts indefinitely. The natives make
also heavy woolen stuff from llama wool, and fine soft material from
vicuña, alpaca, and silk. But not half enough is woven to supply the
demand, so that much coarse cotton cloth and a woolen called
bayeta are imported for the use of the Indians, as well as fine goods
for the white population. The llamas, estimated as numbering
500,000, are worth from $4 to $10 each; the alpacas, about half as
many, are valued at $50-75 each. There are also 500,000 goats.
Rugs and skins are exported in small quantities, the animals from
which these are taken growing rarer and liable to become extinct.
Rugs of vicuña skin have at least doubled in price since 1906 (their
export is forbidden), as is the case also with the chinchilla. Of the
latter there are two varieties, the blue and the white. They are hunted
by the Indians as are also the vicuñas. The former are now crossed
with the viscacha, a rodent resembling a hare, the resulting animal
being capable of domestication. Though the skins are inferior to
genuine chinchilla they serve the purpose.
It would be a most valuable enterprise if the vicuña could be
domesticated. At present the animals are wild like the guanaco, but
the breeding of herds ought to be possible if the greatest care were
exercised. The vicuña wool is probably the finest existing, and if the
animals could be saved from destruction and their numbers
increased, a highly profitable business would result. These animals,
like the guanacos, wander in small groups in remote places at high
altitudes, 14,000 to 16,000 feet, often difficult of access among the
mountains. These with the llamas and alpacas are ruminants, the
two latter domesticated and living in large herds.
The alpaca wool is much superior to that of the llama and better
than that of the sheep; if the animals were rationally bred on a large
scale the business should be extremely profitable. The animal has
shorter legs than the llama which it resembles; it is never used as a
burden bearer. The alpaca flourishes on the Titicaca Plateau and in
higher, cold and solitary mountain sections, among seed bearing
grasses where snow falls instead of rain. It requires better forage
than the llama. Pure water is an absolute essential. Their long
fleece, sheared once in two years, is always in great demand; a
fleece weighs 10-15 pounds. The alpacas, numbering probably
200,000, are tended by Indians whose patient endurance qualify
them in a measure, but who need instruction to supervise them with
more intelligent care. There are vast lands suitable for their breeding
and culture, and regions where sheep, donkeys, goats, and cattle
may be raised. None of these industries is practised except in a
small way, though land, suitable fodder, and climate are all of the
best.
Stock raising is carried on to a limited extent only, though
conditions for raising horned cattle are said to be ideal on the llanos
of the southeast, where vast natural prairies alternate with forests,
and many wild cattle exist. The large possibilities of this region will
undoubtedly be utilized before many years. Difficulty in reaching
markets is the great present drawback, but Argentine capitalists
have looked over the eastern lowlands and may find early means for
their exploitation. On the higher lands also are sections where the
business may be carried on to advantage. As at present only
ordinary stock is raised with no care in breeding, merely to supply
local needs for meat, there is need of imported cattle and better
methods, as is the case with sheep. Figures given for cattle are
800,000 head, of sheep 1¹⁄₂ million. Many more of the latter should
be raised in some sections of the plateau region. Mutton is more of a
staple food, largely used, dried and salted, by the Indians. Thus
prepared it is called chalona; dried-beef is called charque. The
cultivation of Siberian grasses on the plateau is suggested. Few
hogs are raised, although many districts are well adapted to them.

Agriculture

In agriculture Bolivia has enormous possibilities, but at present

small production. About 5,000,000 acres are under cultivation. With
the varying altitude and climate the vegetable products are similar to
those of the preceding countries, many of these spontaneous, a few
cultivated. The latter are almost solely for internal consumption. On
the plateau grow barley, quinua, and potatoes, the last, when frozen
called chuño, are the basis of the Indians’ diet; barley is much used
for fodder; quinua, a very nutritious millet, easy to cultivate and
hardy, in the form of meal among the plateau Indians takes the place
of wheat and corn, which do not grow at this altitude. In the valleys
below there is plenty of corn, from which is made the Indians’
favorite drink, chicha, though they will readily drink plain alcohol of
poor quality when they can get it. Wheat and rice are raised in
eastern Cochabamba, admirable coffee in the yungas, cacao, and
coca; none in sufficient quantity to supply the home market except
coca. Some coffee is exported but more is imported from Brazil and
Peru. All needful supplies could be provided in one or another part of
the country if population and means of transport existed.
 Other Products. Cacao is less cultivated than coffee, though
raised in two departments. Trees are growing untended in the Rio
Madidi and Madre de Dios sections. Sugar cane is cultivated in
Santa Cruz and elsewhere, but most of it is used for making
aguardiente, and molasses or other syrup. More than 200,000
gallons of alcohol come annually from Santa Cruz. Rice also is
grown in this Department giving two harvests a year. It might be
cultivated in other sections. Tobacco of excellent quality thrives in
many places, but not enough is raised for home consumption.
Viticulture is slightly practised with primitive methods. Fruits of many
varieties as in Peru are raised, including especially fine oranges.
Various vegetables are grown but in these lines the development is
slight and poor.
Coca alone is exported among agricultural products, chiefly to
Chile and Argentina. Cultivated also in Cochabamba and Santa
Cruz, the chief centre is in the yungas of La Paz. The leaf is richer in
alkaloid than the Peruvian, as I myself noted, but as yet it has not
been so much exported to Europe on account of its higher price. The
plantations are in terraces on the mountain slopes between 5000
and 7000 feet altitude. In the yungas the bushes are usually three or
four feet high, but may grow to seven or eight. A small crop may be
gathered 18 months after planting, but only in four or five years are
they in full leaf. Three times a year the leaves are gathered, and with
good care the plantations will last half a century. The leaves are
picked by hand, dried, and stored in a dry place, later packed in
bales and pressed. Properly used the chewing of coca in the
highlands may be a blessing. Carried to the excess usual among the
Indians it is a curse, as it is where here used in drinks sold at the
soda counter, creating a habit as vicious as that of alcohol or opium.
For the cultivation of cotton on the lowlands there is much suitable
soil and climate.

Forestry

Of forestal products Bolivia contains all those found in the other

sections of the Amazon basin, varieties of timber, medicinal plants,
etc.; but none at present is of commercial value for export except
quinine, manufactured from cinchona bark, and rubber.
Rubber. The rubber industry of Bolivia is second to that of
minerals. In amount of this export the country is believed to be
second in South America to Brazil, though little has been touched of
the vast territory capable of its production. Sir Martin Conway
estimated the rubber trees of the Beni district as 50,000,000. There
are four zones of rubber producing country, one in the extreme north
near the Acre Territory of Brazil, with outlet from the port and custom
house of Cobija; second, the greater part of Colonias exporting
through the national custom house of Villa Bella, by Villa Rica at the
confluence of the Abuna and the Madeira, or by lesser ports; third,
the Department of La Paz, the rubber going out by Lake Titicaca and
Mollendo; fourth, Beni, Santa Cruz, and Cochabamba, the rubber
from the north going out by Guajará Merím or Villa Bella, that farther
south by Puerto Suarez on the Paraguay or by Yacuiba, and from
the west by Oruro and Antofagasta. The rubber of the region is
chiefly that called fine Pará, most of it exported through that port and
being of the best quality. The latex of the hevea is the source;
sernamby is second quality made of the residue of the finer quality
mixed with bark. The caucho from the castilloa elastica is little
exploited on account of few laborers and expensive transport. With
the opening of the Madeira-Mamoré Railway in 1912 better facilities
were secured, this railway having been built a distance of 207 miles
along the Brazilian shore to avoid the bad rapids on the two rivers.
The flooding of the market with Malay and Ceylon rubber seriously
affected Bolivian production and export, but these have recently
increased. With the forming of plantations in this section, a work
which an American company has undertaken, the rubber should be
better able to compete with that of Ceylon, as its superior quality is
known. The fact that the Bolivian export tax is lower than that of
Brazil gives the former an advantage.
In the Department of Cochabamba are great quantities of
maniçoba trees producing rubber known as ceará, of good quality
but not the best. It might be cultivated in hilly regions and on banks
of streams of the Yungas and other valleys in the Department of La
Paz. The lot of the seringueiros, the rubber workers, is bad; it may
and must be bettered if the industry is to continue. The establishing
of plantations will be a great improvement, but some amenities of life
might be made available even in the ordinary forest.

Investments

From the description of Bolivia, it is apparent that mining presents

the most attractive field for the large capitalist. Mining experts with
less money may be tempted to investigate gold prospects or to
search for rich veins of other metals, later organizing companies for
their development or selling at a handsome profit their acquired
claims, as some persons have done hitherto. However sales are not
always easily made. Petroleum is numbered among the mining
possibilities, although the most favorably located fields may be
preempted already, chiefly by American Companies, the Braden and
the Richmond Levering, in spite of the difficulties of access and
development. The petroleum procured would find its market in
Bolivia and in the neighboring countries of the East and West Coasts
where it is greatly needed. The oil with a paraffin base is of high
grade running to 45.8 Baumé.
Stock raising of various kinds would be profitable in certain
localities, and some forms of agriculture and small industries.
Railway construction, the development of electric power, the
installation of sanitary and other public works will afford many
openings for engineers.
 CHAPTER XXVIII
CHILE: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.

The country of Chile, the seventh in size of the South American

Republics, is frequently ranked with the two largest, Brazil and
Argentina, owing to the enterprise of its inhabitants: a natural result
of their location in the temperate zone, from 17° 57′ to 55° 59′ South
Latitude; increased perhaps by their long struggle with the
Araucanian Indians.

Area, Population, Boundary

Area. Chile, with an extent of 290,000 square miles, is ribbon like

in shape, having a length of nearly 2700 miles, a trifle more than
Argentina; in a direct line 2140 miles, with a width of 70-248, miles
averaging about 85.
Population. The country with approximately 4,000,000 inhabitants
is fifth in this respect.
Boundary. The boundary of Chile is simple. At the north is Peru,
on the east are Bolivia and Argentina, at the south and west the
Pacific Ocean.

History

The bold Spanish invaders of Peru might reasonably have been

contented for a time with the conquest of that vast territory. But
Diego de Almagro, incited by the grant of 200 leagues south of those
bestowed upon Pizarro, and enticed by the tales of a region richer
still in gold and silver, set forth to gain possession of the allotted
lands, not long after the founding of Lima in 1535. Over the great
Bolivian Plateau and a high mountain pass into Chile, Almagro
marched with his followers, only to return disappointed after enduring
untold hardships and suffering.
 A few years later a second expedition was undertaken by Pedro
de Valdivia, this one along the shore. From Arica proceeding by sea,
having landed at the mouth of the Rio Maipo, in February, 1541,
Valdivia founded the city of Santiago. Still unsatisfied he continued
south, in spite of much opposition, making settlements at
Concepción, Imperial, Villa Rica, and Valdivia; but in 1553 he was
himself slain by the warlike Araucanians, who long disputed with the
invaders the occupation of their country. For 250 years the contest
continued intermittently, with some diminution and amalgamation of
the Indians, till the Chilians rose against Spain, when a more friendly
feeling was established.
The Chilians, who convoked a national congress in 1810, regard
this event as the inauguration of their independence; though not until
1818 was it secured with the aid of San Martín and his army from
Argentina. Chile subsequently experienced many internal difficulties,
but after 1861 the Government became more liberal, and since that
period, except for the revolution against Balmaceda in 1890, the
country has been free from serious internal strife.

Government

The government is that of a centralized republic with the usual

three branches. The President, elected for a term of five years and
not eligible at once for a second term, appoints the Intendentes and
Gobernadores who respectively administer the 23 Provinces, and
their subdivisions, the 82 Departments. There is one Territory,
Magallanes, which includes the southern mainland and the coastal
islands. The police force is national in organization. In the Provinces
no legislative bodies exist save municipal councils with certain local
duties. The franchise is so restricted (the voters must have property
and be able to read and write) that as 25 per cent of the population is
illiterate and most of the laboring class landless, the Government is
said to be practically in the hands of a few leading families.
Senators, 37 in number, must have an income of $2000 and
Deputies, 118, one of $500. The President must not leave the
country while in office.
 Chile has 23 Provinces, all but five of which border on the Pacific,
and one Territory. Beginning at the north the names of the Provinces
follow with their approximate areas and population, and with the
names and population of their capitals:
Provinces Area, in Population Capitals Population
square
miles
Tacna 9,000 40,000 Tacna 8,000
Tarapacá 17,000 134,000 Iquique 45,000
Antofagasta 46,500 220,000 Antofagasta 66,000
Atacama 31,000 67,000 Copiapó 13,000
Coquimbo 14,000 191,000 La Serena 16,000
Aconcagua 5,400 140,000 San Felipe 12,000
Valparaiso 1,775 347,000 Valparaiso 212,000
Santiago 5,900 627,000 Santiago 450,000
O’Higgins 2,168 125,000 Rancagua 13,000
Colchagua 3,900 163,000 San 10,000
Fernando
Curicó 3,045 115,000 Curicó 23,000
Talca 3,900 135,000 Talca 42,000
Maule 2,800 125,000 Cauquenes 12,000
Linares 4,000 120,000 Linares 3,000
Nuble 3,500 199,000 Chillán 40,000
Concepción 3,300 271,000 Concepción 72,700
Arauco 2,200 74,000 Arauco 3,500
Bio-Bio 5,400 106,000 Los 14,000
Angeles
Malleco 3,300 136,000 Angol 10,000
Cautín 6,400 175,000 Temuco 31,000
 Valdivia 9,000 187,000 Valdivia 26,000
Llanquihue 35,000 150,000 Puerto 8,000
Montt
Chiloé 7,000 100,000 Ancud 4,000
Territory
Magallanes 65,000 32,000 Punta 20,000
Arenas

Population

The population of Chile is little if any below 4,000,000, which gives

it an average of 12 or more to the square mile, the highest rate of all
the North and West Coast countries. There is considerable variation
in the different Provinces, but less than in the other Republics, if the
Territory is omitted. The most thickly inhabited region is from
Valparaiso south to Valdivia; the Province of Santiago having the
largest population and that of Valparaiso the densest. As to the
character of the population it is estimated that 40 per cent are of
white extraction, with at least 50-60 per cent mestizos; probably
50,000 Indians, including possibly 5000 in the far south, uncivilized
and dying out. The educated class as in other countries forms a
small minority of the inhabitants, but in recent years greater attention
has been paid to the diffusion of knowledge among the common
people.

Education

The middle and upper classes pay much attention to education. In

Santiago there are two universities, the larger the University of Chile,
open also to women, and the Catholic University, each with various
departments; a National Institute or high school, a School of Mines, a
Normal School, a School of Arts and Trades. In La Serena and
Copiapó at the north are other Mining Schools, and in cities at the
south Schools of Agriculture; also Normal Schools. An Industrial
College is to be opened in Valparaiso. All towns have elementary
schools; in all State schools including universities education is free,
and in primary grades from 1921 compulsory. There are various
private schools, in Santiago a large and excellent one for boys
(managed for years by American Methodists), where the sons of
many prominent families have been educated, as in La Paz, Bolivia.

Press, Religion, etc.

Press. The Press is free, influential, and of high character, the

Mercurio of Valparaiso and Santiago having a world wide reputation,
and ranking with the best of any country. There are about 700
newspapers and journals.
Religion. The Roman Catholic religion is recognized as that of the
State, but freedom is permitted to others. The women generally are
very devout, though as in the other countries the men of the
governing classes are inclined to agnosticism.
Telegraph. Chile possesses 30,000 miles of telegraph lines and
46,000 of telephone. There are 32 wireless stations at intervals from
Arica down to Punta Arenas, with one on Juan Fernandez Island.
Money. A gold peso (there are no such coins) may be regarded as
worth 36 cents, but the paper money which is in general use
fluctuates in value, a peso varying from 14 to 25 cents, usually 18-
22. There are silver coins of 10, 20, 40 centavos, and copper of
smaller value.
The Metric System of weights and measures is obligatory, all
others being excluded by law.
 CHAPTER XXIX
CHILE: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The country of Chile has an extraordinary shape, very long and

narrow. Unlike the other Republics of the West Coast, Chile has no
trans-Andine region, as the watershed of the Andes constitutes the
eastern boundary line. Thus confined between the sea and the
mountain tops, while the coast line of the country is nearly 2700
miles, as far as from Labrador to Guiana, the width is scanty, mostly
varying from 100 to 225 miles, though at one point in the south the
western boundary of Argentina is but 26 miles from the Pacific
Ocean.
Although so narrow for most of the distance, Chile has three
sections longitudinally: a very narrow coastal strip, a plateau, or a
central valley, and the mountain region. Its remarkable length from
18° S. Lat., several degrees in the torrid zone, to 56°, well towards
the Antarctic Circle, gives it a wide range in climate arising from the
latitude, as well as the variation from the altitude which it shares with
the countries previously mentioned. From north to south also, the
Republic has three zones: the hot arid land at the north, 18°-32°,
followed by the temperate agricultural section in the centre to 42°,
and the cool, rainy, forested lands at the south; sometimes four
sections are spoken of, in which case the first is regarded as two,
dividing at 27° into the nitrate section north and a mineral, south. Of
these two the former has a plateau section between the Andes and
the sea, the latter some transverse ridges. The country has 25 per
cent in woods and forests, 7¹⁄₂ per cent in pastures, 5 irrigable land
and 12¹⁄₂ per cent arable.
As already noted, the Pacific Coast south of Ecuador is a
practically rainless desert for a distance of 1600 miles along the
shore of Peru and Chile, about as far as Coquimbo. Here begins the
agricultural centre of Chile, including the rich longitudinal valley (with
soil 330 feet deep), in which the capital, Santiago, is situated; the
valley extends from the Aconcagua River to the Gulf of Ancud, 620
miles. Many populous towns and ports are in this section, among
them Valparaiso. The forest country farther south is but sparsely
settled.
Mountains. The Cordillera of the Andes, which extends
throughout the entire length of the country, and is continued at the
north by the Cordillera of Peru, is recognized from its geological
formation as belonging to a recent epoch. It contains many
volcanoes, mostly extinct or inactive except in the south. Aconcagua,
of volcanic origin, the highest peak of the Andes and of all America
so far as is yet known, is a little north of the centre. Its summit is just
over the border in Argentina, as the watershed forming the boundary
here runs west of the line of greatest altitude. The height of
Aconcagua is variously stated, but 22,817 feet has perhaps the best
authority. Other lofty peaks are near, Mercedario and Tupungato,
each over 22,000 feet. There are 24 passes across the range at a
height of 10,000 feet more or less. Farther south the mountains
diminish rapidly in height with few summits above 10,000 feet. The
range ends in Tierra del Fuego with Mt. Sarmiento, 7000 feet.
A cordillera of the coast, geologically older, is much lower,
disappearing altogether at the north. In general quite steep towards
the sea, it slopes gradually towards the central valley or plateau.
This range continues at the south in islands, which in great numbers
fringe the coast. Here the shore is much indented with straits and
bays, resembling the fjords of Norway. Nearly all of the narrowing
point of the continent, the entire Strait of Magellan, and most of
Tierra del Fuego belong to Chile.

Rivers

The rivers of the country are numerous except in the north, where
but two reach the ocean. Farther south to 35° they are torrential in
character, but important both for irrigation and as a potential source
of hydro-electric power; their descent from so great a height
indicating large future possibilities. Beyond 35° a number of streams
are navigable for some distance for boats of light draught, 500 miles
in all, the Bio-Bio for 100 miles, the Maule for 75. South of these
rivers are many picturesque and important lakes close to the
Cordillera where they serve as great reservoirs for the excessive
precipitation of rain and snow on the west side of the mountains. The
largest are Lakes Rauco and Llanquihue, with estimated areas
respectively of 200 and 250 square miles. Lake Todos los Santos, 40
square miles, described as of marvelous beauty, is northeast of
Puerto Montt among the Andean foothills, at a height of 500 feet.
The seaboard at the north, with few indentations, has in
consequence poor harbors, where landing in small boats may
occasionally be dangerous or impossible. In the far south are
sheltered harbors, but few cities requiring them.

Climate

The climate of the country naturally is extremely varied. In the

northern section the immediate coast like that of Peru is preserved
from intense heat by the Antarctic current. A little way back on the
arid plateau the temperature is excessive by day but cool at night.
Going south from the arid section the rainfall gradually increases
until in the far south there is too much. The central regions have a
fair supply with an excellent climate, mean annual temperatures of
50°-60°. Farther south with rain 150-170 days in the year, in some
places 80-100 inches, the climate is less agreeable. The winds are
generally west, either a little north or south. While the mean
temperatures are fairly low, the extremes are much less than at the
same latitudes in most parts of North America or on the East Coast
of Argentina. Even at the farthest south, at Punta Arenas, the most
southern city of the globe, the weather is never so cold as often in
the usual winters of New York or Boston. Until recently suitable
sanitation has been lacking in many cities and the death rate has
been high. Now the authorities are alive to these matters and with
the installation of proper sewerage, already accomplished in
Santiago and in progress in other cities, the death rate is lower. In no
cities from Guayaquil south need any tourist be apprehensive of
danger.
 CHAPTER XXX
CHILE: CAPITAL, INDIVIDUAL PROVINCES, CITIES

Capital

Santiago, the capital, with 450,000 inhabitants, is the fourth in

population of the cities of South America, the first three being
Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo. The city is finely
located in the fertile Central Valley, on the Mapocho River. Important
as the Government and social centre, it has much commercial
activity. A little off the direct Trans-Andine line between Valparaiso
and Buenos Aires, it is equally a terminus, as special cars run to
each city from Los Andes where they connect with the narrower
mountain railway. Santiago is the centre of the north and south
railway systems which traverse the country almost from end to end.
A lack of first class hotels has been partially remedied by the
construction of a large one on modern lines, but it may be said that
in all of the capital cities and chief ports of the West Coast additional
accommodations of a higher class are desirable. In Santiago
important improvements recently accomplished include the
installment of a sewerage system and the repavement of the
principal streets. Electric lights have long been enjoyed and an
excellent system of electric cars, one feature of which New York
might imitate to advantage, the numbering of the cars to indicate the
various routes. Santiago in addition to its delightful location may well
boast of its fine buildings, especially its Capitol, the handsome opera
house, and many fine residences; still more of its parks, the far
famed Santa Lucía, Parque Cousiño, and the Quinta Normal; also of
the Palace of Fine Arts, and the Cemetery, especially beautiful in
rose time. Most of the streets are narrow, but there is one splendid
broad avenue, the Alameda or Avenida de Delicias with a central
parkway ornamented with statuary.
 CHILE, ARGENTINA, PARAGUAY, URUGUAY

Provinces

A brief review of the Provinces follows, beginning at the north.

Unless otherwise stated, the Provinces extend from the coast back
to the mountains, bordering at the east on Bolivia or Argentina.
Tacna, formerly a part of Peru, is still claimed by that country,
though in the possession of Chile. It is separated by the Sama River
from the Peruvian Province, Moquegua. Largely mountainous, Tacna
has many peaks above 18,000 feet; the two passes to Bolivia are
about 14,000 feet. Of 500,000 acres of possible agricultural land
about one tenth is irrigated, the rest is desert. Alfalfa is the chief
production; beans and maize are important with other vegetables
and fruit. The leading export is sulphur.
The capital, Tacna, is a pleasant town, connected by rail with the
port of Arica, though it is not on the road to La Paz. Arica, with a
better harbor than most of the others, is an important primary port
where all steamers call, as it is the terminus of the Arica-La Paz
Railway; one of the three Pacific outlets for Bolivia. New docks are to
be constructed.
Tarapacá follows on the south, this Province containing with other
minerals, extensive, hot, arid plains with nitrate fields. The sloping
coastal section has two important ports, Pisagua and Iquique,
besides smaller ones exclusively for the export of nitrates, in which
the two named are chiefly engaged.
Iquique, the capital and principal port, is of great commercial
importance for such export, and has very large imports from the fact
that these include all eatables as formerly all drinkables, even water.
Now the water comes in pipes 150 miles from the mountains. The
soil too was imported for the few plazas and gardens existing, as
nothing will grow in the native soil. It is an enterprising community
with a good proportion of pleasant British homes, clubs, theatres,
etc.
Antofagasta comes next, separated from Tarapacá by the River
Loa. On the east it has both Bolivia and a piece of northern
Argentina. The surface descends from the Andes in a series of
plateaus. Vegetation is scanty. This Province, with Atacama on the
south, shares in the activities of the nitrate industry.
The capital city, Antofagasta, is 200 miles south of Iquique, both
ports having very poor harbors, though with enormous commerce for
places of their size. Antofagasta, the terminus of a third railway from
La Paz, the second in Chile, has much Bolivian trade besides export
of nitrates, and lately from Chuquicamata of copper. The Province
contains other ports and cities of consequence, Taltal, Tocopilla,
Mejillones, etc.
Atacama on the south borders exclusively at the east on
Argentina, which from here down forms the eastern boundary of
Chile. The surface of the Province is uneven, with mountains,
plateaus, and ravines; in the valleys of Huasco and Copiapó there is
some agriculture. Minerals, as gold, silver, and copper receive
attention.
Copiapó, the capital, is an important railway junction.
Coquimbo, following, is a narrower Province, the mountains and
the Argentine boundary coming nearer the shore. There are many
lofty peaks at the east; and between spurs running down to the coast
are fertile, well watered valleys, as we now come to the central
section where with a mild climate there is moderate rainfall. Cereals,
fruit, wine, and livestock are exported.
La Serena, the capital, is a pretty town, which has tramway
connection with Coquimbo, a first class port, and a busy city.
Aconcagua is next, with the great peak of that name in the range
at the east. Some 15 miles south of the peak is the Uspallata Pass,
for many years the main commercial highway between Chile and
Argentina. By this Pass came Almagro, and later a division of the
army of San Martín; another division by the pass of Los Patos, a little
lower and farther north, by which cattle are often driven into Chile.
The Province is chiefly agricultural and pastoral, with crops of
cereals, fruits, hemp, and tobacco. The finest wine is produced;
there are large herds of cattle; and copper has some exploitation.
Valparaiso, one of the two Provinces bordering on Aconcagua at
the south, is next to the smallest in the Republic, and the first coming
from the north which does not extend across the country. With
Aconcagua on the north it has Santiago on the east and south. The
surface is mountainous with extensive valleys, the Coast Range here
reaching a height of 7000 feet. Several rivers and a number of bays
are among its favorable features. With a mild climate and sufficient
rain agriculture is the principal industry aside from the commercial
interests of the chief port of the West Coast, Valparaiso.
Santiago, south of Aconcagua and east of Valparaiso, extends
from Argentina on the east, south of Valparaiso to the sea, and has
the two Provinces of O’Higgins and Colchagua on the south. The
Central Valley, which occupies a great part of its area, is here a
broad plain, part of which is well watered and fertile but with some
sections arid; the foothills and valleys are well wooded. The Central
Valley slopes towards the west, having an altitude of nearly 3000
feet at the foot of the Andes, and about 1000 feet near the hills of the
Coast Range. The highest point of the Andes, here south of Mt.
Aconcagua, is less than 20,000 feet while the Coast Range
approaches 8000. Cereals, vegetables, fruit, and wine are the chief
products. Among other towns in the Province is the port of San
Antonio.
O’Higgins, a very small Province, occupies what may be called a
jog at the southeast corner of Santiago, which is therefore on the
west and north, while Argentina is east and Colchagua south.
Although a rugged district, irrigation is developed and large crops of
cereals and fruit are grown. Rich in mineral deposits, copper alone is
exploited.
Colchagua, south of Santiago and O’Higgins, extends across the
country from the sea to the mountains, which have three easy
passes into Argentina. The plains of the Central Valley have a rich
soil and good rainfall, but as the summers are dry, as in Santiago,
irrigation is needful. Crops of wheat, beans, alfalfa, etc., are
important, and also the cattle industry.
Curicó follows across the south with similar features and
productions.
Talca is next, also extending from the coast to Argentina. With a
temperate climate, there are greater extremes of heat and cold on
the plain. Besides the agricultural and cattle industries, the dense
forests here afford opportunity for exploitation. Two Provinces are on
the south.
Linares, the more eastern, has Argentina on the east, Nuble
south, and Maule west. With considerable agricultural land, along the
lower slopes of the Andes it has dense woods.
Maule, the coast Province south of Talca, has both Linares and
Nuble on the east, and Concepción south. The valleys of the Coast
Cordillera, which are fertile, afford opportunity for increased
agriculture, but unwise deforestation has been injurious.
Nuble, again an Andean Province, between Argentina and Maule,
is south of Linares and north of Concepción. Easy passes lead into
Argentina, forests are extensive, and vines and cereals are grown on
a large scale.
Concepción, south of Maule and Nuble, extends from the Pacific
to Argentina. Mountainous at the east, it is rather arid in the centre,
but extremely fertile near the coast. The fine crops include grapes
and excellent wine. Large forests and extensive coal deposits are a
source of wealth.
Arauco and Bio-Bio are on the south; Arauco along the coast, with
important agriculture and large herds of cattle, has also extensive
forests and mineral deposits, coal mines actively worked, and gold,
both alluvial and quartz.
Bio-Bio at the east is mountainous and well watered, as is this
region in general. Cereals are largely grown and viticulture is
practised. The cattle industry is important and the forests are
exploited.