1 Dimensional Analysis

1.1 Reading
CMB chapter 11
FMW chapter 5

1.2 Additional Q’s

Learn2024.

1.3 Section Learning Outcomes

• Formulate and carry out a dimensional analysis: select relevant variables, determine the minimal
set of dimensionless groups, and interpret the results.

• Assess the importance of various physical processes using relevant dimensionless numbers.
• Apply dimensional analysis to the analysis and interpretation of experimental data.

• Apply dimensional analysis to the scaling of physical models

• Apply dimensional analysis to the scaling of mathematical models.

1.3.1 Lesson Learning Outcomes

• Gain knowledge about complex engineering problems.

• Learn how to conduct an experiment to test mathematical models.

• Gain knowledge of the concept of dimensions.

1.3.2 Class exercises: Recap

Figure 1-1 shows a water reservoir situated on top of a tower at a specific height HR relative to another
reservoir at a distance of L. Flow to the second reservoir is controlled with a valve. Two static tubes are

installed along the length of the pipe that connects the two reservoirs.

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Figure 1-1 Sketch showing a supply reservoir connected to a storage reservoir with a length of pipe and vertical static tubes.

Recall what you learnt from ENCV2FL (and your university career thus far) to answer the following (write

your answers on this paper):

In the space provided, describe in your own words the following laws of physics:
1.1 Conservation of mass.

1.2 Conservation of energy.

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1.3 Conservation of momentum

1.3.1 What is the name of the energy equation often used to calculate flow within pipes? (hint: who is it

named after?)

1.3.2 Write the equation below in terms of pressure, velocity, elevation, density and acceleration due to

gravity.

The equation above is referred to as a mathematical model. A mathematical model can be used to make
predictions (physical) about how something will behave in a given scenario. This is important for us as

engineers because we rely on mathematical models to design solutions to complex engineering problems1

1.3.3 Class exercises: Experimenting

We will now investigate whether our mathematical model can make the right predictions… Before we start,

it will be important to record some preliminary information and think about what we want to measure
during our experiment.

1.3.3 What do you think are important variables we want to measure? Write them in the space below:

1.3.4 How will you measure them?

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The Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA) define a complex engineering problem as having the following characteristics:
(a) require coherent and detailed engineering knowledge, underpinning the technology area; and one or more of:
(b) are ill-posed, under- or over specified, require identification and interpretation into the technology area;
(c) encompass systems within complex engineering systems;
(d) belong to families of problems which are solved in well-accepted but innovative ways; and one or more of:
(e) can be solved by structured analysis techniques;
(f) may be partially outside standards and codes; must provide justification to operate outside;
(g) require information from practice area and sources interfacing with practice area that is complex and incomplete;
(h) involves a variety of issues which may impose conflicting constraints: technical, engineering and interested or affected parties; and one or both
of:
(i) requires judgement in decision making in practice area, considering interfaces to other areas;
(j) have significant consequences which are important in practice area, but may extend more widely.

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1.3.5 Once you have carried out the experiment, write down your observations in the space below:

You should notice that the water heights within the static tubes are different and smaller than the height

of the reservoir. This is different from what our mathematical model predicted, yet our mathematical model
was based on a sound concept of physics: conservation of energy. We can ask the following questions:

a. Why are our calculated values different?

b. Is our model or the physical principle upon which it is based wrong?

c. How do we answer these questions?

1.3.4 Designing Experiments

Undoubtedly, the above questions are difficult to answer (and this happens a lot in Fluid Mechanics).
However, we can rely on experimentation to attempt to answer these questions. Broadly defined

experimentation comprises the following:

a. Motivation
b. Hypothesise
c. Plan your experiment:

a. What are the current gaps in scientific understanding?

b. How will you run the experiment?

c. What material will you need?

d. Run the experiment and record the results.

e. Analyse your data and draw conclusions relating to your hypothesis.

We are going to use this technique to learn about why we are noticing a difference in the

water heights within our static tubes.

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Before we begin let’s learn about the word hypothesis. Answer the following questions:

1.3.6 Write in your own words what you think to hypothesise means:

1.3.7 Write down the results of a google search to the above question:

1.3.8 Now write down the motivation for your experiment below:

1.3.9 What is your hypothesis?

1.3.10 What is your plan?

1.3.10.1 What are the current gaps in understanding?

1.3.10.2 What equipment will you use in this experiment?

1.3.11 Draw your experiment and label important things (hint: pipe length may be important):

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1.3.12 Write down how you will run the experiment below:

1.3.13 We are now ready to run our experiment. Write your observations for two experiment runs below:

Run 1 Run 2

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We can now move on to analysing and interpreting our results. It may not be clear how to best analyse

and interpret these results. If not, consider the question: How do you apply your results to a pipeline that
is 70km long comprising a concrete circular pipe with a 1.5m diameter?

This is where the principles of Dimensional Analysis can help us. We must first define what a dimension is,
and how we can use it before we can exploit Dimensional Analysis to generalise our results.

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1.4 Dimensions and Units

1.4.1 Lesson Outcomes

• Gain knowledge of dimensions and units.

• Develop an understanding of the practical advantage of using dimensions to interpret experimental

results.
• Learn how to form dimensionless groups.

1.4.2 What is a dimension?

Let’s start with the difference between a dimension and a unit. Dimensions and units are related, but they
are NOT equal.

Unit: All physical quantities are measured in units, e.g. a unit for Mass could be gram or

kilogram.

*** Pause ***

Re-read the above definition of unit and identify a dimension; circle the word you think is the dimension.

Dimension: A dimension of a physical quantity is independent of units

There are four basic2 dimensions we use in fluid mechanics: mass - M, length - L, time - T, and
temperature – 𝛳. The four basic dimensions can be combined to form other dimensions; for example, a

Velocity dimension is formed using Length and Time dimensions as V = LT-1.

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Here we define basic as something that is fundamental and cannot be divided further.

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1.4 Complete the following table:

Quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit

Length 𝐋 L cm

Area 𝐀

Volume 𝒱

Velocity 𝐕 LT-1 m/s

Acceleration 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡
Speed of sound 𝑎

Volume flow 𝑄

Mass flow 𝑚̇ kg/s

Pressure, stress 𝑝, 𝜎, 𝜏 mmHg, Pa

Strain rate 𝜖̇ s-1

Angle 𝜃

Angular Velocity 𝜔, Ω

Viscosity 𝜇 Pa.s, cp (centipoise)

Kinematic viscosity 𝜈

Surface tension Υ

Force 𝐅 MLT-2

Moment, torque 𝐌

Power 𝐏

Work, energy 𝐖, 𝐄

Density 𝜌

Temperature 𝐓

Specific heat 𝑐𝑝 , 𝑐𝜐 J/(kg K)

Specific weight 𝛾

Thermal conductivity 𝑘 W/(m.K)

Thermal expansion 𝛽

coefficient

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1.4.3 Practical Motivation
Dimensional analysis reduces the number and complexity of experimental variables that affect a given

phenomenon by combining them in a special way (we will learn how to do this later). Consider our
experiment/problem. Firstly, we should express the head loss as a pressure drop (since this is what it is). So

we can write:
Δ𝑃 = 𝑓(𝜖, 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝐿, 𝜌, 𝜇) ( 1-1)

where Δ𝑃 is the pressure drop, 𝜖 is the pipe roughness, 𝐷 is the pipe diameter, 𝑉 is the velocity, 𝐿 is the
pipe length, 𝜌 is the density of the fluid, and 𝜇 is the dynamic viscosity3 of the fluid.

1.4.4 Developing relationships

Broadly speaking, it takes approximately 10 points to draw a curve. To find the effect of pipe length in Eq.

( 1-1) we will need to run our experiment 10 times. For each 𝐿, we will need 10 values of 𝜖, 10 values of 𝐷,
… etc. In total, we will need 106 (1 Million) experiments; suppose it costs R1000.00 to run an experiment,

and you can see the practical problem we run into. However, with dimensional analysis, we can reduce Eq.
( 1-1) to the following:

Δ𝑃 𝜖 𝐿 𝜌𝑉𝐷 ( 1-2)
2
= 𝑓( , , )
𝜌𝑉 𝐷 𝐷 𝜇
The LHS term is known as the coefficient of pressure, often written as
Δ𝑃 ( 1-3)
𝐶𝑃 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑉

You have come across one of the terms on the RHS in your previous fluids course.

1.4.1 Which term on the RHS is the Reynolds number?

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Dynamic viscosity is broadly defined as the fluids resistance to motion (motion of a fluid typically arises due to shear stress
acting on the fluid) at a molecular level.

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1.4.5 Dimensional Homogeneity
Consider the following cartoon relationship:

( )+( ) = 10
The relationship reads that 2x apples + 2x bananas = 10x cars. This should be immediately rejected as

nonsense. There are no links4 between the left-hand side of the equation and the right-hand side of the
equation.

If an equation truly expresses a proper relationship between variables in a physical

process, it will be dimensionally homogeneous; that is, each of its additive terms will have

the same dimensions.

Some simple problems:

Consider the relation that expresses the displacement of a falling body

1 ( 1-4)
𝑆 = 𝑆0 + 𝑉0 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
where 𝑆0 is the initial position, 𝑉0 is the initial velocity, 𝑡 is the time and 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity.
The dimension of 𝑆 is [L] (length).

1.4.2 What are the dimensions of the remaining terms?

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Here we define a link as something that joins two systems together either numerically, physically or dimensionally.

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Let’s get more complicated. Consider flow within a stream-tube5 as shown below. Considering the forces

acting on the fluid (pressure and weight) and assuming the fluid has a constant density and the flow is
inviscid, it is possible to derive Euler’s equation Eq.( 1-5).

𝑑 1 ( 1-5)
(𝑃 + 𝜌𝑉 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧) = 0
𝑑𝑠 2

Considering the first term the dimensions are

𝑑𝑃 𝑃 𝐹 𝑀𝐿
[ ] = [ ] = [ ] = [ 2 2 ] = [𝑀𝐿−2 𝑇 −2 ]
𝑑𝑠 𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝑇 𝐿𝐿
1.4.3 Is Euler’s equation dimensionally homogeneous? Show your workings below.

Before we go on, there are some important definitions that enter dimensional analysis
Dimensional variables

are the quantities that actually vary during a given case and would be plotted against each other
to show the data. In Eq. ( 1-4), they are S and t; in Eq. ( 1-5), they are p, s, V, and z. All have

dimensions, and all can be nondimensionalized as a dimensional analysis technique.

Dimensional constants

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The concept of a stream-tube arises when trying to describe fluid motion in terms of streamlines (lines across which no fluid
is flowing – the fluid is moving in the same direction as the streamline). A bundle of neighbouring streamlines that form a
passage through which the fluid flows is known as a stream-tube.

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 may vary from case to case but are held constant during a given run. In Eq. ( 1-4) they are S0, V0,

and g, and in Eq. ( 1-5) they are ρ and g. They all have dimensions and conceivably could be
nondimensional- ized, but they are normally used to help nondimensionalize the variables in the

problem.
Pure constants

have no dimensions and never did. They arise from mathematical manipulations. In both Eqs. (
1-4) and ( 1-5) they are 1/2 and the exponent 2, both of which came from an integration: ∫t dt

=1/2t2, ∫V dV = 1/2V2. Other common dimensionless constants are π and e. Also, the argument of
any mathematical function, such as ln, exp, cos, or J0, is dimensionless.

Angles and revolutions are dimensionless.

The preferred unit for an angle is the radian, which makes it clear that an angle is a ratio. In like

manner, a revolution is 2π radians.

Counting numbers are dimensionless.

For example, if we triple the energy E to 3E, the coefficient 3 is dimensionless.

1.4.6 Forming Dimensionless Groups

So how do we form dimensionless groups? We need to rely on the following:
• Physical intuition, insight which comes from experience. We need to select a set of important

parameters that we suspect describe the system.

• Buckingham PI theorem.
• Create scaling parameters that do not contain dependent variables or those you may suspect as
not important.

1.4.7 Buckingham PI Theorem

Here the Pi comes from the mathematical symbol ∏ and means the product of variables. The dimensional
groups found using the Pi theorem are denoted with subscripts as ∏1, ∏2, …

The results of the Buckingham Pi theorem explain what reduction in variables to expect as

The number of independent dimensionless groups (∏s) of variables (n) needed to

describe a system is (n-m), where m is the number of basic dimensions.

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Considering our head loss problem Eq. ( 1-1) contains 7 variables 𝑃, 𝜖, 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝐿, 𝜌, 𝜇 with 3 basic dimensions

[MLT]. We should therefore expect 4 ∏ groups.

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1.4.8 Forming Groups
We will use the Method of Scales to apply the Pi theorem.

Aim: To gain physical insight and help us generalise.

Key variables
- n, the number of variables

- m, the number of dimensions

1.4.8.1 Method of Scales Summary

1. Use physical insight, intuition and/or experience.

2. Select a subset of m variables that cannot form a ∏ group amongst themselves. All m variables
(considered together) should contain all m dimensions.

3. Derive the scaling parameters using the m variables from Step 2.

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Problem: Flow over a weir

Consider the flow of water over a wide, sharp-crested weir, as depicted in the figure below. Find
dimensionless groups that can be used to characterise the scenario.

1.4.4 Find four important parameters that describe the system? (hints: consider the height of the water

above the weir – or relative to the weir H. Another 3 variables have time dimensions). Write their
dimensions next to each variable:

[ ]

[𝐻] 𝐿
[ ]
[ ]

1.4.5 How many Pi groups can be formed?

1.4.6 Which two variables will you select as scaling parameters and why?

1.4.7 Construct scaling parameters using the two variables you selected in 1.4.6 in the space below.

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1.4.8 Use the two variables above to non-dimensionalise the remaining parameters.

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Problem 2: Head loss in a pipe

Find dimensionless groups that can be used to describe the head loss in a pipe, where Δ𝑃 =
𝑓(𝜖, 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝐿, 𝜌, 𝜇)

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1.5 Dimensional Similarity

1.5.1 Learning outcomes

• Gain knowledge on key concepts: geometric similarity, kinematic similarity, dynamic similarity.
• Apply dimensional analysis to the scaling of physical models.

1.5.2 Problem: Recap

Consider the problem:
Water at 20 degrees Celsius flows through a long, straight and smooth pipe. The pressure drop is

measured along a section of the pipe of length L = 1.5 m as a function of average velocity 𝑈 and pipe
diameter 𝐷 and tabulated below. What is the expected pressure drop for an average velocity of 75 m/s?
Table 1-1 Measured pressure drop for various velocities.

U (m/s) 0.5 1 2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
ΔP
0.077 0.3 1.2 4.85 10.9 19.5 30.5 68.3 121.5 190 273 372.1 485.25
(kPa)

This is an example of an ill-posed problem, can you remember where we have come

across this before (hint: think of ECSA)

We will work through this problem step by step to develop a method for tackling complex problems.

Step 1: Read.
1.5 Re-read the question and write it in your own words below.

Step 2: Simplify/Gather important variables.

1.5.1 Write down the given variables and their values in the question below.

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Step 3: Understand what is being asked by identifying gaps.

1.5.2 Based on your current knowledge, write down what you think the question is asking.

Step 4: Make a sketch.

1.5.3 Sketch the problem.

Step 5: Think carefully and list assumptions.

1.5.4 Recall what you have recently learnt about dimensional analysis. Can you non-dimensionalise the

data in Table 1-1? What assumptions do you need to make?

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Step 6: Identify (or apply) relationships between variables.

1.5.5 Write down the non-dimensional terms (∏ groups) below.

Step 7: Report your solution.

As engineers, we need to go beyond technical calculations (all previous questions). We must draw
conclusions from data/calculations/theory to develop solutions to complex engineering problems. To do

this, we must draw on our knowledge of natural sciences and/or mathematics.

1.5.6 Based on all the information in our original question, can we estimate the pressure drop for U=75
m/s?

1.5.7 What could we do with our data along with some of our answers above to predict the pressure

drop for U=75 m/s?

The answer to the above question is to plot the non-dimensional terms. In other words, plotting the data
will show us if there are useful relationships between the various variables without developing these

relationships from fundamentals. In this specific example you will see that Cp is constant above a certain
point. This is powerful because it is independent of pipe diameter or more fundamentally it is independent

of the Reynolds number.

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1.5.3 Similarity
As experimentalists, we wish to achieve similarity between our experiment and the “real-world” problem.

What does similarity mean?

1.5.8 Write down in your own words what you think ‘we’ as engineers consider as the idea of similarity?

As engineers, we consider geometric similarity, kinematic similarity and dynamic similarity (technically,

there is one more: thermal similarity, but we will not consider that in this course). Let’s define each of these
below.

Geometric similarity

1. All corresponding lengths (body dimensions in all three coordinates) have the same

ratio.
2. All angles are the same for BOTH the model and prototype.

We can express this algebraically as

𝐿𝑚
= 𝜆𝐿 ( 1-6)
𝐿𝑝

where 𝜆𝐿 is the scale factor of length.

Geometric similarity is best illustrated in Figure 1-2 showing a one-tenth-scale model (NB: are the angles

the same?)

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Figure 1-2 Geometric similarity in model testing: (left) prototype; (right) one-tenth-scale model. The red star indicates a point with the same
relative location.

Kinematic Similarity

For motions to be kinematically similar, the velocity patterns in the two systems must

show a consistent relationship at corresponding coordinates.

Written algebraically,
𝑈𝑚
= 𝜆𝑈 , ( 1-7)
𝑈𝑝

𝐿𝑚 𝑇𝑝 𝜆
= 𝜆𝐿 ,
𝐿𝑝 𝑇𝑚 𝑇

where 𝜆 𝑇 is the scale factor of time. Importantly Eq. ( 1-7) reveals that kinematic similarity requires BOTH
a consistent length scale ratio and a consistent time scale ratio.

Figure 1-3 Frictionless low-speed flows are kinematically similar: Flows with no free surface are kinematically similar with independent length
and time scale ratios.

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1.5.3.1 Free surface

Something that may not be obvious to you is the complexity associated with a free surface. Loosely

speaking a surface occurs at the interface between two fluids with different densities. For example, the
ocean.

1.5.9 Between which two fluids does a surface occur at the ocean?

When the density difference between the two fluids is very large (eg, water and gas) we refer to this
surface as a free surface.
We use the Froude number in such cases to kinematically scale models with their real-world prototypes.
The Froude number is defined as
𝑉2 ( 1-8)
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔ℎ
where 𝑉 is the velocity, 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity and ℎ is a length scale such as water depth for

example. You should note that the Froude number contains only length and time dimensions and so it can
be used to fix the relationship between length and time as follows:

if 𝐿𝑚 = λL 𝐿𝑃 , then
𝑉2
𝐹𝑟𝑚 = 𝑔𝐿𝑚 = 𝑔𝐿𝑃 = 𝐹𝑟𝑃 ,
𝑉2 ( 1-9)
𝑚 𝑃

𝑉𝑚 𝐿𝑚 1/2
=( ) ,
𝑉𝑃 𝐿𝑃
𝑉𝑚
= √𝜆𝐿 ,
𝑉𝑃

the time scale ratio can be calculated as

𝑉𝑚
=
𝐿𝑚
÷ 𝑇𝑃 =
𝐿 𝐿𝑚 𝑇 𝑃
. , ( 1-10)
𝑉𝑃 𝑇𝑚 𝑃 𝑇𝑚 𝐿𝑃

𝜆𝐿 𝑇𝑝
√𝜆𝐿 = ,
𝑇𝑚

𝑇𝑚 𝜆𝐿
= = √𝜆𝐿 .
𝑇𝑃 √𝜆𝐿

NB: If viscosity, surface tension, or compressibility is important, kinematic similarity depends on the

achievement of dynamic similarity.

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 Dynamic Similarity
Systems that exhibit similarity between their force patterns are said to be dynamically

similar.

1.5.10 What three scale ratios are required for something to be dynamically similar (hint: follow the steps

from above)

NB: strict similarity (having the same ratios for all forms of similarity) is impossible
except at a scale ratio of 1

Problem 3: Flying wings

A prototype aeroplane, with a chord length of 1.6 m, is to fly at Ma = 2 at 10 km standard altitude. A one-
eighth scale model will be tested in a helium wind tunnel at 100 ℃ and 1 atm. Find the helium test section

velocity that will match (a) the Mach number or (b) the Reynolds number of the prototype. In each case,
criticise the lack of dynamic similarity. (c) What high pressure in the helium tunnel will match both the Mach

and Reynolds numbers? (d) Why does part (c) still not achieve dynamic similarity?

Step 1

1.5.11 Define the Mach number (Ma)

1.5.12 What parameters do we need when calculating the Re?

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1.5.13 What variables (and their values) do we have?

1.5.14 From the Question above, write down the missing variable?

1.5.15 There is a clue on how to calculate the missing variable in the above question, can you find it, write
it down below?

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We know that to calculate Ma we need the speed of sound, but how do we calculate the speed of sound

in a gas like Helium? White (2015) [AKA your textbook] goes into great detail here in chapter 9.2. It is
strongly recommended that you go through this in your own time. However, it can be shown that in an

ideal gas the speed of sound can be calculated as

𝑎 = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 ( 1-11)

where k is the ratio of specific heats, R is the ideal gas constant and T is the temperature.
To continue answering our question we will also need the following table from White (2015)

Table 1-2 Properties of Common Gases at 1 atm and 208C (688F) after White (2015)

Let’s continue
1.5.16 What is the dynamic viscosity of Helium at 100 °C and 1 atm?

1.5.17 What is the velocity of the Helium in the wind tunnel to achieve a Ma = 2?

1.5.18 Critically evaluate the answer in terms of dynamic similarity:

1.5.18.1 What dimensionless number will help us calculate if we are dynamically similar?

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To calculate the Re we will need to density of air at 10,000 m, standard atmosphere and the density of
𝑝
Helium at 100 °C, 1 atm. (hints: 𝜌𝐻𝑒 = ( ) , you may need to refer to table Table 1-2)
𝑅𝑇 𝐻𝑒

1.5.18.2 Compare the Re for air and Helium in the space below

1.5.19 Let’s complete the problem by answering (b). If we ignore the Ma and focus only on the Re

equivalence, what must the velocity of Helium be?

1.5.20 Is this reasonable? (hint: what is the Ma?)

1.5.21 To answer (c) we need to calculate the following:

1.5.21.1 What is the density of Helium required to match the Ma and the Re? (hint: what did we use from
the Ma in the Re?)

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1.5.21.2 Convert density to pressure below, is this a reasonable pressure?

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Table 1-3 Properties of the standard atmosphere after White (2015)

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1.5.22 Lastly, why do you think we cannot achieve dynamic similarity? (hint: have a look at Table 1-2).

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2 Boundary Layers
2.1 Reading
FMW (chp 6, 7)
CMB (chp 3)

2.2 Section Learning Outcomes

• Explain the key qualitative features of boundary layers.

• Explain the evolution of key boundary layer parameters: thickness and surface shear stress.
• Apply boundary layer analysis to the calculation of skin friction drag.

• Explain boundary layer separation and estimate the resulting pressure/form drag of bluff bodies.

2.3 Lesson Outcomes

• Gain knowledge on key features of boundary layers.
• Gain knowledge on turbulence.

2.3.1 Recap: Pipe Flow

Do you remember our pipe flow experiment? Figure 2-1 shows our pipe flow experiment with the hydraulic

grade line. Importantly, we saw that the water's height in each static tube decreases with distance.

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Figure 2-1 Pipe flow experiment showing the effect of friction on flow in pipes. The red dashed line indicates the hydraulic grade line.6

2.3.1 What physical phenomenon causes the water height in each tube to decrease?

2.3.2 Write the relationship between Δ𝑃, 𝜖, 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝐿, 𝜌, 𝜇 in a non-dimensional form that best describes
the process you outlined above.

Dimensional analysis got us far in showing that there is a relationship between Δ𝑃, 𝜖, 𝐷, 𝑉, 𝐿, 𝜌, 𝜇 that allows
us to make predictions about how the system will behave for various states. However, dimensional analysis
couldn’t explain why there is this relationship. To answer that question, we must dive into the physics of

the problem. There is no doubt that this is a complex engineering problem.

2.3.3 Write down the seven steps we can use to help us answer this problem.

6
The hydraulic grade line (often abbreviated to HGL) is the line that connects all heights a liquid will rise when exposed to the
atmosphere along a pipeline or river.

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Let’s sketch the problem. Consider the force balance shown in Figure 2-2 below.

Figure 2-2 Force balance along the axis of a pipe for steady flow.

It can be shown using the conservation of momentum (force balance) and the conservation of energy

that for a steady uniform flow

ℎ𝑓 =
4𝜏0 𝐿
, ( 2-1)
𝜌𝑔𝐷
1
𝜏0 ≈ 2 𝐶𝑓 𝜌𝑉 2 ,
4𝐶𝑓 𝐿𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = ,
2𝑔

where 𝜏0 is the wall shear stress and 𝐶𝑓 is the coefficient of friction. We have come across the other

variables before.

We will not solve the governing equations to derive the final form of ℎ𝑓 in terms of 𝐶𝑓 , 𝐿, 𝑉 and 𝑔 in Eq. (

2-1), you will come across this later during the course. However, for the purpose of this section in the

course we will start by asking the question: why is there a wall shear stress?

2.3.4 Spend 2 minutes thinking about the answer to the above question. Discuss this with your
colleague and write the answer below.

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To answer the above question, we need to zoom in and focus on what happens at the boundary between

the fluid and the pipe wall.

2.3.2 Flow over a flat plate

Let’s watch the following video (click to play)

2.3.5 Write down three takeaways from the video below:

2.3.2.1 Key concepts

Consider Figure 2-3 showing a spatially developing boundary layer, summarising the previous video. We
can summarise the various zones along the boundary layer as follows:

Table 2-1 summary of the flow classification and velocity profile within the boundary layer along a flat plate.

Distance from Leading Edge Flow Velocity Profile

Up to x1 Laminar parabolic
x1 to x2 Transitional Varies, uncertain

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 From x2 to x3 Turbulent (attached) Logarithmic

From x3 to trailing edge (against Turbulent (seprated) Partly reversed and forward
a positive (adverse) pressure

gradient).

Figure 2-3 spatially developing boundary layer along a flat plate

Table 2-1 reveals two new concepts that may be unfamiliar to you; they are: a) turbulence and b) the
adverse pressure gradient. We will deal with the adverse pressure gradient in a later section. However it is

important to pause at this point and discuss turbulence.

2.3.3 Turbulence
The best way to introduce the concept of turbulence in fluid mechanics is by using a visualisation. What

you will quickly realise is that most environmental/or engineering flows are, in fact, turbulent. Laminar flow
is the exception. We will use the Reynolds experiment to demonstrate the concept of laminar, transitional

and turbulent flow.

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The Reynolds experiment is best summarised in Figure 2-4, and the results are summarised in the animations shown in Figure 2-5 to y]

Figure 2-7.

Figure 2-4 Sketch of the Reynolds experiment.

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 𝑈𝐷
We will explore what happens to the red dye filament for various Re. Recall that Re = ,
𝜈

2.3.6 In the demonstration, which is the only variable we can change to change the Re?

You will be divided into three groups, each tasked to replicate Figure 2-5, Figure 2-6 and y]

Figure 2-7. Click to watch each figure based on your group and answer

2.3.7 What will you need to do to achieve the desired flow pattern?

2.3.8 What will you need to measure to calculate the Re?

2.3.9 Carry out your experiment for the rest of the class to see. Calculate and share the value of the
Re with the other class members.

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Figure 2-5 Schematic showing low Re number flows (click to play).

Figure 2-6 Schematic showing transitional flow (with an eddying motion). [click to play]

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Figure 2-7 Schematic showing fully developed turbulent flow with a cascade of scales of motion. [click to play]

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2.4 Lesson Outcomes
• Calculate boundary layer growth.
• Learn how to calculate boundary layer thickness.

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