PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT-4: ELECTRICAL MACHINES

GENERATION OF ROTATING MAGNETIC FIELDS:

When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
produced. This field is such that its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator but
go on shifting their positions around the stator. For this reason, it is called a rotating field.

It can be shown that the magnitude of this rotating field is constant and is equal to 1.5 fm
where fm is the maximum flux due to any phase.

A three-phase induction motor consists of three phases winding as its stationary part called
stator. The three-phase stator winding is connected in star or delta.

The three-phase windings are displaced from each other by 120°. The windings are supplied
by a balanced three phase ac supply.

The three-phase currents flow simultaneously through the windings and are displaced from
each other by 120° electrical. Each alternating phase current produces its own flux which is
sinusoidal.

So all three fluxes are sinusoidal and are separated from each other by 120°.
If the phase sequence of the windings is R-Y-B, then mathematical equations for the
instantaneous values of the three fluxes ΦR , ΦY ,ΦB can be written as,
 ΦR = Φmsin(ωt)
ΦY = Φmsin(ωt – 120)
ΦB = Φmsin(ωt – 240)
As windings are identical and supply is balanced, the magnitude of each flux is Φm .

Waveforms of three fluxes and their positive directions

Case 1 : ωt = 0 Case 2 : ωt = 60
ΦR = Φmsin(0) = 0 ΦR = Φmsin(60) = +0.866 Φm
ΦY = Φmsin(0 – 120) = -0.866 Φm ΦY = Φmsin(- 60) = -0.866 Φm
ΦB = Φmsin(0 – 240) = +0.866 Φm ΦB = Φmsin(- 180) = 0

Case 3 : ωt = 120 Case 4 : ωt = 180

ΦR = Φmsin(120) = +0.866 Φm ΦR = Φmsin(180) = 0
ΦY = Φmsin(0) = 0 ΦY = Φmsin(60) = +.866 Φm
ΦB = Φmsin(- 120) = -0.866 Φm ΦB = Φmsin(- 60) = -0.866 Φm

By comparing the electrical and phasor diagrams we can find the flux rotates one complete
360 degrees on the 180-degree displacement of flux.
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR: Construction

Types:
There are two types of 3-phase induction motor based on the type of rotor used:

✓ Squirrel cage induction motor.

✓ Slip ring induction motor.

Slip-ring induction motor over squirrel cage Induction motor

Advantages:
➢ It is possible to speed control by regulating rotor resistance.
➢ High starting torque of 200 to 250% of full load voltage.
➢ Low starting current of the order of 250 to 300% of the full load current.
➢ Hence slip ring induction motors are used where one or more of the above
requirements are to be met.
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS
Conversion of electrical power into mechanical power takes place in the rotating part
of an electric motor. In A.C. motors, rotor receives electric power by induction in exactly the
same way as the secondary of a two-winding transformer receives its power from the
primary. Hence such motors are known as a rotating transformer i.e. one in which primary
winding is stationary but the secondary is free to rotate.

An induction motor essentially consists of two main parts:

✓ STATOR and
✓ ROTOR

Stator:
➢ The stator of an induction motor is in principle, the same as that of a synchronous
motor (or) generator.
➢ It is made up of a number of stampings, which are slotted to receive the windings.
➢ The stator carries a 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply.
➢ It is wound for a definite number of poles, the exact number of poles being
determined by the requirements of speed.
➢ The number of poles are higher, lesser the speed and vice-versa.
➢ The stator winding, when supplied with a 3-phase currents, produce a magnetic flux,
which is of constant magnitude but which revolves at synchronous speed
(Ns = 120 x f / p).
➢ This revolving magnetic flux induces emf in rotor by mutual induction.

Rotor:
❖ Squirrel cage Rotor
❖ Phase wound (or) slip-ring Rotor

SQUIRREL CAGE ROTOR:

➢ Almost 90 percentage of induction motors are squirrel-cage type, because this type
of rotor has the simplest and most rugged construction imaginable and is almost
indestructible.
➢ The Rotor consists of cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the
rotor conductors which, it should be noted clearly, are not wires but consists of heavy
bars of copper, aluminium or alloys.
➢ One bar is placed in each slot; rather the bars are inserted from the end when semi-
enclosed slots are used.
➢ The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded or bolted to two heavy and stout
short circuiting end-rings, thus giving us, what is called a squirrel cage construction.
 ➢ The Rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on themselves; hence it is not
possible to add any external Resistance in series with the Rotor circuit for starting
purposes.
➢ The rotor slots are not quite parallel to the shaft but are purposely given a slight skew.
This is useful in two ways.
➢ It helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum and
➢ It helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor. i.e. the tendency of the rotor
teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the
two.

PHASE-WOUND ROTOR:
➢ This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double-layer, distributed winding
consisting of coils are used in alternators.
➢ The Rotor is wound for as many poles as the number of stator poles and is always
wound 3-phase even when the stator is wound for two-phase.
➢ The three phases are shorted internally.
➢ The other three winding terminals are slip-rings mounted on the shaft with brushes
resting on them.
➢ These three brushes are further externally connected to a 3-phase star connected
Rheostat.
➢ This makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit
during the starting period for increasing the starting torque of the motor.
When running under normal conditions, slip-rings are automatically short circuited by
means of a metal collar, which is pushed along the shaft and connects all the rings together.

Frame: Made of close-grained alloy cast iron.

Stator and Rotor core: Built from high quality low loss silicon steel laminations and flash
enameled on both sides.

Stator and Rotor windings: Have moisture proof tropical insulation and embodying mica
and high quality varnishes are carefully spaced for most effective air circulation and are
rigidly braced to withstand centrifugal forces and any short circuit stresses.

Air gap: The stator rabbets and bore are machined carefully to ensure uniformity of air gap.

Shaft and Bearings: Ball and roller bearings are used to suit heavy duty, trouble free
running and for enhanced service life.

Fans: Light aluminium fans are used for adequate circulation of cooling air and are securely
keyed onto the Rotor shaft.

Slip-Rings and Slip-Ring Enclosures: Slip rings are made of high quality phosphor bronze
and are of molded construction.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

(1) When the 3 phase stator winding is energised from a 3 phase supply, a rotating magnetic
field is produced which rotates around the stator at synchronous speed.

(2) The rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor conductors, which as yet, are stationary. Due
to this flux cutting, emfs are induced in the rotor conductors. As rotor circuit is short
circuited, therefore, currents start flowing in it.

(3) Now, as per Lenz's law , "the direction of induced current will be such that it opposes the
very cause that produced it " .

(4) Here, the cause of emf induction is the relative motion between the rotating field and the
stationary rotor conductors. Hence, to reduce this relative motion, the rotor starts rotating
in the same direction as that of the stator field and tries to catch it but, can never catch it due
to friction and windage and therefore emf induction continues and motor keeps rotating.

Thus, principle of 3 phase induction motor also explains why rotor rotates in same
direction as the rotating field and why induction motor is self starting.

When rotor winding is short-circuited with no resistance in series, it is called a squirrel cage
induction motor and when rotor winding is shorted through a resistance in series, it is
called slip ring induction motor.

Whatever be the type, working principle basically remains the same.

Torque equation of three phase induction motor

Torque of a three phase induction motor is proportional to flux per stator pole, rotor
current and the power factor of the rotor.

T ∝ ɸ I2 cosɸ2 OR T = k ɸ I2 cosɸ2 .

where, ɸ = flux per stator pole,

I2 = rotor current at standstill,
ɸ2 = angle between rotor emf and rotor current,
k = a constant.

Now, let E2 = rotor emf at standstill

We know, rotor emf is directly proportional to flux per stator pole, i.e. E 2 ∝ ɸ.
therefore, T ∝ E2 I2 cosɸ2 OR T =k1 E2 I2 cosɸ2.

Starting torque
The torque developed at the instant of starting of a motor is called as starting torque. Starting
torque may be greater than running torque in some cases, or it may be lesser.
We know, T =k1 E2 I2 cosɸ2.

let, R2 = rotor resistance per phase

X2 = standstill rotor reactance

then,

Therefore, starting torque can be given as,

The constant k1 = 3 / 2πNs

Condition for maximum starting torque

If supply voltage V is kept constant, then flux ɸ and E2 both remains constant. Hence,
Hence, it can be proved that maximum starting torque is obtained when rotor resistance
is equal to standstill rotor reactance. i.e. R 22 + X22 =2R22 .
Torque under running condition
T ∝ ɸ Ir cosɸ2 .
where, Er = rotor emf per phase under running condition = sE2. (s=slip)
Ir = rotor current per phase under running condition
reactance per phase under running condition will be = sX2
therefore,

as, ɸ ∝ E2.

Maximum torque under running condition

Torque under running condition is maximum at the value of slip (s) which makes rotor
reactance per phase equal to rotor resistance per phase.

Torque SlipCharacteristic of an Induction Motor

The Torque Slip Characteristic is represented by a rectangular hyperbola. For the
immediate value of the slip, the graph changes from one form to the other. Thus, it passes
through the point of maximum torque when R2 = sX20. The maximum torque developed in an
induction motor is called the Pull Out Torque or the Breakdown Torque. This torque is a
measure of the short time overloading capability of the motor.
The torque slip characteristic curve is divided roughly into three regions. They are given
below.
➢ Low slip region
➢ Medium slip region
➢ High slip region

The torque equation of the induction motor is given below.

 i. Low Slip Region
At the synchronous speed, s = 0, therefore, the torque is zero. When the speed is very near
to synchronous speed. The slip is very low and (sX20)2 is negligible in comparison with R2.
Therefore,

If R2 is constant, the torque becomes

When k2 = k1/R2
From the equation (1) shown above, it is clear that the torque is proportional to slip. Hence,
in the normal working region of the motor, the value of the slip is small. The torque slip curve
is a straight line.

ii. Medium SlipRegion

As the slip increases, the speed of the motor decreases with the increase in load. The term
(sX20)2 becomes large. The term R22 may be neglected in comparison with the term
(sX20)2 and the torque equation becomes as shown below.

At the standstill condition, the torque is inversely proportional to the slip.

iii. HighSlipRegion
Beyond the maximum torque point, the value of torque starts decreasing. As a result, the
motor slows down and stops. At this stage, the overload protection must immediately
disconnect the motor from the supply to prevent damage due to overheating of the motor.
The motor operates for the values of the slip between s = 0 and s = s M. Where, sM is the value
of the slip corresponding to the maximum torque. For a typical induction motor, the pull-out
torque is 2 to 3 times the rated full load torque. The starting torque is about 1.5 times the
rated full load torque.

The curve shown below shows the Torque Slip Characteristic of the Induction Motor.
Losses and Efficiency of Induction Motor
There are two types of losses occur in three phase induction motor. These losses are,
➢ Constant or fixed losses,
➢ Variable losses.

❖ Constant or Fixed Losses

Constant losses are those losses which are considered to remain constant over normal
working range of induction motor. The fixed losses can be easily obtained by performing no-
load test on the three phase induction motor. These losses are further classified as-
✓ Iron or core losses,
✓ Mechanical losses,
✓ Brush friction losses.

Iron or Core Losses

Iron or core losses are further divided into hysteresis and eddy current losses. Eddy current
losses are minimized by using lamination on core. Since by laminating the core, area
decreases and hence resistance increases, which results in decrease in eddy currents.
Hysteresis losses are minimized by using high grade silicon steel. The core losses depend
upon frequency of the supply voltage. The frequency of stator is always supply frequency, f
and the frequency of rotor is slip times the supply frequency, (sf) which is always less than
the stator frequency. For stator frequency of 50 Hz, rotor frequency is about 1.5 Hz because
under normal running condition slip is of the order of 3 %. Hence the rotor core loss is very
small as compared to stator core loss and is usually neglected in running conditions.

Mechanical and Brush Friction Losses

Mechanical losses occur at the bearing and brush friction loss occurs in wound rotor
induction motor. These losses are zero at start and with increase in speed these losses
increases. In three phase induction motor the speed usually remains constant. Hence these
losses almost remains constant.

Variable Losses
These losses are also called copper losses. These losses occur due to current flowing in
stator and rotor windings. As the load changes, the current flowing in rotor and stator
winding also changes and hence these losses also changes. Therefore these losses are called
variable losses. The copper losses are obtained by performing blocked rotor test on three
phase induction motor. The main function of induction motor is to convert an electrical
power into mechanical power. During this conversion of electrical energy into mechanical
energy the power flows through different stages.
Efficiency of Three Phase Induction Motor
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the output to that of input,

Rotor efficiency of the three phase induction motor ,

= Gross mechanical power developed / rotor input

Three phase induction motor efficiency,

Three phase induction motor efficiency

The Speed of Induction Motor is changed from Both Stator and Rotor Side.
❖ The speed control of three phase induction motor from stator side are further classified
as :
✓ V / f control or frequency control.
✓ Changing the number of stator poles.
✓ Controlling supply voltage.
✓ Adding rheostat in the stator circuit.

❖ The speed controls of three phase induction motor from rotor side are further classified
as:
✓ Adding external resistance on rotor side.
✓ Cascade control method.
✓ Injecting slip frequency emf into rotor side.

Speed Control from Stator Side

a) V / f Control or Frequency Control
Whenever three phase supply is given to three phase induction motor rotating
magnetic field is produced which rotates at synchronous speed given by

In three phase induction motor emf is induced by induction similar to that of transformer
which is given by

Where, K is the winding constant, T is the number of turns per phase and f is frequency. Now
if we change frequency synchronous speed changes but with decrease in frequency flux will
increase and this change in value of flux causes saturation of rotor and stator cores which
will further cause increase in no load current of the motor . So, its important to maintain flux
, φ constant and it is only possible if we change voltage. i.e if we decrease frequency flux
increases but at the same time if we decrease voltage flux will also decease causing no change
in flux and hence it remains constant. So, here we are keeping the ratio of V/f as constant.
Hence its name is V/ f method. For controlling the speed of three phase induction motor by
V/f method we have to supply variable voltage and frequency which is easily obtained by
using converter and inverter set.

b) Controlling Supply Voltage

The torque produced by running three phase induction motor is given by

In low slip region (sX)2 is very very small as compared to R2. So, it can be neglected. So torque
becomes

Since rotor resistance, R2 is constant so the equation of torque further reduces to

We know that rotor induced emf, E2 ∝ V. So, T ∝ sV2.

The equation above clears that if we decrease supply voltage torque will also decrease. But
for supplying the same load, the torque must remain the same, and it is only possible if we
increase the slip and if the slip increases the motor will run at a reduced speed. This method
of speed control is rarely used because a small change in speed requires a large reduction in
voltage, and hence the current drawn by motor increases, which cause overheating of the
induction motor.

c) Changing the number of stator poles:

The stator poles can be changed by two methods
✓ Multiple stator winding method.
✓ Pole amplitude modulation method (PAM)

Multiple Stator Winding Method

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, we provide two separate
windings in the stator. These two stator windings are electrically isolated from each other
and are wound for two different numbers of poles. Using a switching arrangement, at a time,
supply is given to one winding only and hence speed control is possible. Disadvantages of
this method are that the smooth speed control is not possible. This method is more costly
and less efficient as two different stator windings are required. This method of speed control
can only be applied to squirrel cage motor.
Pole Amplitude Modulation Method (PAM)
In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor the original sinusoidal mmf
wave is modulated by another sinusoidal mmf wave having the different number of poles.
Let f 1(θ) be the original mmf wave of induction motor whose speed is to be controlled.
f2(θ) be the modulation mmf wave.

P1 be the number of poles of induction motor whose speed is to be controlled.

P2 be the number of poles of modulation wave.

After modulation resultant mmf wave

So we get, resultant mmf wave

Therefore the resultant mmf wave will have two different number of poles

Therefore by changing the number of poles we can easily change the speed of three phase
induction motor.

d) Adding Rheostat in Stator Circuit

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor rheostat is added in the stator
circuit due to this voltage gets dropped .In case of three phase induction motor torque
produced is given by T ∝ sV22. If we decrease supply voltage torque will also decrease. But
for supplying the same load, the torque must remains the same and it is only possible if we
increase the slip and if the slip increase motor will run reduced speed.
Speed Control from Rotor Side
a) Adding External Resistance on Rotor Side
In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor external resistance are added
on rotor side. The equation of torque for three phase induction motor is

The three-phase induction motor operates in a low slip region. In low slip region term (sX)2
becomes very very small as compared to R2. So, it can be neglected. and also E 2 is constant.
So the equation of torque after simplification becomes,

Now if we increase rotor resistance, R 2 torque decreases but to supply the same load torque
must remain constant. So, we increase slip, which will further result in the decrease in rotor
speed. Thus by adding additional resistance in the rotor circuit, we can decrease the speed
of the three-phase induction motor. The main advantage of this method is that with an
addition of external resistance starting torque increases but this method of speed control of
three phase induction motor also suffers from some disadvantages :

✓ The speed above the normal value is not possible.

✓ Large speed change requires a large value of resistance, and if such large value of
resistance is added in the circuit, it will cause large copper loss and hence reduction
in efficiency.
✓ Presence of resistance causes more losses.
✓ This method cannot be used for squirrel cage induction motor.

b) Cascade Control Method

In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, the two three-phase
induction motors are connected on a common shaft and hence called cascaded motor. One
motor is the called the main motor, and another motor is called the auxiliary motor. The
three-phase supply is given to the stator of the main motor while the auxiliary motor is
derived at a slip frequency from the slip ring of the main motor.

Let NS1 be the synchronous speed of the main motor.

NS2 be the synchronous speed of the auxiliary motor.
P1 be the number of poles of the main motor.
P2 be the number of poles of the auxiliary motor.
F is the supply frequency.
F1 is the frequency of rotor induced emf of the main motor.
N is the speed of set, and it remains same for both the main and auxiliary motor as both the
motors are mounted on the common shaft.
S1 is the slip of main motor.
The auxiliary motor is supplied with same frequency as the main motor i.e

Now put the value of

Now at no load , the speed of auxiliary rotor is almost same as its synchronous speed
i.e N = NS2

Now rearrange the above equation and find out the value of N, we get,

This cascaded set of two motors will now run at new speed having number of poles (P1 + P2).
In the above method the torque produced by the main and auxiliary motor will act in same
direction, resulting in number of poles (P1 + P2). Such type of cascading is called cumulative
cascading. There is one more type of cascading in which the torque produced by the main
motor is in opposite direction to that of auxiliary motor. Such type of cascading is called
differential cascading; resulting in speed corresponds to number of poles (P 1 – P2).
In this method of speed control of three phase induction motor, four different speeds can be
obtained

➢ When only main induction motor work, having speed corresponds to .

 ➢ When only auxiliary induction motor work, having speed corresponds to

.
➢ When cumulative cascading is done, then the complete set runs at a speed of

.
➢ When differential cascading is done, then the complete set runs at a speed of

c) Injecting Slip Frequency EMF into Rotor Side

When the speed control of three phase induction motor is done by adding resistance in rotor
circuit, some part of power called, the slip power is lost as I 2R losses. Therefore the efficiency
of three phase induction motor is reduced by this method of speed control. This slip power
loss can be recovered and supplied back to improve the overall efficiency of the three-phase
induction motor, and this scheme of recovering the power is called slip power recovery
scheme and this is done by connecting an external source of emf of slip frequency to the rotor
circuit. The injected emf can either oppose the rotor induced emf or aids the rotor induced
emf. If it opposes the rotor induced emf, the total rotor resistance increases and hence the
speed is decreased and if the injected emf aids the main rotor emf the total decreases and
hence speed increases. Therefore by injecting induced emf in the rotor circuit, the speed can
be easily controlled. The main advantage of this type of speed control of three phase
induction motor is that a wide range of speed control is possible whether it is above normal
or below normal speed.

Methods of Starting of an 3-Ф Induction Motor

Need of a Starter
The main problem in starting induction motors having large or medium size lies mainly in
the requirement of high starting current when directly started from the main supply. As a
consequence there will be a large voltage drop in the distribution line and will affect
operation of other electrical machines, which is undesirable. Purpose of the starter is to limit
the initial peak current drawn by the induction motor.

Starters for Squirrel Cage Induction Motors

Starters for squirrel cage induction motors can be classified as follows:
1. Direct On Line (D.O.L) Starter;
2. Star/Delta Starter;
3. Auto-transformer Starter.

a) Direct on line (D.O.L) starter

In this method stator is directly connected to the main power supply. The current drawn by
motor, depending on its design class, will be from 5 to 7 times the nominal current rating.
Since this amount of current flows only for a short period of time, it would not damage the
squirrel cage motor, but it may cause undesirable drop in supply voltage, power factor and
subsequently affects the performance of other equipment connected to the same supply. For
this reason, the supply authorities limit the size of motor upto 5 H.P. which can be started by
this starter.

A direct on line Starter essentially consists of a contactor having four normally open (N.O.)
contacts and a energizing coil also known as no-volt coil. The function of this coil is to keep
together the N.O. contacts when starter is switched on. In case power supply fails, no-volt
coil de-energizes and the circuit is open. The motor will not start automatically if the power
supply is resumed and starter has to be switched ON once gain. Two push buttons ON and
OFF are provided on the starter to start and stop the motor. To protect motor against
overload, thermal or magnetic over-load coils are connected in each phase.

➢ Start condition
ON button of starter completes the circuit of the no volt coil and it is energized. The four N.O.
contacts are brought together by the bar connected to no volt coil and the motor starts.

➢ Stop condition
To stop the motor, OFF push button is pressed which de-energies the no volt coil opening
the main contacts.
 b) Star-delta starter
This method is used for motors that are designed to operate with Δ (delta) connection.
The components normally consist of three contactors, an overload relay and a timer for
setting the time in the star-position at starting position (Fig. 21.2). The phases of stator are
initially (star) connected using a relay switch (K3). Once up to a particular running speed a
double throw switch (K2) changes the winding arrangements from Y to Δ whereupon full
running torque is achieved (Fig. 21.3). In this method the starting voltage across each phase
is VL/ and thus the starting current is lower which leads to a smaller starting torque. Such
an arrangement means that the ends of all stator windings must be brought to terminations
outside the casing of the motor. The starter is provided with overload and under voltage
protection devices.

L: Line conductor
N: Neutral conductor
F1: Fuses
F2: Thermal overload cut-out
K1: Main contactor
K2: Delta contactor
K3: Star contactor
M1: Three-phase motor
The received starting current is about 30 % of the starting current during direct on line start
and the starting torque is reduced to about 25 % of the torque available at a D.O.L start. This
starting method only works when the application is light loaded during the start. If the motor
is too heavily loaded, there will not be enough torque to accelerate the motor up to speed
before switching over to the delta position. When starting up, the load torque is low at the
beginning of the start and increases with the square of the speed. When reaching
approximately 80-85% of the motor rated speed the load torque is equal to the motor torque
and the acceleration ceases. To reach the rated speed, a switch over to delta position is
necessary, and this will very often result in high transmission and current peaks. In some
cases the current peak can reach a value that is even bigger than for a D.O.L start.
Applications with a load torque higher than 50% of the motor rated torque will not be able
to start using the star-delta starter.

c) Auto transformer starter

This is another starting method that reduces the starting current and starting torque but
contrary to Star-Delta starting where this starting method needs three wires and three
terminals on the motor. Autotransformers are generally equipped with taps at each phase in
order to adapt the starting parameters to the application starting requirement. During
starting, the motor is connected to the autotransformer taps. With the star and
autotransformer contactors closed, the motor is under reduced voltage. Consequently the
torque is reduced as the square of the applied voltage. When the motor reaches the 80 to
95% of the nominal speed, the star contactor opens. Then the line contactor closes and the
autotransformer contactor opens. The motor is never disconnected from the power supply
during starting (closed transition) and reduces transient phenomena. Taps on the
autotransformer allow for selection of the motor with 50%, 65%, or 80% of the current
inrush seen during a full voltage start. The resulting starting torque will be 25%, 42%, or
64% of full voltage values, as will be the current draw on the line. Thus, the autotransformer
provides the maximum torque with minimum line current.
In this method, quite less current is drawn from supply as compared to previous method, but
the extra equipment is still required. On the other hand, the starting torque is small as a
result of low amount of voltage at starting instant, so this method is not useful for high inertia
loads.

AT: Auto transformer 1, 2, 3: Switches

Starting Method of Slip Ring Induction Motor

If it is necessary to start a three phase induction motor on load then a wound rotor
machine also known as slip ring motor will normally be selected. Such a machine allows an
external resistance to be connected to the rotor of the machine through slip rings and
brushes. A 3-phase rheostat is connected in series with the rotor circuit through brushes
(Fig.21.5). At start-up the rotor resistance is set at maximum but is reduced as speed
increases until eventually it is reduced to zero and the machine runs as if it is a cage rotor
machine. By inserting external resistance in the rotor circuit, not only the starting current is
reduced but at the same time starting torque is increased due to improvement of power
factor.

Fig. 1-: Starting of slip ring induction motor using variable resistance
Fig. 2- Starting of slip ring induction motor using fixed starting resistance

L: Line conductor
N: Neutral conductor
F1: Fuses
F2: Thermal overload cut-out
K1: Main contactor
K2: Resistance circuit contactor
R1: Starting resistance
M1: Three-phase motor

Advantages of Starting Methods:

❖ Direct on-line starting

✓ Three-phase motor with low to medium power rating
✓ 3 conductors to the motor
✓ High starting torque
✓ High current peak
✓ Voltage dip
✓ One simple switching device

❖ Star-delta start-up
✓ Three-phase motor with low to high power rating
✓ Six conductors to the motor
✓ Reduced starting torque, 1/3 of the nominal torque
✓ High mains load due to current peak during switchover from Y to Δ
✓ High mechanical stress due to torque surge during switchover from Y to Δ
✓ Two or three switching devices, more maintenance
❖ Autotransformer starter
✓ Lower relative cost (costs about 66% of a similar sized solid-state starter)
✓ Includes solid-state motor protection relays and vacuum contactors.
✓ Disadvantages include its non-continuous acceleration and inflexibility

❖ Starting method using external resistance (Slip ring induction motor)

✓ Additional resistance is used only for starting,
✓ Resistance is rated for intermittent duty,
✓ Resistance is to be decreased in steps, as the motor speed increases.
✓ Finally, the external resistance is to be completely cut out.
✓ Additional cost of the external resistance is to be incurred,
✓ Decrease of starting current, along with increase of starting torque both being
advantageous
✓ Only used in case higher starting torque is needed to start induction motor with high
load torque.
 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
1. Explain the constructional features and principle operation of a single phase induction motor.

(OR)

Why the Single Phase Induction Motor is not SELF STARTING?

(OR)
Show that a single phase winding when excited by a single phase supply produce two equal and opposite
revolving fields.

ANS: CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF 1- PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Constructionally, a 1- Ф induction motor is more or less similar to that of a 3-Ф induction motor
except that its stator is provided with a single phase winding and a starting mechanism like
centrifugal switch or relay etc.
Rotor: The rotor construction is identical to that of a 3- Ф squirrel cage induction motor. It
consists of a laminated core with skewed slots on periphery. The conductors and end rings are
formed by forcing the molten material (copper or aluminum) into the slots. In fact the rotor of
any 1- Ф induction motor is inter-changeable with that of a poly phase induction motor.
Stator: Its core construction is similar to the stator core of
3-phase induction motor. The stator slots are distributed
uniformly and usually 1- Ф double layer winding is
employed. A simple single phase winding would produce no
rotating magnetic field and no starting torque. It is,
therefore, necessary to modify or split the stator winding into
two parts, such as running winding or main winding and
starting wind or auxiliary winding, each displaced in space
by 900 on the stator to make the motor self starting. The
below figure shows the construction of a single phase
induction motor.

OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF 1-Ф INDUCTION MOTOR

Constructionally this motor is similar to poly-phase induction motor except that
(i) its stator is provided with a single phase winding
(ii) a centrifugal switch is used in some types of motors, in order to cut out a winding only used
for starting purpose.

A single-phase induction motor consists of a single phase winding mounted on the stator and a
squirrel cage winding on the rotor as shown in the above fig.The rotor bars are short circuited
by end rings. When the stator is energized with the single phase supply, it produces an
alternating flux and this flux cuts the rotor conductors. During the positive half cycle, the flux
induces a voltage in the rotor and the resulting current produces a torque. The rotor tends to
rotate in one direction. During the negative half cycle, the torque produced tends to rotate the
rotor in opposite direction. Thus the rotor is subjected to these rapid flux reversals and due to
its inertia it cannot move. This type of torque is known as pulsating torque. That is why the
single phase induction motor is not self starting

• This peculiar behavior is explained in two ways:

– Double field revolving theory. – Cross field theory.

DOUBLE FIELD REVOLVING THEORY:

• This theory makes use of the idea that an

alternating uni-axial quantity can be
represented by two oppositely rotating vectors
of half magnitude.

• Accordingly, an alternating sinusoidal flux

can be represented by two revolving fluxes, each
equal to half the value of the alternating flux
and each rotating synchronously in opposite
direction

• Let the alternating flux have a maximum value

Φm

• Its component fluxes A & B will each be equal

to Φm/2 revolving in clockwise and anticlockwise directions respectively.

• After some time, when A & B would have rotated through an angle +θ and –θ, the resultant flux
would be ΦmCOSθ.

• After a quarter cycle of rotation fluxes A and B will be oppositely

directed, so resultant flux would be zero. • After half a cycle, fluxes A
and B will have a resultant of -2 * Φm/2 = - Φm • After three quarters
of a cycle, again the resultant is zero and so on. • If we plot the
resultant flux against θ between limits θ = 00 to θ = 3600, then the
following curve is obtained.

• SLIP : It may be noted that if the slip of the rotor is s w.r.t. the
forward rotating flux ( i.e. one which rotates in the same direction of the rotor), then its slip w.r.t
backward rotating flux is (2-s).

• Slip w.r.t. forward rotating flux s = (Ns-N) / Ns i.e N / Ns = (1-s)

• Slip w.r.t. backward rotating flux S = (Ns – (-N)) / Ns

= 1 + (N / Ns) = 1 + (1 – s ) = ( 2 – s )

• Each of the two component fluxes,

while revolving round the stator, cuts
the rotor, induces an emf and this
produces its own torque.

• Obviously the two torques (Forward

& backward) are oppositely directed,
so that the net or resultant torque is
equal to their difference.

• Figure shows both torques and

resultant torques for slips between 0
and 2.
• At standstill s=1 and (2-s)=1. • Hence Tf and Tb are numerically equal but, being oppositely
directed, produce no resultant torque.

• That explains why there is no starting torque in a single phase induction motor.

• However if the rotor is somehow started in clockwise direction, the clockwise torque starts
increasing at the same time, the anti-clockwise torque starts decreasing, net torque in clockwise
increases which accelerates the motor to full speed.

CROSS FIELD THEORY

Standstill condition of Motor

• The stator winding is excited by a single phase supply.

• This supply produces an alternating flux Φs which acts along the

axis of stator winding.

• Due to this flux, emf gets induced in rotor conductors due to

transformer action.

• As rotor is a closed one, this emf circulates current through rotor conductors.

• The direction of rotor current is so as to oppose the cause producing it as shown in figure.

• When Φs acts in upward direction, the conductors on left experience force from left to right,
while conductors on right experience force from right to left.

• Hence overall force, torque is zero. Rotor is stationary.

Condition for rotation

• We know that there must exist two fluxes separated by some angle in space so as to produce
rotating magnetic field.

• According to Cross Field theory, the stator flux can be resolved into two components which are
mutually perpendicular, one acting along the axis of stator
winding and another acting perpendicular to it. How to rotate?

• Assume an initial push is given. (AntiClockwise)

• Due to rotation, rotor physically cuts the stator flux and

dynamically induced emf gets induced in the rotor.

• The direction of this emf (E2N) is in phase with stator flux Φs.

• This circulates a current through rotor which is I2N. This

current produces its own flux Φr.

• The axis of Φr is at 900 to the axis of stator flux. Hence this rotor flux is called CROSS FIELD.

• Due to high reactance of rotor, the rotor currentI2N and flux Φr lags the emf by 900
 • Thus Φr is in quadrature with Φs in space and lags Φs by 900 in time phase. Hence the above
two such fluxes produce RMF.

2. (a) Explain how to make 1-Ф IM Self Start.

(b) Explain the STARTING Methods of single phase Induction motor with vector diagram.

ANS:

(a) MAKING 1-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR SELF STARTING

We know that a single phase induction motor is not self
starting. To overcome this draw back and make the motor
self starting it is temporarily converted into a two phase
motor during starting period. For this purpose the stator of
a single phase motor is provided with an extra winding
known as starting or auxiliary winding in addition to the
main or running winding. The windings are spaced 900
electrically apart and are connected in parallel across the
single phase supply as shown in fig.

The impedance of the windings differ and currents in the main and auxiliary windings are phase
shifted from each other. As a result of this, a rotating stator field is produced and the rotor
rotates. When the motor speed is about 75% of synchronous speed, the auxiliary winding
disconnected from the circuit. This is done by connecting a centrifugal switch in the auxiliary
winding, which is used for starting purpose only. That is why it is called starting winding. Under
running condition, a single phase induction motor can develop torque only with main winding.
That is why it is called running winding.

(b) STARTING METHODS OR TYPES OF 1- PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

We have seen that some means should be used to start the single phase induction motor.
Mechanical methods are impractical and, therefore, the motor is started temporarily converting
it into two-phase motor. Single phase induction motors are usually classified according to the
auxiliary means used to start the motor. They are classified as follows.
1. Split phase motor (or) Resistance start motor
2. Capacitor start motor
3. Capacitor run motor
4. Capacitor start capacitor run or two-value capacitor motor
5. Shaded pole motor

SPLIT PHASE OR RESISTANCE START-MOTOR

This fig shows a split phase or resistance start induction motor. It has a squirrel cage rotor and
its stator has two windings-a main or running winding and a auxiliary or starting winding. The
two windings are displaced 90o in space and are connected in parallel across the 1-Ф supply as
shown in the fig.

The centrifugal switch will be in its closed position when the machine is at stand still. Once the
motor picks up 70% to 80% of its rated speed, it opens its contacts. The main winding will have
high reactance and low resistance where as the auxiliary winding will have high resistance and
low reactance. At stand still both the windings are connected in parallel across the supply. When
the supply is given, the currents flow through the main winding (IM) and auxiliary winding (IA)
and there will be a phase displacement Ф (< 900) between these two currents [as shown in fig.]
and hence the resultant magnetic field is rotating, which produces a Torque in the rotor. If the
auxiliary winding is permanently connected in the circuit, it causes power losses because of its
highly resistive nature. Hence a centrifugal switch (SC) is used to disconnect the auxiliary
winding from the circuit when the motor picks up speed. The torque-speed characteristic of this
motor is shown in fig, which also shows the speed ‘N0’ at which the centrifugal switch operates.

In order to provide high resistance and low inductance the starting winding is wound with fewer
turns of the fine wire and placed on the top of the stator slots. The main winding, on the other
hand is wound with thicker wire and placed at the bottom of the stator slots. The idea behind it
is that the current through the starting winding is nearly in phase with the line voltage than is
that of through the main winding. This gives the effect of splitting the single phase applied to the
motor terminals.

For motors rated about 100W or more, a centrifugally operated switch is used to disconnect the
starting winding. For smaller motors a relay is often used. The relay is connected in series with
the main winding. At the time of starting, a heavy current flows in the relay coil causing its
contacts to close. This brings the starting winding into the circuit. As the motor reaches its
predetermined speed of the order of 70% to 80% of synchronous speed, the current through the
relay coil decreases. Consequently the relay opens and disconnects the auxiliary winding from
the main supply and the motor then runs only on the main winding.

Characteristics:
Resistance split phase motor has the following characteristics
➢ The starting torque is 100% to 250% of the rated value.
➢ The breakdown torque is upto 300%.
➢ The efficiency of the motor is 55% to 65%.
➢ The power factor of the motor is 0.5 to 0.65.
➢ The power rating of this motor is in the range of ½ HP to 1 HP.

Applications:
Split-phase motors are cheap and they are most suitable for easily started loads where frequency
of starting is limited. The common applications are washing machines, air conditioning fans,
food mixers, grinders, centrifugal pumps, lathes, small drills etc.
CAPACITOR START MOTOR
In split-phase motor, high auxiliary winding circuit resistance creates phase angle between the
currents of the main and auxiliary windings. This phase difference between IA and IM can also be
produced by connecting a capacitor in series with auxiliary winding. Fig. shows the schematic
diagram of a capacitor start motor. It has a cage rotor and its stator has two windings namely,
the main winding and the auxiliary winding or starting winding. The two windings are displaced
900 in space. A capacitor C is connected in series with auxiliary winding. A centrifugal switch SC
is also connected, as shown in fig. In this case both the windings may be of similar nature.

When the motor is switched on to the supply mains, current IM drawn by the main winding lags
the supply voltage V by a large angle, where as, IA drawn by the auxiliary winding leads V by a
certain angle. The two currents IM and IA are out of phase with each other by nearly 800 to 900
as compared to nearly 30o for a split-phase motor Their resultant current I is small and is almost
in phase with ‘V’ as shown in fig.1.8(a), and causes the motor to start. Once the motor has picked
up speed, the centrifugal switch or relay operates and opens the auxiliary winding circuit. The
motor is so named because it uses the capacitor only for the purpose of starting. The starting
torque of a capacitor start motor is of the range of 3 to 4 times to its full load torque where as for
a split phase motor it is about 1.5 times only. Typical torque-speed curves of a capacitor start
motor is as shown in fig.

Characteristics:
Capacitor start induction motor has the following characteristics
➢ The starting torque is 250% to 400% of the rated value.
➢ The breakdown torque is up to 350%.
➢ The efficiency of the motor is 55% to 65%.
➢ The power factor of the motor is 0.5 to 0.65.
➢ The power rating of this motor is in the range of 1/8 HP to 1 HP.

Applications:
Capacitor start motors are used for loads of higher inertia where frequent starts are required.
These motors are most suitable for pumps and compressors, and therefore they are widely used
in refrigeration and in air-conditioner compressors. They are also used for conveyors and some
machine tools.

CAPACITOR RUN OR PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR MOTOR

This motor is similar to the capacitor start motor except that the starting winding and the
capacitor are connected in the circuit at all times. It has one running winding and one starting
winding in series with a capacitor as shown in fig.7.9. Since capacitor remains in the circuit
permanently, this motor is known as permanent split capacitor run motor and behaves
practically like an unbalanced 2-phase motor. Consequently, it produces a uniform torque. The
motor is therefore less noisy during operations. Since the capacitor is always in the circuit, this
type of motor has no starting switch.

In this motors, the capacitor used is designed for continuous

duty and is of oil filled type. Since the same capacitor is used
for starting and running, it is obvious that neither optimum
starting nor optimum running performance can be obtained
because value of capacitance used must be a compromise
between the best value for starting and that for running. One
unique feature of this type of motor is that it can be easily
reversed by an external switch provided its starting and
running windings are identical. One serves as the running
winding and the other as the starting winding for one
revolution of rotation. For reverse rotation, the one that
previously served as a running winding becomes the starting winding and while the former
starting winding serves as the running winding.

Advantages:
A single value capacitor motor possesses the following advantages
➢ No centrifugal switch is required.
➢ It has high efficiency.
➢ It has higher power factor because of permanently connected capacitor.
➢ It has a higher pull-out torque.

Characteristics:
A single value capacitor motor has the following characteristics
➢ The starting torque is 50% to 100% of the rated value.
➢ The breakdown torque is up to 250%.
➢ The efficiency of the motor is 60% to 70%.
➢ The power factor of the motor is 0.75 to 0.9.
➢ The power rating of this motor is in the range of 1/8 HP to 1 HP.

Applications:
The low value of the capacitor results in small staring torque which is about 50 to 100% of the
rated torque. Consequently these motors are used where the required starting torque is low such
as air moving equipments i.e fans, blowers, oil burners and voltage regulators. They are also
used to drive office machinery.

CAPACITOR START CAPACITOR RUN OR TWO VALUE CAPACITOR MOTOR

Fig. shows the schematic diagram of a capacitor start
capacitor run or two value capacitor motor. It has a
squirrel cage rotor and its stator has two windings
namely the main winding and the auxiliary winding. The
two windings are displaced 900 in space. The motor uses
two capacitors CS and CR. One capacitor CS is used for
starting purpose and another capacitor C R is used for
running purpose. The two capacitors are connected in
parallel at starting. In this motor, we can get high
starting torque because of two capacitors.

In order to obtain a high starting torque, a large current is required. For this purpose, the
capacitive reactance X in the auxiliary (starting) winding
should be low. Since XS=1/(2π fCS) , the value of CS should
be large. The capacitor C S is short time rated and
electrolytic. During normal operation, the rated line current
is smaller than the starting current. Hence the capacitive
reactance should be large. Since XR=1/(2π fCR) , the value
of CR should be small. It is long time rated for continuous
running and is of oil filled paper construction. As the motor
approaches synchronous speed, the capacitor C S is
disconnected by centrifugal switch SC. The capacitor CR is
permanently connected in the circuit. Two-value capacitor
motors are quiet and smooth running. They have a higher
efficiency than the motors that run on the main windings
alone. The torque-speed characteristics of a two-value capacitor motor is shown in fig.

Advantages:
A capacitor start capacitor run induction motor possesses the following advantages
➢ High starting torque
➢ High efficiency
➢ High power factor

Characteristics:
A capacitor start capacitor run induction motor has the following characteristics
➢ The starting torque is 200% to 300% of the rated value.
➢ The breakdown torque is up to 250%.
➢ The efficiency of the motor is 60% to 70%.
➢ The power factor of the motor is 0.75 to 0.9.
➢ The power rating of this motor is in the range of 1/8 HP to 1 HP.

Applications:
Two value capacitor motors are used for loads of higher inertia requiring frequent starts where
the maximum pull out torque and efficiency required are higher. They are used in pumping
equipment, refrigerators, air compressors etc.

SHADED POLE MOTORS

A shaded-pole motor is a simple type of self self-starting single phase induction motor. It consists
of a stator and a cage type rotor. The stator is made
up of salient poles. Short circuited coils or shading
coils are placed on slot cut portion of each pole.
This part of the pole is known as shaded part and
the other is known as un-shaded part. Shading
coils can be of thick single turn in the form of a
ring or have a number of short circuit turns. The
cross- sectional view of a shaded pole type motor
is as shown in fig.

When an alternating current flows in the field

winding or exciting winding surrounding the whole
pole, an alternating flux is produced in the field core. A portion of this flux links with the shading
coil, which behaves as a short circuited secondary of a transformer and hence a voltage is
induced in the shading coil, and this voltage circulates a current in it. The induced current
produces a flux called the induced flux which opposes the main core flux. The shading coil, thus,
causes the flux in the shaded portion A to lag behind the un-shaded portion B of the pole. At the
same time, the main flux and the shaded pole flux are displaced in space less than 90o. Since
there is time and space displacement between the two fluxes, a rotating magnetic field is
produced. Under the action of rotating flux a staring torque is developed on the rotor. The
direction of the rotating field (flux) is from the un-shaded to the shaded portion of the pole i.e the
direction of the rotation is in clockwise. The movement of the flux around the stator may be more
clearly illustrated in the following discussion.

When the flux is increasing rapidly along OA during the time period t1 as shown in fig.(a), then
it induces large e.m.f and consequently large current in the short circuited shaded band or
shaded part or shaded pole so as to oppose the cause of its production according to Lenz’s law.
Thus the shading band current produces upward increasing flux in the shaded part to oppose
the original flux Φ through it. Due to this opposition, negligible flux passes through shaded part
and most of the flux Ф is concentrated at the un-shaded part. When the flux is increasing along
AB during the time period t2 as shown in fig.(b), the flux Ф has negligible variation. So it cannot
induce any e.m.f and current in the shaded band. As a result there is no opposition to the flux
Ф. Hence it is uniformly distributed over the unshaded and shaded parts of the pole. This gives
the shift of axis of flux Ф towards the centre of the entire pole.

When the flux is decreasing along BC during the time period t3 as shown in fig.(c), it again
induces large e.m.f and current in the shaded band. This current produces flux which aids the
main stator flux. This gives rise to the concentration of flux in the shaded part .i.e. the axis of
the flux shifts towards the center of the shaded part as shown in fig.(c). The above analysis
indicates that the flux Ф rotates through pole from un-shaded part to shaded part during the
half cycle of the stator current. During the negative half cycle, it further rotates through the next
pole in the same direction. In short a rotating magnetic field is produced by shaded pole
construction, which rotates at synchronous speed in the direction from un-shaded part to
shaded part.

A typical torque-speed curve for shaded pole motor is as shown below.

Merits and demerits:

The merits of shaded pole induction motors are

➢ Rugged construction.
➢ Cheaper in cost.
➢ Smaller in size.
➢ Requires little maintenance

The demerits of shaded pole induction motors are

➢ Very low starting torque.
➢ Low efficiency.
➢ Low power factor.

Characteristics:
The characteristics of shaded pole induction motors are
➢ The starting torque is 40% to 60% of the rated value.
➢ The breakdown torque is up to 150%.
➢ The efficiency of the motor is 25% to 40%.
➢ The power factor of the motor is 0.25 to 0.4.
➢ The power rating of the motor ranges up to 40W.
Applications:
These motors are widely used in low torque applications though their efficiency is very low.
Because of its low starting torque the shaded pole motor is generally used for small fans, toys,
hair driers, ventilators, relays and electrical clocks.

Torque Slip Characteristics of Single Phase Induction Motor

From the figure, we see that at a slip of unity, both forward and backward field develops
equal torque but the direction of which are opposite to each other so the net torque produced
is zero hence the motor fails to start. From here we can say that these motors are not self
starting unlike the case of three phase induction motor. There must be some means to
provide the starting torque. If by some means, we can increase the forward speed of the
machine due to which the forward slip decreases the forward torque will increase and the
reverse torque will decrease as a result of which motor will start.

From here we can conclude that for starting of single phase induction motor, there should
be a production of difference of torque between the forward and backward field. If the
forward field torque is larger than the backward field than the motor rotates in forward or
anti clockwise direction. If the torque due to backward field is larger compared to other, then
the motor rotates in backward or clockwise direction.

ALTERNATOR CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:

An alternator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into alternating

electric energy. They are also known as synchronous generators.
How does an AC generator work?
The working principle of an alternator or AC generator is similar to the basic working
principle of a DC generator.
Above figure helps you understanding how an alternator or AC generator
works. According to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor
moves in a magnetic field EMF gets induced across the conductor. If the close path is
provided to the conductor, induced emf causes current to flow in the circuit.
Now, see the above figure. Let the conductor coil ABCD is placed in a magnetic field. The
direction of magnetic flux will be form N pole to S pole. The coil is connected to slip rings,
and the load is connected through brushes resting on the slip rings.
Now, consider the case 1 from above figure. The coil is rotating clockwise, in this case the
direction of induced current can be given by Fleming's right hand rule, and it will be along
A-B-C-D.
As the coil is rotating clockwise, after half of the time period, the position of the coil will be
as in second case of above figure. In this case, the direction of the induced current according
to Fleming's right hand rule will be along D-C-B-A. It shows that, the direction of the current
changes after half of the time period, that means we get an alternating current.
Construction of AC generator (alternator)
 Salient pole type alternator

Main parts of the alternator - STATOR and ROTOR

But, the unlike other machines, in most of the alternators, field exciters are rotating and the
armature coil is stationary.

Stator: Unlike in DC machine stator of an alternator is not meant to serve path for magnetic
flux. Instead, the stator is used for holding armature winding. The stator core is made up of
lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron, to minimize the eddy current losses.

Rotor: There are two types of rotor used in an AC generator / alternator:

(i) Salient and (ii) Cylindrical type

Salient pole type: Salient pole type rotor is used in low and medium speed
alternators. Construction of AC generator of salient pole type rotor is shown in the figure
above. This type of rotor consists of large number of projected poles (called salient poles),
bolted on a magnetic wheel. These poles are also laminated to minimize the eddy current
losses. Alternators featuring this type of rotor are large in diameters and short in axial length.

Cylindrical type: Cylindrical type rotors are used in high speed alternators, especially in
turbo alternators. This type of rotor consists of a smooth and solid steel cylinder havingg
slots along its outer periphery. Field windings are placed in these slots.
The DC supply is given to the rotor winding through the slip rings and and brushes
arrangement.