TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK CAMPUS

A
FINAL YEAR PROJECT REPORT
ON
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

BY:
Adarasha Chalise (076BEL003)
Brijkishor Pandit (076BEL015)
Ishwor Shrestha (076BEL018)
Krishna Shrestha (076BEL020)

PROJECT SUPERVISOR
Asst. Prof. Arbin Maharjan

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE BACHELORS DEGREE IN ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

MARCH, 2024
 TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK CAMPUS
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to the Department of Elec-
trical Engineering for acceptance, a dissertation entitled “DESIGN AND FABRICA-
TION OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER ”, submitted by Adarasha Chalise, Brijkishor
Pandit, Ishwor Shrestha, Krishna Shrestha in partial fulfillment of the requirement forthe
degree of Bachelor of Electrical Engineering.

Name of Supervisor I
Asst. Prof. Arbin Maharjan Supervisor
Designation
Assistant Professor

MARCH 2024

i
 Copyright©

The author has agreed that the library, Department of Electrical Engineering, Pulchowk
Campus, Institute of Engieering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal may make this dissertation
freely available for inspection. Moreover the author has agreed that the permission for
extensive copying of this dissertation work for scholarly purpose may be granted by the
professor(s), who supervised the dissertation work recorded herein or, in their absence,
by the Head of the Department, wherein this dissertation was done. It is understood that
the recognition will be given to the author of this dissertation, and the Department of
Electrical Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engieering, Tribhuvan University,
Nepal in any use of the material of this dissertation. Copying or publication or other
use of this dissertation for financial gain without approval of the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engieering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal and
author’s written permission is prohibited. Request for permission to copy or to make any
use of the material in this dissertation in whole or part should be addressed to:

Head of Department
Department of Electrical Engineering
Tribhuvan University, Institute of Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, Pulchowk, Lalitpur, Nepal

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our Supervisor Asst.
Prof. Arbin Maharjan for his guidance, motivation, and continuous support in our project.
We could not have imagined a better advisor and mentor. We would like to express our
deepest regards to the Head and Deputy Head of Electrical Engineering Department for
valuable and kind support during the project. Our sincere thanks go to all the Professors
and Lecturers in the department for their precious suggestions and leadership throughout
the project duration. Last but not least, we would like to thank all the staff of the depart-
ment and our friends for their cooperation and support. We are thankful to the authors
of various research papers we cited to reach the current stage of the project. Any sort of
suggestions or criticism will be highly appreciated and acknowledged.

Adarasha Chalise (076BEL003)

Brijkishor Pandit (076BEL015)
Ishwor Shrestha (076BEL018)
Krishna Shrestha (076BEL020)

iii
 ABSTRACT

Text here

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE OF APPROVAL i

COPYRIGHT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Main Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Specific Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Scope and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Outline of Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Research review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 DC-DC converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 Buck-boost converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3 Mosfet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.4 Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.5 Arduino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 19

3.1 Simulation Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Block Diagram of our circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

v
 3.2.1 Open loop DC-DC converters: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.2 Closed loop control of DC-DC converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Conditions for buck-boost converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 Final circuit in Proteus Simulation(Hardware simulation). . . . . . . . . . 22
3.4.1 Buck Mode
22
3.4.2 Boost Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 Pull up configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.6 Arduino Code flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.7 Final circuit in Matlab Simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.8 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 34

4.1 Software Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2 Hardware Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION 36

5.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2 Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

REFERENCES 37

APPENDIX B: SCRIPT 39

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 LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Buck-boost converter. (a) Circuit; (b) Equivalent circuit for the switch
closed; (c) Equivalent circuit for the switch open.[7] . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Waveform of current and voltage across inductor[7] . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Buck-boost converter waveforms.(a) Inductor current; (b) Inductor volt-
age; (c) Diode current; (d) Capacitor current. [7] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Symbols for MOSFET[8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 MOSFET as a switch[8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.6 VI characteristics of operation of MOSFET.[8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7 symbol of pn-junction diode[9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 VI chracteristics of diode[9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.9 Arduino UNO[10] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.1 Open loop DC-DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.2 Closed loop control of Buck Boost Converter[11] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3 Buck Boost Converter[12] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.4 Buck Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 Buck Converter(blue signal is output from mosfet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.6 Boost Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.7 Boost mode(blue signal is output from mosfet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.8 Typical pull up configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.9 Flowchart of our code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.10 Closed loop system for DC-DC converter with constant input . . . . . . . 29
3.11 Constant Output of 48v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.12 Closed loop system for DC-DC converter with variable input. . . . . . . . 30
3.13 Variable input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.14 Input VS output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4.1 Graph of closed loop system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4.2 General wiring and component placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

vii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CCM Continuous conduction mode

DC Direct current
EMI Electro Magnetic Interference
EV Electric Vehicles
GaN Gallium Nitride
IDE Integrated Development Environment
LED Light Emiting Diode
MOSFET Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
MPC Model Predictive Control
PID Proportional-Integral-Derivative
PWM Pulse width modulation
SEPIC single-ended primary-inductor converter
SMPS Switched-Mode Power Supply
SMC Sliding Mode Control
SiC Silicon Carbide
Vgs Gate to source voltage
Vin Input voltage
Vout Output Voltage

viii
 Chapter One:
Introduction

1.1 Background

A transformational device - the DC-DC Converter - has taken center stage in the ever-
evolving area of power electronics. This technology, with its ability to permit the smooth
exchange of energy between sources and loads, is the lynchpin for integrating renewable
energy sources and stabilizing power networks.

Many devices in the field of practical applications require voltage-bucking or boosting

converters. Portable devices, electronic systems in autos, and other devices rely on these
converters. The reason for their necessity is due to the nature of batteries, which display
significant changes in output voltage. As a result, an extra switching power supply is re-
quired to handle these variable input voltages and provide a steady and consistent output
voltage. Diverse non-isolated voltage bucking and boosting converters have entered the
market The buck-boost converter, single-ended primary-inductor converter (SEPIC), Cuk
converter, Zeta converter, Luo converter, and its several iterations are examples of these
converters. Regardless of their value, there is one noteworthy feature. When these con-
verters run in continuous conduction mode (CCM), they produce "right-half plane zeros,"
which make overall system stability less resilient.

So, our journey through this study provides a full understanding of the complexities of
building and producing a DC-DC Converter that permits voltage-bucking or boosting
while unraveling the mechanics that support its efficiency and dependability.

In an age where sustainable energy solutions are imperative, the global transition towards
renewable sources marks a pivotal turning point. The rise of solar panels, wind turbines,
and other renewable sources brings forth a new challenge – the intermittency of energy
generation. Here in lies the significance of the buck boost converter. It operates as the
nexus, enabling step up or step down power flow, a capability essential for harnessing and
utilizing renewable energy effectively.

This technology capitalizes on the fundamental principles of buck and boost modes of
operation. In the buck mode, the converter steps down the input voltage to a lower output
voltage. Conversely, the boost mode steps up the input voltage to a higher output voltage.
This dynamic operation allows for the efficient management of energy exchange, enabling
the system to operate as both an energy source and an energy sink.

1
Buck-boost converters have made tremendous advances in recent years, with the potential
to revolutionize energy management. One major advancement is in the field of control al-
gorithms. Engineers and researchers are currently incorporating new control systems that
demonstrate a remarkable capacity to adapt to changing load circumstances, optimizing
efficiency and effective usage of energy resources.

Consider the use of predictive control algorithms, for example. Based on historical data
and current demand, these algorithms, which are based on predictive modeling and real-
time feedback, forecast energy requirements. This proactive technique enables buck-
boost converters to change their functioning in advance, ensuring an optimal balance of
energy supply and demand. Such flexibility improves not just energy efficiency but also
overall system stability. Exploration of hybrid topologies inside buck-boost converters is
another area for innovation. In contrast to standard single-architecture converters, hybrid
topologies cleverly combine the strengths of many converter architectures. Consider the
connection of a buck converter with a boost converter inside the same system. This hy-
brid technique takes use of the buck converter’s ability to reduce voltage and the boost
converter’s ability to increase voltage. Hybrid topologies can improve efficiency and flex-
ibility by wisely transitioning between different modes.

Consider a scenario in which a renewable energy source offers variable voltage levels on
an intermittent basis. A standard converter may struggle to handle such swings. A hy-
brid architecture, on the other hand, would autonomously cycle between buck and boost
modes, ensuring that the output of the energy source is continually harnessed and ef-
fectively managed. This reduces energy waste while also optimizing the entire energy
transmission process.

These developments in control algorithms and hybrid topologies in the realm of buck
boost converters represent a considerable step forward. The potential to adapt and com-
bine converter topologies is set to reshape the energy conversion landscape, ushering us
into a future of exceptional efficiency, stability, and sustainability. As we look further into
these advancements, we see a bright future where energy management

1.2 Problem Statement

As renewable energy sources gain traction, the challenge of managing their intermittent
output comes to the forefront. Traditional power grids are ill-equipped to handle the spo-
radic nature of these sources. The DC-DC Converter faces the task of efficiently managing

2
power flow in both directions, ensuring a stable energy supply in the face of renewable
energy’s variability.

1. Efficiency Improvement:DC-DC converters frequently have low efficiency due to

switching losses and other considerations.

2. Reduced Size and Power Density:DC-DC converters can be huge and cumber-
some, limiting their integration into small systems.

3. High-Frequency Operation:High-frequency DC-DC converters face problems with

switching losses, electromagnetic interference (EMI), and heat control.

4. Grid Integration and Power Quality:DC-DC converters are critical in the integra-
tion of renewable energy sources and energy storage systems into the grid. How-
ever, there are issues in terms of grid stability, electricity quality, and compliance
with grid rules and standards.

5. Reliability and fault tolerance:DC-DC converters are prone to component fail-

ures, which can result in system downtime and safety hazards.

1.3 Objective

1.3.1 Main Objective

To design and fabricate a buck-boost converter.

1.3.2 Specific Objective

• To fabricate a buck-boost converter

1.4 Scope and Limitations

1.4.1 Scope

This project focuses on the design and fabrication of a DC-DC converter suitable for low
to medium power applications, primarily showing basic flow of power by integration of
hybrid system(buck and boost combined). Buck-boost converters are integral components
in electrical systems, serving diverse applications with their versatile voltage management
capabilities. In DC microgrids, these converters prove indispensable for adjusting voltage
levels, optimizing the entire system’s performance by ensuring a balanced supply and
demand. Their robust functionality extends to solar power systems, where they regulate

3
the output from solar panels, maximizing energy harvesting and storage efficiency by
dynamically adapting voltage.

In the realm of electric vehicles (EVs), buck-boost converters are essential for maintaining
battery voltage stability. This functionality is critical for both compatibility and the overall
reliability of EVs, contributing significantly to the longevity and consistent performance
of battery systems. Moreover, these converters play a crucial role in DC power supplies,
ensuring a constant and reliable output voltage in electronic devices by compensating for
input voltage fluctuations.

Renewable energy storage systems benefit significantly from buck-boost converters, which
optimize the charging and discharging processes. Through dynamic voltage adjustment,
these converters enhance the utilization of renewable energy sources, contributing to the
efficiency and sustainability of energy storage. In summary, from microgrids to solar
power, electric vehicles, power supplies, and renewable energy storage, buck-boost con-
verters stand as essential tools in the electrical engineer’s arsenal, addressing voltage man-
agement challenges and optimizing performance across a spectrum of applications.

1.4.2 Limitations

• The project has a limit to boost the output voltage only approximately 2 times the in-
put voltage and only operates at around 0.66 duty cycle .This is because the current
carrying capacity of inductor used is 100mAmps , if duty cycle would be greater
than 0.66 than more than 100mAmps current would flow across the inductor.Hence
this is the major limitation of our hardware fabrication.

• The project will primarily focus on the DC-DC converter’s design and performance
within the specified voltage and power range only.

• The study will assume ideal operating conditions and may not account for external
factors that could affect converter performance, such as temperature variations or
component aging.

• Time and resource constraints may limit the extent of experimentation and the scope
of real-world implementation.

• The project’s scope does not include the integration of the converter into a complete
renewable energy system or grid infrastructure

4
1.5 Outline of Report

This progress report is divided into Five chapters.This section enlists a brief outline of
each chapter and its contents..This report is meticulously organized to offer a holistic
view of the DC-DC converter’s design and fabrication process. Sections build upon
each other, starting with a foundational understanding of the technology and progress-
ing through a detailed problem statement. Objectives establish the roadmap, outlining
both broader goals and specific targets. Scope and limitations ensure a clear understand-
ing of the project’s boundaries. Each segment is illustrated with data, figures, tables, and
equations, serving as signposts that guide the reader through the intricacies of the subject
matter.

• This chapter provides the project’s background theory, problem statements, objec-
tives for carrying out the project, and its scope and limitations.

• Chapter 2 reviews the literature in the area of DC-DC converter’s and the develop-
ment of improved control methods.

• Chapter 3 lays out our methodology and system of operation.

• Chapter 4 discusses the result we obtained.

• Chapter 5 provides a Conclusion.

5
 Chapter Two:
Literature Review

2.1 Research review

Recent research has focused on advanced control algorithms, such as model predictive
control (MPC) and sliding mode control (SMC), to enhance the performance of convert-
ers. Studies have investigated novel converter topologies, such as interleaved, hybrid, and
multilevel configurations, to improve efficiency, power density, and reliability. Efforts
have been made to integrate advanced semiconductor devices, such as SiC (Silicon Car-
bide) and GaN (Gallium Nitride) devices, to achieve higher switching frequencies and
reduce power losses.

The control model and algorithm of ac-dc converter is explained.[1] This converter widely
used in power transferring between three phase ac voltage supply and energy storage de-
vices. The switches of the AC-DC converter are activated in the switching state that
complies with the minimum cost function for the next sample interval. power flow is
possible with the instantaneous mode shift capability and quick dynamic response pro-
vided by the suggested model predictive control technique for the AC-DC converter. DC
converter is further confirmed through simulation in MATLAB/Simulink (R) with the aid
of 3.0kW experimental prototypes. Both simulation and experimental data show that the
AC-DC converter operates with a unity power factor, a reasonable THD level of AC cur-
rent (3.3 precent in rectifier mode and 3.5 percent in inverter mode), and very low DC
voltage ripple. Additionally, a comparison of the proposed MPC’s efficiency to that of the
traditional VOC-based PWM controller of the ac-dc converter which result in effective
MPC controller.

Choirul Anam Iskak and groups [2] have presented their theory on design of dc-dc con-
verter which helps to buck or boost the voltage from renewable source in accordance to
the load. The fossil fuel is limited so we are focusing on generating energy from re-
newable source like solar but sunlight is not available at noon in sufficient amount. The
storage of energy in not always correspond to bus voltage leading to load .so, additional
power circuit is required called dc-dc converter. This converter works in two direction
one in charging mode and another in discharging mode.

Dong Liu and groups [3]have proposed the improved control techniques to increase the
efficiency of T-type isolated dc-dc converter. According to this theory, the primary circu-
lating current flows via auxiliary switches (MOSFET) instead of their body of their diodes

6
in free-wheeling period. Due to this, there is reduction of conduction losses as a result
efficiency of T-type isolated dc-dc converter is improved. The performance and operating
principle of T-type dc-dc converter is analyzed in detail with simulation and experiment
results.

Krishna Shenai [4] have explored innovative cooling techniques, such as liquid cooling
and heat pipe technology, to improve thermal management and enhance the converter’s
reliability.

Nadia ML Tan, Takahiro Abe, and Hirofumi Akagi [5] explain valuable insights into con-
trol strategies, topologies, efficiency improvement, cooling techniques, fault tolerance,
power quality, and diverse application areas of converters in renewable energy systems.
Incorporating knowledge from these works can contribute to the development and en-
hancement of the proposed DC-DC converter in your project.

Sevket U Yuruker and groups[6] have been conducted Investigations on fault diagnosis
and fault-tolerant control strategies to enhance the robustness and reliability of converters.
Studies have focused on improving the power quality of converters through harmonic mit-
igation techniques, active power factor correction, and grid synchronization algorithms.
Researchers have explored the application of converters in various renewable energy sys-
tems, including solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, energy storage systems, electric vehicle
charging, and microgrids.

2.2 Theory

2.2.1 DC-DC converter

The DC-DC converter is the most used circuit in power electronics. They can be found
to be used in almost all electronic devices today, as all semiconductor components are
powered by a one-way source. They are used in any situation where stability is needed
and DC voltage needs to be supplied at a desired value.

The DC-DC converter block represents a converter that increases or decreases the DC
voltage controlled by a gate signal generator.

A DC-DC converter produces a DC voltage by filtering the time relationship between the
opening and closing of the switching transistor. The DC-DC converter generally works
with the signal generated by pulse width modulation (PWM). DC-DC switching power
is a very efficient type of power supply that attracts the attention of researchers in DC

7
power supply development. With the development of the use of renewable energy sources
and the development of new technologies, the technology of DC/DC converters is also
developing.

DC-DC converter conversion is one of the simplest power electronic circuits that convert
one voltage level to another by switching action. These converters have attracted increas-
ing interest in many fields. This is because of their wide range of applications such as
computer power supplies, office equipment, equipment management, telecommunication
equipment, DC motor motors, automobiles, airplanes, etc.

Some function of DC-DC converter are mentioned below:-

1. Convert DC input voltage Vs to DC output voltage Vo.

2. Adjust DC output voltage according to the change of load and line.

3. Reduce AC voltage ripple on DC output voltage to below required level.

4. Provide isolation between the input source and the load.

2.2.2 Buck-boost converter

Buck-boost is a common non-isolated inverting power stage topology, sometimes knowns

as step-up/down a power stage. Power supply designers choose the buck-boost power
stage because the output voltage is opposite to the input voltage, and the output voltage
can be higher or less than the input voltage. The topology gets its name from produced
output voltage can be higher (like a boost power level) or lower (like a buck power level)
in amplitude relative to the input voltage. The buck-boost converter is an interesting topic
from a control point of view, due to its inherent nonlinearity.

Voltage and Current Relationships

Assumptions made about the operation of the converter are as follows:

1. The circuit is operating in the steady state.

2. The inductor current is continuous.

3. The capacitor is large enough to assume a constant output voltage.

4. The switch is closed for time DT and open for .

8
 5. The components are ideal.

Figure 2.1: Buck-boost converter. (a) Circuit; (b) Equivalent circuit for the switch
closed; (c) Equivalent circuit for the switch open.[7]

Mathematical analysis of buck boost converter is as: [7]

Analysis for the Switch Closed
When the switch is closed, the voltage across the inductor is

The rate of change of inductor current is a constant, indicating a linearly increasing in-
ductor current. The preceding equation can be expressed as

Solving for ∆iL when the switch is closed gives

Vs DT
(∆ iL )closed = ........................................... (2.1)
L

9
Analysis for the Switch Open

When the switch is open, the current in the inductor cannot change instantaneously, result-
ing in a forward-biased diode and current into the resistor and capacitor. In this condition,
the voltage across the inductor is

................................................(2.2)

...................................................(2.3)

Again, the rate of change of inductor current is constant, and the change in current is

Solving for ∆iL ,

............................................(2.4)

For steady-state operation, the net change in inductor current must be zero over one pe-
riod.

Solving for Vo

.............................................(2.5)

The required duty ratio for specified input and output voltages can be expressed as

...............................................(2.6)

10
The average inductor voltage is zero for periodic operation,resulting in

Equation shows that the output voltage has opposite polarity from the source voltage.
Output voltage magnitude of the buck-boost converter can be less than that of the source
or greater than the source, depending on the duty ratio of the switch. If D>0.5, the output
voltage is larger than the input; and if D < 0.5, the output is smaller than the input.
Therefore, this circuit combines the capabilities of the buck and boost converters. Polarity
reversal on the output may be a disadvantage in some applications, however. Voltage and
current waveforms are shown in Fig. Note that the source is never connected directly to
the load in the buck-boost converter. Energy is stored in the inductor when the switch
is closed and transferred to the load when the switch is open. Hence, the buck-boost
converter is also referred to as an indirect converter.Power absorbed by the load must be
the same as that supplied by the source, where

Figure 2.2: Waveform of current and voltage across inductor[7]

average source current is related to average inductor current by resulting in

Substituting for Vo using Eq. (6-47) and solving for IL, we find

11
 Figure 2.3: Buck-boost converter waveforms.(a) Inductor current; (b) Inductor
voltage; (c) Diode current; (d) Capacitor current. [7]

..........................................(2.6)

Maximum and minimum inductor currents are determined using above equations.

For continuous current, the inductor current must remain positive. To determine the
boundary between continuous and discontinuous current, Imin is set to zero , resulting
in

12
 ..............................................(2.7)

where f is the switching frequency.

Output Voltage Ripple

The output voltage ripple for the buck-boost converter is computed from the capacitor
current waveform.

Solving for Vo,

................................................(2.8)

As is the case with other converters, the equivalent series resistance of the capacitor can
contribute significantly to the output ripple voltage. The peak-topeak variation in capac-
itor current is the same as the maximum inductor current. Using the capacitor model
shown in Fig where IL,max is determined .

.......................................(2.9)

13
2.2.3 Mosfet

The full form of MOSFET is Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor, is a
semiconductor component primarily used in electrical devices for switching and amplifi-
cation functions. A MOSFET is typically a three-terminal device, with the body serving
as the fourth terminal that connects to the source terminal inside.

Figure 2.4: Symbols for MOSFET[8]

The operation of a MOSFET is easy to understand. A positive voltage given to the gate
pin of an N-Channel MOSFET causes the conduction process to occur between the Drain
and Source terminals. The MOSFET is thought to operate in an enhancement mode under
these circumstances.

The electrons underneath the oxide layer will be drawn to the positive voltage at the Gate
terminal, while the holes will be repelled by it. Thus, behind the silicon oxide layer,
electrons will start to build up. larger electrons will be drawn to the gate terminal by a
larger positive voltage, increasing the conduction rate in an N-Channel.

Mosfet as switch.

A MOSFET has to be operated in the cut-off and linear (or triode) area in order to function
as a switch. Assume the gadget is turned off at first. The MOSFET reaches the linear
area when the voltage across the Gate and Source, or VGS, is made sufficiently positive
(technically, VGS > VTH), and the switch is turned ON.

14
 Figure 2.5: MOSFET as a switch[8]

Figure 2.6: VI characteristics of operation of MOSFET.[8]

15
2.2.4 Diode

A diode is consist up of the two terms "Di" and "Ode," which together denote two elec-
trodes in a device or component. (specifically, cathode and anode). An electronic de-
vice known as a diode has two terminals and a two-terminal unidirectional power supply,
meaning that current can only flow in one direction via it. Modern circuits frequently in-
clude diodes to protect circuits from overvoltage and to convert AC current to DC current.

Figure 2.7: symbol of pn-junction diode[9]

Two layers make up a semiconductor diode. P-type and n-type semiconductors are used
in the two layers, respectively. A semiconductor (made of silicon and germanium) will
have more holes and a positive charge if trivalent impurities are added. Consequently, this
kind of layer is referred to as a p-type layer. Pentavalent impurities (such as silicon or
germanium) impart a negative charge to semiconductors because of an overabundance of
electrons. Consequently, this kind of layer is referred to as a "n-type layer."

Forward-Biased mode of Diode

When a semiconductor is linked to an external source by forward biasing, the junction

is said to be forward-biased when the p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive
terminal of the source or battery and the n-type semiconductor is attached to the negative
terminal. The applied electric field and the built-in electric field close to the junction have
the opposite directions when there is a forward bias. This implies that the resistivity is
lower and the depletion area is narrower as a result of the generated electric field having
a magnitude lower than the built-in electric field. The resistance of the depletion area in
silicon totally disappears at 0.6 V voltage.

16
Reverse-Biased mode of Diode

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of the battery is linked to the n-type, while the
negative terminal is connected to the p-type. The applied electric field and the built-in
electric field are both pointing in the same direction in this instance, and the resulting
electric field is stronger than the built-in electric field, making the depletion area more
resistive and thicker. The depletion area thickens and gets more resistant as the applied
voltage increases.

Figure 2.8: VI chracteristics of diode[9]

Types of Semiconductor Diode

Different types of semiconductor diode used in our daily life and easily available are as
follows:-

• LED

• P-N Junction Diode

17
 • Zener Diode

• Photodiode

• Schottky Diode

2.2.5 Arduino

Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects. Arduino con-
sists of both a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller)
and a piece of software, or IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that runs on your
computer, used to write and upload computer code to the physical board. The Arduino
is a single circuit board, which consists of different interfaces or parts. The microcon-
troller board is equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may
be interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits.The board has 14
digital I/O pins (six capable of PWM output), 6 analog I/O pins, and is programmable
with the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment), via a type B USB cable.It
can be powered by a USB cable or a barrel connector that accepts voltages between 7
and 20 volts, such as a rectangular 9-volt battery. The analog pins in Arduino are mostly
useful for fine-grained control. The pins in the Arduino board are arranged in a specific
pattern. The other devices on the Arduino board are USB port, small components (voltage
regulator or oscillator), microcontroller, power connector, etc.

Figure 2.9: Arduino UNO[10]

18
 Chapter Three:
Methodology

3.1 Simulation Tool

Proteus was used as a prime simulation tool to model the buck-boost converter for hard-
ware. It provides us with an efficient and flexible way to model all the components of
the system with different mathematical features built into it. Proteus provides better visu-
alization of all the graphs and incorporates a much more user-friendly interface to study
the responses during all stages of the simulation.Furthermore, MATLAB was used for
exploring practical implications of the BUCK-BOOST converter.

3.2 Block Diagram of our circuit

3.2.1 Open loop DC-DC converters:

This project uses potentiometer to vary the duty cycle that is given to the input to the pull
up configuration . The goal is to make a circuit that can either increase or decrease the
voltage of an electric signal, depending on what’s needed. We’ll achieve this by buck
boost converter with pwm signal generated by arduino.

We used IRF9540N PMOSFET in our simulation and transistor configuration to supply

gated PWM to the base of MOSFET. This is pull up configuration which is discussed in
detail in the methodology portion.

Figure 3.1: Open loop DC-DC

19
3.2.2 Closed loop control of DC-DC converters

In closed-loop control of DC-DC converters, particularly in applications where precise

regulation of the output voltage is crucial, such as in power supplies for electronic devices,
the use of PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) or FOPID (Fractional Order Proportional-
Integral-Derivative) controllers with PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) techniques can sig-
nificantly improve dynamic performance.

Here’s how the process typically works:

1. Output Voltage Sensing: The output voltage of the DC-DC converter is continuously
monitored using a feedback mechanism, usually through a voltage sensor.

2. Comparison with Reference: The sensed output voltage is compared with a reference
voltage (also known as a setpoint) which represents the desired output voltage level. The
difference between the sensed and reference voltages is the error signal.

3. PID/FOPID Controller: The error signal is then passed through a PID or FOPID con-
troller. These controllers utilize proportional, integral, and derivative terms to generate a
control signal that adjusts the duty cycle of the PWM signal.

4. PWM Signal Generation: The output of the PID/FOPID controller is combined with a
sawtooth waveform (often generated internally within the controller) to create the PWM
signal. The sawtooth waveform serves as a carrier signal, while the PID/FOPID output
modulates the width of the pulses in the PWM signal.

5. Gate Signal Generation: When the amplitude of the modulated PWM signal exceeds
the amplitude of the sawtooth waveform, a gate signal is generated. This gate signal
controls the switching of power semiconductor devices (such as MOSFETs) in the DC-
DC converter.

6. Control of Power Switches: The gate signal is applied to the MOSFET or other power
switches in the converter circuit, determining when these switches turn on and off. By
adjusting the duty cycle of the PWM signal in response to changes in the error signal, the
converter can regulate its output voltage effectively.

7. Closed-Loop Operation: This entire process forms a closed-loop control system, where
any deviations from the desired output voltage level are continuously monitored and cor-
rected in real-time.

20
The use of PID or FOPID controllers in conjunction with PWM techniques allows for pre-
cise control of the DC-DC converter’s output voltage, even in the presence of variations in
the input voltage or load conditions. By dynamically adjusting the duty cycle of the PWM
signal based on the error between the sensed and reference voltages, these controllers en-
able fast and accurate response to changes, thus improving the overall performance of the
converter system.

Figure 3.2: Closed loop control of Buck Boost Converter[11]

3.3 Conditions for buck-boost converter

Buck Converter When duty cycle of PWM signal is less than 0.5 then our circuit behaves
as a buck converter.

Boost Converter When duty cycle of PWM signal is greater than 0.5 then our circuit
behaves as a boost converter.

Figure 3.3: Buck Boost Converter[12]

21
3.4 Final circuit in Proteus Simulation(Hardware simulation).

So, this is the final circuit of our project in Proteus simulation that has been done in
hardware.

3.4.1 Buck Mode

Figure 3.4: Buck Mode

Figure 3.5: Buck Converter(blue signal is output from mosfet)

22
Explanation:

Given:
- Duty cycle (D) =0.28
- Load resistance (R) = 20 kohm = 20,000 ohms

We’re using a pulse-width modulation (PWM) signal to control the output voltage. The
duty cycle represents the ratio of time the signal is ON (high) compared to the total period
of the signal.

In this case, the formula for calculating the average output voltage (Vout ) of a PWM signal
driving a resistive load (R) is:

 
D
Vout = −Vin ×
1−D

Where: - Vin is the input voltage (in this case, 12V) - D is the duty cycle

Substituting the values:  

0.28
Vout = −12 ×
1 − 0.28

 
0.28
Vout = −12 ×
0.72

Vout = −12 × 0.3888

Vout = −4.666

So, through calculation, the output voltage is approximately -4.667V.

The error percentage is calculated as follows:

 
|4.667 − 4.59|
Error% = × 100%
4.667

23
  
0.077
Error% = × 100%
4.667

Error% ≈ 0.0164%

This indicates that the difference between the calculated value and the measured value of
Vout is very small, with an error percentage of approximately 0.0164 %. It suggests that
the calculated value closely matches the measured value, indicating good accuracy in the
calculation.

3.4.2 Boost Mode

Figure 3.6: Boost Mode

24
 Figure 3.7: Boost mode(blue signal is output from mosfet)

Explanation:
Given:
- Duty cycle (D) = 0.755
- Load resistance (R) = 20 kohm = 20,000 ohms

As before, we’ll use the formula for calculating the average output voltage (Vout ) of a
PWM signal driving a resistive load (R):

 
D
Vout = −Vin ×
1−D

Where: - Vin is the input voltage (12V) - D is the duty cycle

Substituting the values:

 
0.755
Vout = −12 ×
1 − 0.755

 
0.755
Vout = −12 ×
0.245

25
 Vout = −12 × 3.081632653

Vout = −36.97959184

So, through calculation, the output voltage is approximately 36.98V.

Now, let’s calculate the error percentage:

 
|36.98 − 38.0|
Error% = × 100%
38.0

 
1.02
Error% = × 100%
38.0

Error% ≈ 0.0268%

This indicates that the difference between the calculated value and the measured value
of Vout is very small, with an error percentage of approximately 0.027%. It shows that
the calculated value closely matches the measured value, indicating good accuracy in the
calculation.

26
3.5 Pull up configuration

We used IRF9540N PMOSFET in our project. From datasheet, the maximum threshold
voltage (Vgs) for our PMOSFET is about -4V. So Vgs must be more negative than -4v
for MOSFET to work properly. However, supply from Arduino is not enough to drive our
MOSFET. So, we have used an NPN transistor in our circuit to drive PMOSFET.

Figure 3.8: Typical pull up configuration

When we apply the PWM signal to the base of the transistor,

During the Ton period, current flows through the base of the transistor. So, the transistor
behaves like a short circuit. So, a current flows from collector to the emitter region. So,
the gate of MOSFET will be grounded at that instant. So, Vg = 0. Also, Vs = 12v. So
Vgs = -12v. Since it’s more negative than -4v, MOSFET will turn on. So, voltage appears
across R1.

During the Toff period, current doesn’t flow through the transistor base. So, the transistor
behaves like an open circuit. Small leakage current flows through the gate of MOSFET.
The voltage drop isn’t significant. So, Vg = 9v to 12v. Since Vs = 12v, Vgs (max) = -2V
which is not enough to turn on MOSFET. So, voltage doesn’t appear across R1.

In this way, we can drive PMOSFET with a small amplitude signal.

27
3.6 Arduino Code flowchart

We used Arduino to generate PWM signal. Arduino generates small amplitude but stable
signal.

Figure 3.9: Flowchart of our code

28
3.7 Final circuit in Matlab Simulation.

1. For non-varying DC input supply:

For non-varying DC input supply through a constant voltage source, our circuit
bucks or boosts the voltage to make the output voltage across load as constant or
same as that of set point .

Figure 3.10: Closed loop system for DC-DC converter with constant input

Explanation:
Here , in the figure we can see that the for the non-varying input supply the output
remains constant without varying as 48V . Even if we set the input voltage greater
or less than 48V the PID controller here determines that our circuit will either buck
or boost the input voltage and hence produce a duty cycle greater than 50% for

Figure 3.11: Constant Output of 48v

29
 boost operation and less than 50% for buck operation .

2. For variable DC input supply: For Variable Input even when the input varies ,
our circuit still bucks or boosts the voltage to make the output voltage across load
as constant or same as that of set point . However there will occur certain ripple as
we can seen from the figure when ever there is variation in the output.

Figure 3.12: Closed loop system for DC-DC converter with variable input.

Figure 3.13: Variable input

30
Explanation:
Here , in the figure we can see that the for the varying input supply the output re-
mains constant without varying as 24V .
Even when the input voltage is greater or less than 24V the PID controller here
determines that our circuit will either buck or boost the input voltage and hence
produce a duty cycle greater than 50% for boost operation and less than 50% for
buck operation .

Figure 3.14: Input VS output

For 0-1 sec our circuit will act as boost mode where the 12V is boost to 24V . and
for remaning duration we can see that outr circuit will as buck mode reducing input
voltage from 48V to 24V .
However there might seem some transient while switching the output it can greatly
be reduced by adding filter devices.

31
 Tuning of PI controllers: The design and simulation of PI controllers for Buck
Boost converters for constant as well as variable input is successfully tested with
the selected and calculated element values for open-loop and closed-loop systems.
An increase in the integral controller (Ki) resulted in decreasing the rise time, in-
creasing both the overshoot and the settling time, and most importantly eliminating
the steady-state error. The proportional gain (Kp) was reduced because if it would
be high, in the case of already selected high ki, it would again reduce the rise time
and increased the overshoot and settling time as a result there would be the dou-
ble effect giving rise to more transient conditions while varying input. To find the
proper parameter values for PI controller MATLAB provided tools for automati-
cally choosing optimal PID gains i.e. auto-tuning of PI controllers, which makes
the trial and error process smoother and faster reducing the extra burden of manu-
ally tuning the controllers.

Calculation of inductor and capacitor:We have following formulas:[7]

For buck-boost converter

32
3.8 Calculation

For buck,
When variable resistor value is 76% of total resistance then D = 0.31034
For D = 0.31034, R = 1000 ohm, f = 20,000 Hz,
Output voltage (Vo) = -Vs*D/(1-D) = 4.49V,
L min>=0.01225H, C >= 1.5uF

For boost,
When variable resistor value is 30% of total resistance D = 0.761029
For D = 0.761029, R = 1000 ohm, f = 20,000 Hz,
Output voltage (Vo) = -Vs*D/(1-D) = 31.84V
L min >= 0.0015625 H, C >= 3.75uF

Since we are free to chose inductor and capacitor value greater than this, our simulation
final inductor value is as:
L = 0.01225H = 12.5mH
C = 3.75uF

Selected component are:-

1. 1N4148 Diode

2. 2N1711 Transistor

3. 10 WATT 1K Resistor

4. IRF9540N MOSFET(P TYPE)

5. Capacitor and Inductor

6. Cell - 12V

7. POT-HG-20K Ohm

33
 Chapter Four:
Results and Discussions

4.1 Software Simulation

We designed a buck-boost converter on proteus simulation software in open loop

mode and also we used matlab simulation tool for simulating buck-boost converter
in closed loop mode.

4.2 Hardware Fabrication

We fabricated the buck-boost converter for circuit designed in proteus using arduino
as pulse width modulation generator.

Fig below clearly shows output of simulation circuit designed on matlab and hard-
ware fabrication of circuit designed in proteus.

34
 Figure 4.1: Graph of closed loop system

Figure 4.2: General wiring and component placement

35
 Chapter Five:
Conclusion

DC-DC converters are essential electronic devices used to efficiently change DC

electrical power from one voltage level to another, offering advantages over AC
counterparts.A DC-DC converter is analogous to an A transformer in many aspects.
They facilitate smooth acceleration control, high efficiency, and rapid dynamic re-
sponse. Operationally, they rely on power semiconductor devices functioning as
electronic switches, falling under the category of switched-mode DC-DC convert-
ers. The inherently nonlinear nature of these converters necessitates a controller
with a robust dynamic response, often employing Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
for effective switching control. Ensuring a constant output voltage remains critical
in DC-DC voltage regulators, regardless of fluctuations in the input voltage.

In our project we have used 12V battery as a source but at the time of validating the
results the battery was discharged to 11.3V and to operate our circuit at boost mode
we rotated the potentiometer to increase the duty cycle above 50% and our output
voltage was boosted upto 24.9V .Similarly to operate in buck mode we adjusted the
potentiometer to get duty cycle below 50% and we observed that the output voltage
was stepped down to 0V.

Different works have been completed in this semester, which are listed in following
sections along with works remaining.

5.1 Conclusions

• Reviewed relevant literature and studied theories associated with Buck-Boost

converters.

• Fabricated the working model of buck boost converter.

5.2 Recommendation

• Exploring the opportunities to broaden the conversion range for expanded

practical applications and real-world expertise.

• Future improvements can include varying output voltage for enhanced load
compatibility assessment.

36
 References

[1] M. P. Akter, S. Mekhilef, N. M. L. Tan, and H. Akagi, “Model predictive

control of bidirectional ac-dc converter for energy storage system,” Journal of
Electrical Engineering & Technology, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 165–175, 2015.

[2] C. A. Iskak, N. A. Windarko, and R. Rakhmawati, “Design and implemen-

tation bidirectional dc-dc converter for load sharing and charging battery,” in
2019 International Seminar on Application for Technology of Information and
Communication (iSemantic). IEEE, 2019, pp. 455–459.

[3] A. Soni, “Dc-dc switching boost converter,” ILLINOIS College of Engineer-

ing, 1999.

[4] K. Shenai, “Potential impact of emerging semiconductor technologies on

advanced power electronic systems,” IEEE electron device letters, vol. 11,
no. 11, pp. 520–522, 1990.

[5] N. M. Tan, T. Abe, and H. Akagi, “Topology and application of bidirec-

tional isolated dc-dc converters,” in 8th International Conference on Power
Electronics-ECCE Asia. IEEE, 2011, pp. 1039–1046.

[6] S. U. Yuruker, R. K. Mandel, P. McCluskey, M. M. Ohadi, S. Chakraborty,

Y. Park, H. Yun, A. Khaligh, L. Boteler, and M. Hinojosa, “Advanced pack-
aging and thermal management of high-power dc-dc converters,” in Interna-
tional Electronic Packaging Technical Conference and Exhibition, vol. 59322.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2019, p. V001T06A026.

[7] D. Hart, Power Electronics. Tata McGraw-Hill, 2011. [Online]. Available:

https://books.google.com.np/books?id=WrI-Vr69_ZEC

[8] R. Teja, “Mosfet as a switch,” Apr 2021. [Online]. Available: https:

//www.electronicshub.org/mosfet-as-a-switch/

[9] GfG, “What is diode - definition, types of diode, v-i characteristics

application,” May 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/
diode/

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[10] “Arduino reference.” [Online]. Available: https://www.arduino.cc/en/
Reference/LiquidCrystal

[11] “Closed loop dc dc converter.” [Online]. Available: https://sklc-projects-2021.

s3.amazonaws.com/projects/2021/5029/55161.txt

[12] “Dc-dc converter.” [Online]. Available: https://extrudesign.com/

solar-mobile-charger-and-efficiency-analysis-of-linear-voltage-regulator-and-switching-reg

38
 APPENDIX A: Script

Arduino code for PWM

#include <TimerOne.h>

const int potPin = A0; // Potentiometer connected to analog pin A0

const int pwmPin = 9; // PWM output pin

void setup() {

pinMode(pwmPin, OUTPUT); // Set up Timer1 for 50 Hz PWM

Timer1.initialize(50); // 20000 microseconds period (20 kHz frequency)

Timer1.attachInterrupt(updatePWM);

void loop() {

// Read the potentiometer value

int potValue = analogRead(potPin);

// Map the potentiometer value to the range of PWM duty cycle (0-255)

int dutyCycle = map(potValue, 0, 1023, 0, 1023);

// Set the duty cycle

Timer1.pwm(pwmPin, dutyCycle);

delay(10); // Add a short delay to avoid rapid changes

void updatePWM() {

// Empty function to be used as the Timer1 interrupt handler }

39