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The Physics of an Air Molecule Traveling through a Selected Jet Turbine Engine

Kevin Kipkoech

Department of Mechanical Engineering, JKUAT

Mechanical Engineering

July 2021
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The Physics of an Air Molecule Travelling through a Selected Jet Turbine Engine

Abstract

Jet engines such as GE9x work by compression, combustion, and ejection of gases at

high pressure to achieve propulsion. Turbofan engines increase efficiency by harnessing some of

the energy of the exhaust gases. These gases turn a turbine which transmits this energy to the fan

and the compressor. This way, engines such as the GE9x can derive a lot of power from very

little fuel. GE’s newest engine boasts of unmatched fuel economy, performance, and quietness.

Its manufacturing process is also made easier and cheaper through the use of additive

manufacturing. The engine also has better materials such as ceramic-matrix composites that

enable it to function well in extreme temperatures and pressures.

Keywords: jet engine, GE9x, compression, combustion, pressure, temperature

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Introduction 4

Literature Review 13

Discussion: Journey of an Air Molecule 18

Conclusions 21

References 22
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Introduction

Jet Engines and How They Work

By definition, a jet engine is a machine that converts chemical energy in the form of

aviation fuel into thrust that propels planes on the ground and through the air. The jet engine

intakes air and mixes it with fuel before subjecting the mixture to combustion, and the resultant

waste gases are forced out of the engine in the opposite direction and high pressure and speed.

This, following the famous third law of motion by Isaac Newton, results in a reaction (thrust)

that forces the plane to move forward. This movement, coupled with the aerodynamic structure

of the aircraft wing, causes the plane to take off and maintains it in the air as it transits from one

point to another.

The standard structure of a jet engine mainly consists of an intake fan, a combustion

chamber, and an exhaust section. The following image shows all the major parts of a

conventional jet engine;

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Figure 1: Parts/stages of a jet engine (Woodford, 2020)

1- As the airplane moves through the atmosphere, the onrushing air gets into the engine at

speeds of approximately 600mph. This air is presumably rich in oxygen and is directed

towards the reaction chamber.

2- To control the flowing air into the engine, a fan is stationed at the entry point of the

engine. Its rotation varies depending on the desired power output of the engine, but it

usually reduces the speed of incoming air by 50-60%. This ensures the rate of reaction

proceeds as required.

3- This is a compressor set that receives the incoming air at atmospheric pressure and

releases it into the combustion chamber at much higher pressure. The most common air

pressure in modern jet engines is around 8atm. This not only ensures that the resultant

thrust after combustion is sufficiently strong to propel the plane but also raises its

temperature so that the reaction would take place with high efficiency.

4- At this stage, fuel is squirted into the engine so that it mixes with the now compressed air

in readiness for combustion. Pipes direct kerosene from the fuel tanks to the engine

through the wings and fuselage.

5- This is the combustion chamber where the air-fuel mixture gets burned. Temperatures at

this part of the jet engine can go as high as 16000F during combustion and since space is

confined and the air is a very high pressure, the release of the exhaust gases would

generate sufficient reaction forces to thrust the plane forward.

6- This is a set of turbine blades through which the high-pressure exhaust gases pass while

exiting the jet engine. This causes the conversion of the pressure and kinetic energy of the

exhaust gases into the rotational energy of the turbine, thus helping cool down the
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exhaust gases before expulsion. The rotational action of the turbines also creates a vortex

that adds to the thrust force acting on the airplane.

7- As the turbine rotates, the energy is transmitted to the compressor and the fan. This

means the jet engine (the gas turbine engine) is a self-supporting mechanism which saves

on the amount of energy used and improves overall operational efficiency.

8- The exhaust nozzle is tapered such that the exiting gas will accelerate towards the exit

(Bernoulli’s principle). This creates a larger thrust force that enables the airplane to move

forward at high speed. In some aircraft such as military fighters, fuel is added to the

exhaust gases at this stage and it gets sparked such that it burns explosively thus

increasing forward thrust.

This is the standard structure of a conventional gas turbine engine, but various sources exist

due to differences in some components or dimensions. Jet engine types include turbojet engines,

turboprop engines, turbofan engines, turboshaft engines, turbofan engines, ramjet engines,

among others. They all work under the same principle as described above. These engines vary in

that they have unique supporting structures and efficiency-improvement technologies such as;

(i) Turboprop engines use propellers at the entry point to enhance air intake,

(ii) Turboshaft engines boost air intake using a horizontally-installed propeller,

(iii) Turbofan systems have a high bypass feature that increases control and efficiency of

the combustion process and the exit force of the exhaust systems, among others.

However, this project is centered around a particular jet engine; the GE9x engine. It is

discussed in detail in the next sub-section.

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The GE9x Engine

The GE9x engine is considered the world’s current largest and most efficient turbofan

engine. Recently developed by GE Aviation for Boeing’s 777X planes, some of the most

captivating specifications of this jet engine include a record 134 inches in diameter, 105000

pounds of thrust, and service temperatures of up to 24000F. This engine has much more power

than that of the first rocket engines that first took the man to space and have 10% higher

efficiency than its predecessor; the GE90. This engine also has a never-before-achieved pressure

ratio of 27:1 thanks to its state of the art 11-stage compressors. For good high-temperature

performance, low weight, and durability, the combustion chamber and the turbine are made from

ceramic matrix composites and the fans are 3D-printed to optimize material homogeneity

(Greenwood 2019). The by-pass ratio of this engine is also restricted such that an allowance of 8

decibels is maintained below regulation-sanctioned noise levels. Its specific fuel composition is

better than the conventional turbofan by 5% thanks to its revolutionary design.

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Figure 2: Image of the GE9x engine (Thryft, 2014)

The most notable feature of the GE9x engine is the fact that the fan blades are build from

carbon fiber (through 3D-weaving). This significantly reduces the weight of this part and that of

the engine as a whole (an estimated mass of 500Kg per engine is saved). This improves the

engine’s propulsion efficiency and saves the amount of fuel consumed, and consequently, GHG

emissions from the engine will be lower. This material will also ensure that the rate of damage to

the fan is much lower and minimal maintenance would be required. Preliminary tests have

shown that the manufacture of a single fan blade using this technology consumes several

kilometers of carbon fiber and this is very expensive compared to the use of metals, but the long-

term benefits of this technique are apparent.

The use of ceramic-matrix composites in the manufacture of the combustion chamber and

the turbine sections also improves the combustion process and reduces emissions even further

through weight reduction and the capacity to withstand much higher temperatures. The use of 3D

printing techniques also extends to the fuel nozzles so that the manufacturing process is also

made easier and cheaper thus reducing the total energy expenditure of the engine.

The Thermodynamics of GE9x’s Operation

As described in the sections above, the thrust force is generated through high-pressure

combustion of fuel before it gets released through the aerodynamically designed engine such that

a reaction force sufficient to cause forward motion is created. The combustion chamber is at the

heart of this process and this is where the air-fuel mixture is subjected to various thermodynamic

processes. The compressor, the turbine, and the exhaust also form part of the jet engine’s

thermodynamic cycle.
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Key properties of the gas that are subjected to the constant change to achieve thrust in the

jet engine include pressure (P), temperature (T), and volume (V). These three properties act as

variables for each air molecule passing through the engine and are related by the ideal gas

equation;

PV =nRT

These variables change for each air molecule (although the changes are treated to be

uniform for each volume, such as the air that enters the combustion chamber or the air that goes

along the bypass in the GE9x engine) whenever a key component such as the compressor is

called to action. The GE9x engine, and all turbofan engines in general, are thermodynamically

analyzed based on the Brayton Thermodynamic Cycle. This cycle is characterized by the

following PV-diagram;
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Figure 3: The pressure-volume diagram of the Brayton Cycle

Based on the figure shown above, the thermodynamic processes involved in the operation

of the jet engine comprises 6 different stages including;

Stage 0- air enters the jet engine at this point. It is assumed that air at this stage is at ambient

conditions and it is guided through the fan, after which some of it goes into the compressor while

the rest goes outward along the bypass to cool the exhaust gases at the exit nozzle to further jet

airspeed and engine noise.

Stage 2- at this stage, a fraction of the air passes into the compression system. The air enters the

compressor at atmospheric pressure and exits are 8atm. The oxygen-rich and now-pressurized air

then proceed to the next stage. Increasing pressure also results in a corresponding increase in the

temperature of the air.

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Stage 3- at this stage, fuel is sprayed into the incoming air at the required air-fuel ratio before it

enters the combustion chamber. A spark then ignites the high-pressure mixture resulting in an

explosive combustion process.

Stage 4- at this stage, the process of combustion is complete and a high-pressure exhaust gas

mixture is formed in the combustor. It is released from the combustion chamber at high

temperature and pressure after which it encounters the turbine.

Stage 5- the turbine draws energy from the hot exhaust gases by converting their kinetic energy

into rotational action. This power is then transmitted to the compressor and the fan via the

connecting shaft. This causes the exhaust gases to lose most of their energy, and their pressure

and temperature drop as a result.

Stage 8- the nozzle has a gradually narrowing cross-section which accelerates the exhaust gases

towards the exit causing a further drop in pressure and temperature. The cool bypass air also

rejoins the exhaust gases at this point and mixes with them to reduce their temperature before

exiting the engine. This phenomenon causes engines such as GE9x to reduce noise, improve fuel

economy, and increase efficiency all at the same time.

The following diagram shows the temperature-entropy diagram of jet engine operation

following the Brayton cycle;

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Figure 4: T-S diagram showing the temperature variations of a turbofan (GE9x) engine during

operation

Most of the time, air entering the jet engine is turbulent. It is difficult to have laminar

flow in such a system due to physical obstructors such as the fan. This helps the process of

mixing as the bypass rejoins the exhaust gases at the nozzle, but it is responsible for high

temperatures that are realized in the compressor and partially than in the combustion chamber.

Turbulent flow, therefore, results in high levels of entropy since collisions between air molecules

become rampant. As the air progresses from the inlet towards the combustor, the level of entropy

increases due to increasing pressure but it drops once the air hits the turbine. Therefore, the level

is proportional to pressure and temperature in the jet engine.

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Literature Review

Introduction

Various literature concerning the design, fabrication, and performance of jet engines has

been published ever since the first aircraft engine was invented. An analysis of this literature is

done to get a more detailed view of how the process works and how air behaves within the jet

engine.

The work of Jain and Patil (2019) involves a review of the design and manufacturing

process used to make turbofan and turbojet engines. The engine consists of various complex-

shaped components such as the impeller and the turbine. The manufacture of these components

through conventional techniques such as forging and machining is, therefore, bound to be

expensive, difficult, and would result in material wastage (Jain & Patil 2019). To solve this

problem, the use of additive manufacturing technology is proposed. This includes the use of

techniques such as 3D printing and powder metallurgy to fabricate these complex shapes. This

not only ensures that the manufactured components have accurate dimensions and surface finish

but also saves time and material.

Other material-saving techniques that are proposed by Jain and Patil (2019) include the

use of gradient materials that bring together various materials to form a single structure. This

technique makes it possible to make materials such as ceramic-matrix composites that are used in

the compressor and the combustor to withstand high temperatures and pressures during

operation.

Airflow and Fluid Mechanics

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The work of Kumar, Kumar, and Ram (2017) is an in-depth study of the performance of a

turbofan engine based on its airflow characteristics. Most jet engines experience high levels of

noise, poor fuel economy, and high emission levels due to the amount of power that is demanded

of them. However, turbofan engines such as the GE9x are designed such that some of the air

bypasses the compression and combustion system and exist the engine without participating in

combustion. The fan is designed such that air at the inlet is split into two streams one of which

enters the bypass section. Due to its non-participation in the combustion process, the bypass air

does not experience a large increase in temperature and therefore, when it mixes with the

combustion products at the exit nozzle, the overall temperature drops to approximately 3500F.

This temperature reduction by the bypass has several benefits (Kuman, Kumar & Ram 2017);

(i) Lower temperatures protect the material against high-heat damage. This also

eliminates the need to use rare materials such as titanium to make parts of the jet

engine thus reducing manufacturing costs.

(ii) Reduced temperature reduces pressure which is further reduced as the gases exit

the nozzle. This means fewer vortices and vapor trails are formed behind the

engine, and this goes a long way in noise reduction. This explains why the GE9x

engine is one of the quietest engines ever built.

(iii) The bypass also introduces more oxygen to the mixture which causes a further

reaction with any fuels that have not been burned in the combustion chamber.

This creates more thrust thus increasing the engine’s performance even more.

This also ensures that fewer emissions are produced from the engine.

(iv) The bypass section, which is usually on all sides of the compressor and combustor

system, is designed such that it grows narrower as it advances further away from
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the inlet. This means the bypass air gets accelerated as it moves through the jet

engine and creates a low-pressure zone just beyond the turbine. This encourages

the high-pressure exhaust fumes from the combustion chamber to exit much faster

thus creating room for more air to enter the combustor. This increases the rate of

power production of the engine thus boosting its performance.

(v) Some of the incoming air passing through the bypass means less air than

conventional engines participates in combustion. This means less fuel is burned in

the system and since power production is boosted, the fuel efficiency of the

engine is greatly improved.

Turbulent flow is the most common type of fluid flow in the jet engine. This is desired in

sections such as the combustion chamber whereas as many collisions between oxygen and the

fuel as possible are required. However, turbulent flow in the bypass section and at the exit is not

desired as they generate drag through the formation of pressure vortices (Nordqvist et al. 2017).

To deal with this effect, turbofans such as the GE9x use an aerodynamic design whereby the

inner sections are made to gradually decline in cross-section so that the turbulent airflow can be

accelerated and compressed into a laminar flow.

Operation of the GE9x Engine

As outlined by IATA (2020), advanced turbofan technologies such as the GE9x engine

are at the forefront of the expected advancement of aircraft propulsion between now and 2050.

The GE9x is expected to be the blueprint on which future concepts and technologies such as the

ultra-fan engine and open rotor engine, both of which are expected to have been fully developed

and in operation by 2040, will be based.

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One of the GE9x’s strongest points, the capability to produce maximum power from very

little fuel, is expected to support air travel during the transition between fuel propulsion and

electric propulsion since fossil fuel resources grew thinner by the day and the advancement of

electric propulsion technology is advancing at a much slower rate (Zante 2016). This engine is

currently the newest in the market and GE Aviation boasts of having equipped it with the best

features such as the largest-ever fan ever installed on an aircraft engine, a composite-base fan

base infrastructure that is set to reach new performance levels, the use of light materials such as

carbon fiber to maximize power generation, the use of 3-stage booster which is the first instance

in an aircraft engine, and a debris rejection system that is designed to reduce the chances of in-

flight engine failure to almost zero (GE Aviation, 2020). These features have all been tested and

verified and they are expected to improve the engine’s performance by nearly 10% above

conventional engines and reduce NOx emissions by up to 30%.

The most important performance parameters in determining the performance of a jet

engine include thrust force, specific fuel consumption, specific thrust, and frontal area thrust.

Specific fuel consumption is a factor that specifies the amount of fuel that an engine consumes to

produce a single unit of thrust force which specific thrust is the amount of propulsion that is

achieved from a given amount of thrust (Tumer & Bajwa 1999). Airflow into an engine is

controlled by a fan that is powered by a gas turbine. The fan in itself provides a small percentage

of thrust as air rushes through it, but it is the reaction that occurs as high-pressure exhaust fumes

exit the engine that provides most of the thrust that propels the plane forward.

As outlined by Aied (2020), the turbofan engine, some of which include a bypass stream

such as the GE9x engine, are very efficient but they are limited by a few factors such as;
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(i) Higher performance comes at a higher cost. However, in the case of the GE9x,

cheap and light materials are used which greatly reduces the cost of manufacture.

The only drawback is that carbon fiber and ceramic-matrix composites cost a lot

more than regular metal.

(ii) Most turbofan engines have long start-up times as compared to reciprocating

engines. The GE9x also suffers from this problem, but this deficit is recovered

once the engine begins to generate large amounts of power at a go.

(iii) Due to the limits of airflow and the rules of fluid mechanics, benefits of the

bypass stream are lost when the plane hits supersonic speeds. Therefore, the GE9x

and other turbofan engines are only efficient when they are operating at subsonic

speeds.

(iv) The engines are more complex as compared to conventional jet engines.

However, the GE9x covers this through the use of efficient technologies such as

additive manufacturing to fabricate its complex parts.

The GE9x engine is designed to overcome all the shortcomings that have held back the

initial designs of the jet engine. Set to begin operation in the 777X Boeing series in the

2020/2021 season despite being held back by the coronavirus outbreak, this engine promises to

become the most efficient fossil fuel engine ever built.

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Discussion: Journey of an Air Molecule

An air molecule transiting through the GE9x engine is likely to encounter various

scenarios, each of which is described below. Initially, rotation of the turbofan causes air

surrounding the engine to be sucked into the engine. This results in the creation of a partial

vacuum in front of the fan, and the air molecule is pushed into this space by atmospheric

pressure. The air molecule then gets sucked into the engine as well, and this is where the journey

begins. After passing through the fan, the air molecule ends up in the compressor or the bypass

depending on the splitting action of the turbofan. Each of these destinations represents different

fates for the air molecule within the engine as explained below;

If it Enters the Bypass

The bypass only comes into action during the last stages of the jet engine so if the air

molecule gets into this stream, it will not undergo many processes. After entry, the air molecule

gets guided through the bypass section which passes through the side of the engine. Its

temperature and pressure remain largely unaffected as it enters this section. The bypass route is

structured such that the pathway grows thinner towards the center of the engine before expanding

outwards while approaching the nozzle. Due to the effect of Bernoulli’s principle, the air

molecule would speed up as it approaches the thin section. This causes its pressure (relative to

surrounding air molecules) and temperature to drop even further. This compensates for the slight

heating it is set to experience as it passes over the combustor region. As it emerges on the other

side of the bypass, the air molecule interacts with hot and high-pressure exhaust gases straight

from the combustion chamber. The resultant mixing action causes the air molecule to absorb

some of the heat from the exhaust gases, and millions of air molecules are involved in this

action, the average temperature of the exhaust gases then gets reduced. The air molecule then
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travels with the exhaust gases through the nozzle where it gets accelerated once again due to

Bernoulli’s effect before it finally leaves the jet engine and back into the atmosphere.

If it Enters the Compressor

If the air molecule enters the compressor, it gets forced into the compression chamber

where it is forcibly brought closer to other air molecules to build up pressure. Since the air

molecule has a lot of kinetic energy at this point, it experiences a lot of Brownian motion and

constantly bumps against other air molecules increasing temperature as well. The now

pressurized air molecules are then released from the compressor and into the combustor. On

transit to the combustion chamber, fuel is injected into the compressed air to form an air-fuel

mixture. Once in the combustion chamber, the mixture is ignited and the process of combustion

begins.

If the air molecule is oxygen, it reacts with fuel to form carbon (IV) oxide and water with

the release of heat, and the molecule’s journey would end at this point. If not, the air molecule is

just thrown about in the chamber under intense pressure and heat. After the combustion process,

if completed, the chamber is opened and the air molecule leaves it at high speed and temperature.

It collides with the turbine blade losing some of its energy in the process. It then leaves the

turbine section and gets joined by more air molecules from the bypass route. These incoming air

molecules are much cooler and are at a lower pressure than the air molecule and its fellow

molecules in the ejection gas mixture, and they collide and mix thus causing the air molecule to

lose some of its heat and pressure. The air molecule is then accelerated through the nozzle

(Bernoulli’s principle) before it leaves the GE9x engine and gets back into the atmosphere. Since

its temperature is still high, the air molecule heats water droplets/vapor that were along the path
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of the plane thus creating a vapor trail that can even be seen from the ground is a large number of

air molecules participate.

Although this is not entirely accurate due to environmental conditions and other

limitations, the air molecule follows the rules of the Ideal Gas Law throughout the process.

Pressure and temperature rise with a decrease in volume, and vice versa.
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Conclusions

The GE9x engine is the newest form of turbofan engine that has been developed by GE

Aviation for use in Boeing 777Xs. The engine uses various technologies such as bypass systems,

high compression ratios, and better-adapted materials to achieve greater fuel economy and

performance. An air molecule traveling through this engine experiences alteration of pressure,

volume, and temperature. The compressor pressurizes the air before it takes part in combustion

in the combustor, after which it gets ejected at high pressure and temperature. The turbine

absorbs some of this energy and transmits it back into the system to make the engine more

efficient, and reliable.

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References

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