Vol 09 02 Pratna Samiksha New Series
Vol 09 02 Pratna Samiksha New Series
Vol 09 02 Pratna Samiksha New Series
A Journal of Archaeology
New Series
Volume 9
2018
EXPLORATIONS
Reconnaissance in Search of Sarutaru
Jitendra Kumar and Sukanya Sharma 1
EPIGRAPHY
Four More Gupta-period Copperplate Grants from Bengal
Arlo Griffiths 15
An Inscription of the Western Calukya King Vikramaditya VI Tribhuvanamalla
Nupur Dasgupta 59
Inscribed Buddhist Images and Copperplates from Odisha:
An Analysis of the Social Background of Donors and Issues of
Brahmanical-Buddhist Relations
Umakanta Mishra 69
SCULPTURE
New Sculptural Evidence from the Lower Ajay River Valley
(District Birbhum, West Bengal)
Shubha Majumder and Pampa Biswas 95
A Rock-cut Panel of Heruka-Nairatma and an Unrecorded Female Figure
from Unakoti, Tripura
Priyanku Chakraborty 103
ARCHAEOMETRY
Understanding Ancient Iron Technology of the Vidarbhan Megalithic:
An Archaeo-Metallurgical and Ethnographic Perspective
Oishi Roy and K. Krishnan 115
NOTE
An Inscribed Stone Sculpture of ‘Marici’ from Birbhum (West Bengal)
in the Gurusaday Museum (Kolkata)
Rajat Sanyal and Sharmila Saha 137
Few Recently Reported Sculptures from Pali (District Gaya, South Bihar)
Kumkum Bandyopadhyay 147
Abstract : Early Iron Age megalithic culture of Vidarbha dated to 700–555 ± 100 bc has brought to light
evidences of earliest iron working, especially smelting, in India, from a site named Naikund. In the vicinity of
Naikund, there are 8 sites which yielded 32 types of artefacts. Of these categories Naikund yielded 12 types.
Naikund is the only site that has reported evidence of iron smelting activity from Early Iron Age megalithic
level. Typological analysis of the objects show a degree of standardisation based on usage pattern. Wet
chemical analysis aids in understanding the chemical composition of the ore utilised. This probably suggests
existence of centralised production unit. However, to prove the existence of a centralised production unit a
typo-technological analysis of the artefacts recovered coupled with ethnographic survey is required. Micro-
structural analysis gives us a clear insight of the existing technical knowledge of iron working. Ethnographic
study of the present day Lohar community residing in the Vidarbha region aids in reconstructing the
metallurgical know-how of the megalithic people. Therefore, comparative analysis of objects from excavated
sites, located in the vicinity of Naikund, would aid in constructing a model of the probable existence of a
centralised administrative unit. The paper discusses the formulation of this hypothesis and its relevance in
societal reconstruction of the Vidarbhan megalithic culture.
Keywords : Early Iron Age, megalithic, SEM, EDX, optical microscopy, steel.
to various intractable debates. The indigenous In this paper, the crux of the discussion
origin has been propounded by Banerjee (1965) revolves around the iron technology practised
who ascribed the founders of iron technology to by the megalithic Vidarbhan community which
the authors of the Painted Grey Ware culture, is exemplified by their smelting and smithery
Subramanyam (1964), on the other hand, has activity. Eventually with the comparative analysis
assigned the authorship of iron technology of objects from the excavated sites of Naikund,
to the Black and Red Ware culture. However, Bhagimohari and Vyahad the probability of the
ascribing the development of certain technology existence of a centralised manufacturing unit
as succeeding or preceding another technological with a trade nexus will be analysed. Finally,
innovation presents ambiguities and problems. it is proposed that the ethnographic study
There are problems in charting the trajectory of the Lohar community will aid in societal
of individual technologies leading to overlaps reconstruction of the megalithic community.
in the timelines as certain technological types The map in plate 1 shows the Vidarbha
continue in subsequent cultures too. Secondly, region (20°45´31.3˝ N–20°11´9.6˝ N and
the beginning of iron technology in the Indian 76°10´55˝ E–80°11´46˝ E) within the present
subcontinent has been assigned an external day state of Maharashtra. It encompasses the
origin by Gopal Lallanji (1960), ascribing it to easternmost eleven districts of the state namely
the Aryan invasion. Nagpur, Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Bhandara,
Gondia, Wardha, Amravati, Akola, Buldana, on the banks of river Pench. The stone circles
Yavatmal and Washim. It is important to note grouped into clusters are located on the left bank
that coal, one of the major requirements of and the habitation mound along with an iron
the iron smelting industry is present only in smelting workshop with associated finds such as
the Vidarbha region in Maharashtra and the slags, cinders, ore lumps and a smelting furnace is
richest coal deposit is at Telwasa in Chandrapur located on the right bank. Bhagimohari (BMR) is
district. Furthermore iron ore is also naturally located on the bank of river Kolar, we have both
found in Chandrapur, Gadchiroli and Bhandara habitation and mortuary activity. Lastly the site
region and the most economic deposit is Lohara of Vyahad (VHD), again a habitation cum burial
located in Chandrapur district and the only site is located on the banks of river Vena. As the
known magnetite deposit (titaniferous magnetite tool typology from the three above-mentioned
with vanadium inclusion) is located in Bhandara sites follow a similar pattern with local variants,
district (Pl. 2). it was found necessary to do a comparative
The three sites selected for this study fall analysis of specific tool-types so as to locate the
within the Nagpur district and have a similar similarities and dissimilarities of the chemical
geographical setting. Naikund (NKD) is located composition and microstructures of the artefacts.
Pl. 2: Map of Vidarbha denoting the iron ore and coal deposits
118 O I S H I ROY K. KRISHNAN
Pl. 3: Adzes
Adze 18 3 36 57
Arrowhead 0 2 0 2
Axe 4 1 3 8
Bevelled point 2 0 0 2
a. BMR E
Borer 1 0 0 1
Chisel and Chisel point 17 2 10 29
Dagger 5 5 3 13
Digging tool 0 0 2 2
Drill point 0 0 1 1
Fish hook 0 0 3 3
Hoe 0 1 0 1
Horse bit 3 3 1 7 b. BMR 7
Ingot 0 2 3 5
Knife 3 7 2 12
Ladle 8 0 2 10
Lamp 5 0 19 24
Nail 0 0 2 2
Nail parer 17 2 46 65
Pan 0 2 0 2
Ring 0 0 7 7
Rod 0 0 22 22
Sickle 0 0 1 1
Slag 0 3 0 3
Spear/Spear head 5 0 1 6
Spike 0 0 10 10
Tang 0 5 7 12
Unidentified objects 0 4 43 47
Wire 0 0 2 2
VHD 7a
62
VHD 8a
74
VHD 2.96 94.25 0.34 0.97 0.26 0.02 2.51 0.68 0.47 0.11 12.6 — 9a
50
(Pl. 9b)
VHD 10a
33
VHD 3.28 93.83 0.42 2.41 0.42 0.18 0.61 — 0.18 11a 11b
24
(Pl. 11c)
VHD 12a
16
NKD 13a
5866
NKD 14a
5861
BMR 3.79 93.55 0.19 0.11 0.07 0.05 2.09 0.15 0.09 0.45 15a
136
(Pl. 15)
Understanding Ancient Iron Technology of the Vidarbhan Megalithic 123
Pl. 7: VHD 62
Pl. 8: VHD 74
Pl. 9: VHD 50
We also have evidences of failed attempts carbide formation. The presence of nickel
which is represented by the SEM micrograph and chromium together produces the desired
(Pl. 16a) of BMR 130. The micrograph closeness of the grain structure and molybdenum
shows ferrite grains with iron carbide at grain strengthens the matrix.
boundaries. Steeling was attempted but the Cast iron when given heat treatment for stress
control on the absorption of carbon was not relief results in dissolving of some graphite
achieved. The predominance of ferrite suggests formations in austenite, which is followed by air
that the hardness of the structure was not cooling which leads to the formation of pearlite
elevated. and have the same features as steel (Rollason
The third evidence we derive from the 1973). However, the composition is distinctive
metallographic analysis of the samples is the of cast iron. The optical micrograph (Pl. 17a)
usage of cast iron. It has been identified first, of Sample no. BMR 5809 shows ferritic grain
on the basis of their chemical composition and boundaries at high magnification along with
secondly, on the basis of their microstructure. The graphite flakes. The micrograph shows dendritic
carbon content is the main difference between structure typical of cast iron. Free graphite flakes
cast iron and steel which is around 2–4 per cent. are a characteristic component of non-alloyed
Presence of carbon decreases the melting point and low-alloyed cast iron. However, the SEM
of iron and induces the formation of graphite micrograph (Pl. 17b) shows lamellar formation
and silicon induces strength in the ferrite which resembles steel, which indicates that the
structure. Generally cast iron has phosphorous sample was annealed.
content (0.03–1.5%) which forms the laminated SEM micrograph (Pl. 18) of sample number
constituent in white iron and this is formed in BMR 151–2 shows features of grey cast iron. The
the interstices of dendrites. The other elements microstructural constituents other than graphite
that are added to cast iron are nickel, chromium; and transformed ledeburite are similar to steel,
copper and molybdenum and sample number along with ferrite and pearlite. The chemical
BMR 5809 have shown the existence of all the reaction involved in the formation of grey cast
added elements except copper (Pl. 17c). However, iron is as follows. At temperature t1 the molten
we do get the presence of niobium and zirconium metal starts to solidify and austentite grains in
too. Nickel is usually added as it induces the the form of dendrites begin to form, enclosed by
properties of grey iron and chromium induces the molten metal, with the falling temperature,
Understanding Ancient Iron Technology of the Vidarbhan Megalithic 129
Pl. 16a: Optical Micrograph of Sample BMR 130 Pl. 17: BMR 5809
the molten metal cools and eutectic is formed. undertaken. This nomadic group renders service
The eutectic composition consists of ledeburite, to the villagers by the mode of barter system. The
austentite and Fe3C (Radzikowska 2004). earliest account of this community by Russell
The artefacts BMR 173 and BMR 5833 and Hiralal (1916) gives a vivid description of
were extremely corroded and minimal metallic this community during the colonial period.
core was available for metallographic analysis, Presently we have two categories of Lohars: the
however, the microstructures are inconclusive one which still follows the nomadic way of life
and do not provide much scope for interpretation. and the other who has adjusted to the settled
The chemical compositional data (EDS graph of life. Due to the changing social structure and the
BMR 173 Pl. 19b) leads us to the following data: freedom to choose one’s profession many of them
Carbon (C): 1.16 % Iron (Fe): 95.18 % have adopted the work of a lohar; however, they
Aluminum (Al): 0.25 % Silica (Si): 1.81 % do not fall under the lohar community. These
Sulphur (S): 0.43 % Vanadium (V): 0.13 % lohars are termed as lohara nakkala and those who
Cobalt (Co): 0.13 % Manganese (Mn): 0.68 % are lohar by birth are known as suddha lohara.
Tungsten (W): 1.01 % Phosphorous (P): 0.12 % Although every village has a resident lohar, and
Chromium (Cr): 0.21 % Niobium (Nb): 0.13 % the nomadic lohars set up their seasonal camps
Nickel (Ni): 0.23 % Zirconium (Zr): 0.01 % every 3 to 4 months. An area separated from the
Copper (Cu): 0.83 % Cerium (Ce): 0.65 % main habitation, located near a water body is
Terbium (Tb): 13.1 % Tantalum (Ta): 0.74 % designated as the area for their seasonal camps.
Titanium (Ti): 0.25 % While undertaking the surveys, a travelling Lohar
The carbon content along with the other elements group was encountered. They are basically semi-
present such as phosphorous, Chromium, Nickel nomads and interestingly follow a route which
suggest that the artefact was probably given the covers all the megalithic sites of Vidarbha and
treatment of High Carbon Steel. However, the generally set up their camps in the vicinity of the
SEM micrograph (Pl. 19a) shows no sign of megalithic sites. A vital question arises: does this
lamellar formation. very precise mobility pattern project some sort
Finally, to understand the methods adopted of chrono-cultural affinity between the present
by the megalithic iron smithers an ethnographic day Lohars and the Early Iron Age Megalithic
survey was undertaken. The ethnographic study people? According to the account of Russell and
of the Lohar community gives us an insight into Hiralal (1916) a village Lohar mends or makes
the trade nexus adopted by them, procurement iron agricultural implements in lieu of twenty
of raw material and smithy techniques. The pounds of grains per 15 acres of land held by
survey also throws light on the social interaction each cultivators, a handful of grain at the sowing
of the Lohar community which may have some time and a sheaf at the harvest time. The record
relevance for the megalithic community. Their clearly states that if a Lohar was asked to make
interaction with other communities and the a new implement, he was always provided with
barter system adopted by them provide an answer charcoal and iron and the present scenario is
to the probable social reconstruction of the quite similar where a Lohar sharpens and repairs
megalithic society. It must be kept in mind here agricultural tools in lieu of food grains; however
we are adopting the process of travelling from for making new tools they barter with livestock.
the known to the unknown; however, nothing In 1873, indigenous or ‘native’ furnaces for
certain can be said about the propositions. iron smelting used by the Maharattas in Chanda
Central province were recorded by Theodore
W.H. Hughes (1873). Present day Chandrapur
Ethnographic Survey of Lohars was known as Chanda during the British regime.
An ethnographic survey of the Lohar community According to the report, the native iron smelters
residing in the region of Vidarbha was preferred utilising the anhydrous haematite
Understanding Ancient Iron Technology of the Vidarbhan Megalithic 131
deposit because of its high ferric content (69.208 While it was in red-hot condition, it was forged
per cent). These Maharattas referred to the on the anvil (Pl. 21). Forging was done for shaping
spongy mass of smelted iron as kit. This mass of out the artefact. Forging was continued only till
spongy iron underwent two stages of refining, the iron strip was in red-hot condition, and then
the first stage was done by themselves where they it was again annealed. Alternate annealing and
reheated it in a refinery and then forged it for forging helps to shape the artefact. The duration
the maximum removal of slag. This reduced the of the process depends on the hardness of the
weight of the bloom. The final bloom referred polat (iron strip). During the alternating process
to as chul by them was cut into portions and a kanas (chisel) was used to cut out the shape by
bartered with the lohars and the final refining placing the chisel vertically on the sheet and then
and shaping into final products were done at hammering from above (Pl. 22). This process
the lohars’ workshop. We have no existence was repeated 9 times till the exact shape could
of the Maharatta community now and the art be cut. The shaped iron strip was again placed
of indigeneous iron smelting is also lost. The inside the furnace to attain red-hot condition;
present lohar community buys scrap material then the quenching process starts. First, the
from nearby sources and engages in melting and broader blade was dipped in a trough filled
remelting of the same metal. with cold water; this hardens the surface then
The Lohar community residing in Ubali the same process was repeated for the narrower
(Nagpur district) was represented by one suddha blade (Pls 23 and 24). The degree of quenching
lohara and one lohara nakkala. They engage only is understood by the change in the colour of the
in smithery activity. While observing them it was red-hot surface. If the red-hot surface changes to
noticed that both the men and the women took pink, then the hardness is minimal, if green then
turns at the anvil and the anvil was worshipped it is comparatively high; but the smith always
as Goddess Bhavani by them who could only be aimed for the white colour which showed that it
appeased by the blood of a slaughtered animal had attained its maximum hardness. The degree
and the burning flecks of iron which is blown of hardness cannot be quantitatively stated as it
all over during forging. In the case of the suddha is a qualitative measure. The final product is as
lohara the profession of iron smithery had been shown in plate 25.
practised by his family from time immemorial
and the present Lohar, Tulsiram Sitaramji Microstructural Analysis
Mojankar was initiated as an apprentice at the The optical micrograph shown in plate 26 is of
age of 8 by his father. While being an apprentice eutectic cast iron. The wear-and-tear process
it is important to learn the probable temperature for this type of metal is slower than grey cast
the fire in the furnace would attain by the colour iron; however, the existence of a higher rate of
of the flame; otherwise the art of forging would carbide, the process of wear-and-tear is higher
be difficult to master. So as to understand the than steel. The lines visible horizontally along
methods undertaken while producing a tool, the the micrograph are markers of smithery activity,
lohar was asked to make two specific tools which which denotes the metal was forged on the anvil.
looked similar to those found from archaeological The hammering of the artefact, better known
context. The tools he was asked to make were an as hot-working, is done at a temperature above
adze and a nail parer. the recrystallisation temperature and it results
in plastic deformation without strain hardening.
The lines denote the flow of the metal during the
Adze
forging stage (Reardon 2015).
A solid iron rectangular strip was first selected
and it was heated in the furnace till red hot
condition (30 minutes approximately) (Pl. 20).
Understanding Ancient Iron Technology of the Vidarbhan Megalithic 133
Pl. 20: Rectangular strip being heated to Pl. 21: Cut shape being forged in
red-hot condition red-hot condition
Pl. 23: Quenching of the broader blade Pl. 24: Quenching of the narrower blade
134 O I S H I ROY K. KRISHNAN
Pl. 25: Adze the ethnographic sample Pl. 26: Optical Micrograph of sample adze
Nail parer and forged to make a point. After the tool was
The iron strip selected for this object was square finally shaped both the ends were again brought
in cross section and 160.71 mm in length. It to red-hot condition and were hardened by
was first heated to red-hot condition and then quenching (Pl. 27).
forged to reduce the cross-section, i.e. to make
it thinner. The forging was alternated with the
Microstructural analysis
annealing process. This made the strip malleable The optical micrograph plate 28 of the sample
enough to be shaped. While forging the sides clearly shows pearlite formation which denotes
were folded to make it thin, so that two ends it as steel and we have martensite formation on
of the strip converged to form a triangle. Then the upper surface of the sample as the object was
the shape of a triangular blade is achieved after quenched only on the outer surface.
hammering on one end of the cylindrical shaped
strip, and then by using a chisel the sides were Discussion
cut to make a triangle. The next step was to form
the corrugations, this was done by first heating The ethnographic survey suggests that the
it to red-hot condition then the strip was fixed iron tools used by single village inhabitants
between two tongs and then they were twisted are habitually manufactured by the resident
to give it a spiral look. The other end of the tool Lohar and the satellite villages that have no
which was supposed to be pointed was re-heated resident Lohar purchase their tools from the
A cknowledgements : This article wouldn’t have seen the light of day without the constant help,
encouragement and financial support of a few people and institutions. The iron assemblage from
the above mentioned excavated sites were made available for study by R.T.M. Nagpur University,
Department of Archaeology and Dr R.K. Mohanty of Deccan College, Pune, Department of
Archaeology. The metallurgical and chemical analysis was possible because of the Department of
Metallurgical Engineering, Jadavpur University. Dr Rajib Dey willingly trained the first author and
allowed her to use the laboratory facilities.
136 O I S H I ROY K. KRISHNAN
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