Received: 5 April 2019 | Revised: 22 July 2019 | Accepted: 17 September 2019

DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.14232

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Physicochemical properties, in vitro digestibility and structural

attributes of okara‐enriched functional pasta

Dinkar B. Kamble | Rakhi Singh | Savita Rani | Devendra Pratap

National Institute of Food Technology

Entrepreneurship & Management, Kundli, Abstract
India Soy okara is a by‐product of soybean processing which offers immense potential
Correspondence to be incorporated into the diverse food products due to its high nutritional and
Rakhi Singh, National Institute of biological significance. The current research aimed to examine the impact of vary‐
Food Technology Entrepreneurship &
Management, Kundli 131028, India. ing soy okara contents (10%–50%) on physicochemical attributes, in vitro protein
Email: [email protected] digestibility, and glycaemic index (GI) of microwave processed durum wheat semolina
pasta. Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity improved when 50% of soy
okara was added (158.37 ± 0.40 to 232.90 ± 0.85 mg GAE/100 g and 10.87 ± 0.10%–
56.21 ± 0.05%). The GI of enriched samples was significantly lower than control
pasta (27.41 ± 0.05–12.38 ± 0.01). Fourier transfer infrared spectroscopy revealed no
structural changes between control and soy okara‐fortified pasta. Studies indicated
that pasta enriched with soy okara has the potential to be commercialized on the
industrial level to develop nutritional enriched functional pasta.
Practical applications
Current research reports the effect of incorporation of soy okara on physicochemi‐
cal properties, in vitro digestibility, and structural attributes of functional pasta.
Enriched pasta showed an improved antioxidant profile with the satisfactory organo‐
leptic score. Hypoglycaemic effect of enriched pasta suggested that soy okara could
be used to make the functional pasta which has potential to provide various health
benefits. Findings of this work will promote the effective utilization of soy okara in
pasta formulation with a high level of protein and fiber.

1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N risks of hyperlipidaemia, cardiovascular diseases, extending satiety,

and improved insulin sensitivity (Chillo, Ranawana, & Henry, 2011;
Pasta is durum wheat‐based inexpensive food product, famous Dona, Pages, Gilbert, & Kuchel, 2010). Researchers have developed
worldwide because of its low cost, versatility, convenience, and the pasta with various bioactive ingredients such as pasta from
excellent shelf life attributes (Desai, Brennan, & Brennan, 2018; fish material (Desai, Brennan, & Brennan, 2019; Desai et al., 2018;
Littardi et al., 2019). Although durum wheat semolina is essential Parvathy, Bindu, & Joshy, 2017), mushroom powder‐based pasta
for providing the desirable textural and color characteristics during (Gao, Brennan, Mason, & Brennan, 2016; Lu et al., 2018), millets
the cooking process (Yadav, Balasubramanian, Kaur, Anand, & Singh, pasta (Gull, Prasad, & Kumar, 2015; Jalgaonkar & Jha, 2016; Kamble
2012), more recently other grains have been used to partially replace et al., 2019), cereal, pseudocereal, and super grain‐enriched pasta
it, offering an improved physical and nutritional qualities (Lu et al., (Benhur et al., 2015; Menga et al., 2017).
2018). Most of these additional ingredients has focused on manip‐ Soy okara is the gluten‐free soybean residue obtained after the
ulation of glycaemic index (GI) since clinical reports have suggested extraction of aqueous fraction during soy drink and tofu process‐
that food with low GI has been directly associated with the reduced ing. Global production of okara is approximately 1.4 billion tons

J Food Process Preserv. 2019;00:e14232. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpp © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | 1 of 9

https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.14232
2 of 9 | KAMBLE et al.

and the majority of which provided by Asian nations, namely China, content without cracking of pasta. The pasta samples were cooled to
Korea, Japan, and Singapore (Tao et al., 2019). Approximately, 1.2 kg room temperature and then sealed in polyethylene packets for further
okara waste is generated upon processing of 1 kg soybean for tofu analysis.
(Guimarães et al., 2018). Dry soy okara is nutritionally rich in pro‐
tein, lipid, and dietary fiber along with the presence of isoflavones,
2.3 | Proximate analysis of ingredient and
phytosterols, coumestans, lignans, phytates, and saponins (Lu, Liu,
pasta samples
& Li, 2013). It was reported that bioactive components of soy okara
can protect against hypocholesterolemic, hypolipidemic, and type 2 The proximate analysis was determined as per the standard protocol
diabetes through reduced GI upon ingestion. Interest to enrich the (AACC, 2000). Carbohydrate level was determined through difference
pasta with legumes‐based sources is also growing due to their effect protocol. The energy value was estimated using the formula as follows:
on the GI of the products (Wójtowicz & Mościcki 2014). Possibilities
Total energy (kcal∕100 g) = (g protein × 4) + (g fat × 9)
to enrich the nutritional and functional properties of food products,
namely bread, noodles, cookies, cakes, and yogurt, with okara inte‐ + (g carbohydrate × 4).
gration, have been widely investigated (Kang, Bae, & Lee, 2018; Lu
2.4 | Evaluation of pasta quality
et al., 2013; Mbaeyi‐Nwaoha & Uchendu 2016; Park, Choi, & Kim,
2015). However, no detailed literature concerning the in vitro di‐
2.4.1 | Optimum cooking time
gestion and structural attributes of soy okara in durum wheat pasta
formulations has been examined till date now. Therefore, in line with The optimum time of pasta cooking was calculated as per AACC
points mentioned above, the present study aimed to study the effect (2000) official procedure with slight modification. The pasta sample
of soy okara addition on the physicochemical properties, in vitro di‐ (5 g) was cooked in boiling water (200 ml) and optimum cooking time
gestibility of protein and starch to determine the functionality and was evaluated by observing the point at which central whitish por‐
feasibility of okara in pasta formulations. tion of pasta gelatinized completely when squeezing between two
glass slides.

2 | M ATE R I A L S A N D M E TH O DS
2.4.2 | Determination of cooking loss
2.1 | Materials
Cooking loss was estimated as per the method of Wang et al.
Durum wheat semolina of commercial brand was collected from (2018) with slight modification. Briefly, 5 g dried pasta was cooked
Narmada Agro Industries, Indore (Madhya Pradesh, India) with a par‐ in 200 ml hot water at an optimum cooking time, washed with
ticle size <500 µm and soybean was received from Indian Institute of cold water, and allowed to strain for 30 s. The cooking liquid was
Soybean Research, Indore (India). To obtain the soy okara in the labo‐ kept at 105°C inside a hot air oven for complete evaporation. The
ratory, soymilk was prepared as per the method suggested by Pratap dried matter was weighed and described as a percentage of initial
et al. (2017). The moist soy okara was dried in hot air oven (70 ± 1°C material.
for 12 hr) to obtain the soy okara flour. The dried soy okara flour was
Dried residue weight
sieved through 250 µm mesh size and stored in airtight containers for Cooking loss (%) = × 100
Weight of pasta before cooking
further experiment. The raw material was analyzed for proximate com‐
position as per the standard approved methods (AACC, 2000).

2.5 | Texture of cooked pasta samples

2.2 | Processing of pasta
The texture of cooked pasta samples was determined using a TAXT2i
Six combinations were developed for pasta in the proportions (durum Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, London, UK) equipped with
wheat semolina: Soy okara) of 100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40, and a 30 kg load cell with minor modification of protocol suggested by
50:50. The composite flour blends (100 g) were first mixed in a plane‐ Morreale et al. (2019). A heavy duty platform attached with stain‐
tary mixer (Nu‐Tech Engineering Corporation, New Delhi) with a speed less‐steel P/50 probe was used in this study and probe speed before,
of 60 rpm for about 10 min and the dough was made using 90 ml during and after the test was 5, 1, and 5 mm, respectively. The strain
water. The resulted dough was subjected to microwave treatment was kept at 50% with a trigger force of 5 g. The testing process had
(1.5 min/900 W) to improve the cooking and sensory quality of the to be finished within 10 min after cooking.
product (Suhendro, Kunetz, McDonough, Rooney, & Waniska, 2000).
The microwaved mixture was processed using laboratory‐scale pasta
2.6 | Sensory analysis of pasta
extruder (Atlas Regina, Italy) to obtain macaroni kind of pasta. The ex‐
truded pasta was cut into strands of 5 cm length and dried using a tray The sensory parameter of pasta was evaluated by 25 semi‐trained
dryer (Adity Associate, Mumbai, India) using standardized two‐stage panelists from NIFTEM (India). The pasta sample was cooked at
drying conditions (50°C/30 min and 85°C/60 min) to reduce moisture optimum cooking time and served to the panel members in a white
KAMBLE et al. | 3 of 9

dish in a randomized manner. Evaluation of sensory characteristics resulted mixture was allowed to stand in a reticulating water bath (at
(color, taste, texture, appearance, and overall acceptability) was 37°C/30 min). The obtained suspension was neutralized with 0.02 M
done on a 9‐point hedonic rating scale (1—dislike extremely and NaOH (5 ml) before 25 ml 0.2 M sodium acetate buffer (pH 6) was
9—like extremely). combined. After that, 5 ml pancreatin (Sigma P‐1750; 2 mg/ml 0.2 M
pH 6 acetate buffer)/amyloglucosidase (Sigma A‐7420; 28 U/ml 0.2 M
pH 6 acetate buffer) mixture was added and incubated at 37°C using
2.7 | Color measurements
a water bath. About 100 μl the sample was taken from the mixture
The pasta color was analyzed using a handheld colorimeter (Konica at 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 min intervals; then glucose was deter‐
Minolta CR‐400, Japan). Calibration of the instrument was per‐ mined with 3, 5‐dinitrosalicylic acid (DNSA) assay and changed into
formed by standard white tile and results were expressed concern‐ starch through multiplication with a factor of 0.9. The hydrolysis index
ing lightness (L), redness (a), and yellowness values (b). Using color (HI) was calculated by dividing the AUC of the sample with the corre‐
values (L, a, b), the overall color difference (∆E) was determined as sponding area of the white bread as a reference product. The expected
per the following formula (Bashir & Aggarwal, 2016). GI was predicted as per the following equation:

√ GI = 39.71 + 0.549 HI
2
ΔE = ( L∗ − L) + ( a∗ − a)2 + ( b∗ − b)2

2.11 | Fourier transfer infrared

2.8 | Determination of total phenolic content and spectroscopy of pasta
antioxidant property The impact of soy okara addition on the functional group of pasta
Extraction of biochemical compounds was performed by the pro‐ was analyzed using Fourier transfer infrared (FTIR) spectrophotom‐
tocol of Gull, Prasad, and Kumar (2018). Total phenolic content eter (Alpha Bruker, USA). The powdered pasta sample was placed
(TPC) was evaluated using Folin–Ciocalteu assay (Xiang, Li, Ndolo, on the FTIR sample holder and infrared spectra were recorded at
& Beta, 2019). The antioxidant activity measured using % DPPH wavelengths ranging between 600 and 4,000 cm−1.
inhibition method according to the formula given by Gull et al.
(2018). Percentage DPPH inhibition was determined through the
2.12 | Statistical analysis
formula given below
The obtained data were exposed to variance analysis (ANOVA) using

DPPH Inhibition (%) =

Control absorbance − Sample absorbance
× 100 SPSS Software (IMB Version 20) and level of significance was p < .05
Control absorbance using Duncan's multiple test.

2.9 | In vitro protein digestibility 3 | R E S U LT S A N D D I S CU S S I O N

Enzymatic digestion method was used for the determination of in
The raw materials (durum wheat semolina and soy okara flour) used
vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) of soy okara‐supplemented pasta
for pasta formulation were subjected to proximate composition. The
using pepsin and pancreatin assay (Rani, Singh, Kaur, Upadhyay,
durum wheat semolina and soy okara flour comprised 10.46 ± 0.37%
& Kamble, 2018). The IVPD was estimated using the difference
and 5.68 ± 0.15% moisture, 0.92 ± 0.03% and 3.57 ± 0.08% ash,
between undigested protein and initial protein in samples as given
12.95 ± 0.31% and 42.71 ± 1.86% protein, 1.62 ± 0.09% and
below
18.85 ± 0.45% fat, 2.05 ± 0.05% and 4.77 ± 0.25% fiber, and
Total initial protein in sample − Protein in residue 73.29 ± 0.43% and 24.40 ± 1.96% carbohydrate, respectively.
IVPD (% ) = × 100
Total initial protein in sample

3.1 | Nutritional analysis

The proximate composition of different soy okara‐supplemented
2.10 | In vitro starch digestibility
pasta varied significantly (p < .05) compared to control durum wheat
The in vitro starch digestibility (IVSD) of the pasta samples was using semolina pasta (Table 1). The control pasta had the lowest moisture
the procedure of Yousif, Nhepera, and Johnson (2012), with minor content of 3.55 ± 0.01%, while for soy okara‐fortified pasta (10%–
modification. The powdered vacuum‐dried sample (500 mg) was kept 50%), it varied up to 8.26 ± 0.18%, still remained acceptable for safe
in a centrifuge tube of 50 ml capacity, then artificial saliva (1 ml) com‐ storage and viability of the food products (Benhur et al., 2015). An
prising porcine α‐amylase (Sigma A3176 Type VI‐B; 250 U/ml 0.2 M increase in ash, fat, protein, and fiber contents were observed as soy
pH 7 carbonate buffer) was incorporated, after that 5 ml pepsin sus‐ okara concentrations increased in the formulation (0–50 g/100 g),
pension (Sigma P‐6887; 1 ml/ml 0.02 M pH 2 HCl) was mixed. The whereas reverse trend was observed for carbohydrate content.
4 of 9 | KAMBLE et al.

TA B L E 1 Nutritional composition of soy okara‐fortified pasta samples

Sample Nutritional composition (%)

Energy
DWS: SO Moisture Ash Protein Fat Fiber CHO (kcal/100 g)

100:0 3.55 ± 0.01d 0.62 ± 0.01e 12.65 ± 0.01f 0.53 ± 0.10 f 0.16 ± 0.01e 82.49 ± 0.03f 385.33 ± 0.36c
90:10 8.26 ± 0.18a 1.10 ± 0.19d 15.95 ± 0.22e 2.52 ± 0.01e 1.17 ± 0.28d 70.99 ± 0.28e 370.47 ± 0.04d
bc c d d c d
80:20 6.54 ± 1.30 1.49 ± 0.26 19.37 ± 1.18 4.19 ± 0.02 1.60 ± 0.30 66.80 ± 0.63 382.42 ± 0.80 c
70:30 7.12 ± 0.10 c 1.56 ± 0.23bc 22.29 ± 1.02c 5.77 ± 0.11c 2.29 ± 0.22b 60.96 ± 1.12c 384.94 ± 6.47c
bc ab b b a b
60:40 6.17 ± 0.57 1.78 ± 0.03 24.95 ± 0.97 7.25 ± 0.02 2.82 ± 0.06 57.01 ± 0.44 393.09 ± 2.34b
50:50 6.14 ± 0.09bc 1.99 ± 0.08a 28.71 ± 1.57a 11.04 ± 0.04a 3.19 ± 0.16a 48.92 ± 1.74a 409.89 ± 1.00a

Notes: The values were mean ± standard deviations of three independent readings. Means in the columns with different superscripts were signifi‐
cantly (p < .05) different based on Duncan's test.
Abbreviations: CHO = carbohydrate, DWS = durum wheat semolina, SO = soy okara.

These results are in agreement with the findings of Guimarães et al. network as a result of added okara flour (Rani et al., 2018). Cooking
(2018) who reported that fortification of vegetable paste with okara loss measures the gruel loss in boiling water and also specifies the
increased its protein (3.04–4.7 g/100 g), lipids (5.6–6.6 g/100 g), capacity of pasta to retain the structural strength at the time of
fiber (5.79–8.00 g/100 g), and decreased carbohydrate contents cooking. Increase in the okara fortification in the pasta formula‐
(5.86–3.50 g/100 g) as the soy okara concentration increased in the tions resulted in an increase in cooking loss of the product. The
formulations (33.87–50.60 g/100 g). A similar pattern of increased cooking loss increased from 8.71 ± 0.10% to 14.41 ± 0.20% with
moisture, ash, fat, protein, fiber, and decreased carbohydrate level an increase in soy okara content from 0% to 50% in the formula‐
were also reported by Mbaeyi‐Nwaoha and Uchendu (2016) for tions. These results are in agreements with the previous reports
okara‐based breakfast cereals and this could be attributed to the that concluded that the incorporation of okara flour in noodles
higher content of these nutrients in added okara flour than the increased the cooking loss (Kang et al., 2018; Pan et al., 2018).
durum wheat flour. Protein‐enriched okara‐based pasta will be of This increase in cooking loss may be ascribed with the weak gluten
nutritional importance for the people of developing nations who can network of soy okara‐supplemented pasta and existence of fiber
hardly afford high‐cost protein‐rich food products. Many studies in dried soy okara powder. According to Sereewat et al. (2015),
have suggested that fiber‐rich foods will be useful in regulation of higher cooking loss with the addition of protein and crude fiber‐
many physiological functions and prevention of disease syndromes rich ingredients could be associated with the disruption of starch
of various origins, namely cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, granules, corresponding to greater leaching of starch granules
diverticulosis, and constipation (Mbaeyi‐Nwaoha & Uchendu, 2016). during the cooking process. The authors also reported increased
Energy value of the pasta samples has increased from 385.33 ± 0.36 trends of cooking loss (5.72–6.63 g/100 g) for the spaghetti made
to 409.89 ± 1.00 kcal/100 g with the addition of soy okara flour in with defatted soy flour substitution at 0%–15% level. The cooking
the formulations (0–50 g/100 g). This increase in energy values could loss is an indicator of pasta quality attributes; and usually, a higher
possibly due to the higher fat content of added okara flour and was cooking loss is undesirable for pasta because it is related to lower
in agreement with the findings of Park et al. (2015) who reported cooking tolerance, greater starch solubility in cooking water, and
that addition of okara to wheat cookies improves the caloric values. stickiness of the cooked product (Yadav, Yadav, Singh, & Yadav,
2016).
The textural properties of durum wheat semolina pasta enriched
3.2 | Cooking quality and texture of pasta
with 10%–50% of soy okara are presented in Table 2. Compared to
Pasta cooking attributes including optimum cooking time and the durum wheat semolina pasta, all the soy okara‐enriched sam‐
cooking loss were evaluated in this study (Table 2). The optimum ples had significantly higher hardness and reduced cohesiveness
cooking time of different formulation varied from 5.00 ± 0.10 to score. However, the hardness and cohesiveness values did not
7.30 ± 0.20 min and decreased gradually with the increased okara differ (p ˃ 0.05) among all the soy okara‐containing pasta. Control
supplementation. The maximum cooking time was found in the pasta had hardness and cohesiveness score of 10.08 ± 0.32 g and
control sample (7.30 ± 0.20 min) and the minimum (5.00 ± 0.10 min) 0.82 ± 0.01, while for the okara‐fortified pasta, these values ranged
was recorded at 50% replacement of durum wheat semolina with from 12.35 ± 0.34 to 12.47 ± 0.61 g and 0.75 ± 0.03 to 0.80 ± 0.02,
soy okara. These results are in agreement with the previous re‐ respectively. This increased hardness can be attributed with in‐
ports that cooking time was decreased by incorporation of okara creased protein content (from 12.65 ± 0.01% to 28.71 ± 1.57%),
flour into noodle formulations (Pan, Liu, & Shiau, 2018). The lower which induce more strong protein network inside the pasta sample
cooking time of fortified pasta samples might also be linked with (Ahmad et al., 2018; Rani et al., 2018). The hardness values also in‐
the reduced gelatinization temperature or disruption of gluten creased by the addition of insoluble dietary fiber as reported by Kang
 KAMBLE et al. | 5 of 9

et al. (2018) in the case of okara‐enriched noodles. Cohesiveness

8.03 ± 0.88ab
affects the cooking quality and chewiness of the product since it

5.90 ± 1.22d
6.03 ± 1.18d
6.66 ± 1.02c
7.73 ± 1.11b
8.40 ± 0.67a
is considered as an indicator of the degree of rupture of the pasta

Note: The values were mean ± standard deviations of three independent readings. Means in the columns with different superscripts were significantly (p < .05) different based on Duncan's test.
structure during mastication (Singh, Singh, & Sodhi, 2002; Tan, Li, &
OA

Tan, 2009). Cohesiveness index is also associated with the strength

of the inner structure of the product and also provides an indication
on how the sample holds together upon cooking (Camelo‐Méndez,
a

5.00 ± 0.90 d
b
7.80 ± 0.70a

6.73 ± 0.90 c
c
8.10 ± 0.84

6.36 ± 0.37
7.30 ± 0.70

Tovar, & Bello‐Pérez, 2018; Khan, Yousif, Johnson, & Gamlath, 2014).
The reduced cohesiveness of soy okara‐fortified pasta showed that
Taste

the dough made with soy okara had a weaker structural strength
and less elastic nature than those made with durum wheat semolina
(Romero, Santra, Rose, & Zhang, 2017). Therefore, it is important
5.50 ± 0.86d
b

6.90 ± 0.66c
7.70 ± 0.79b

c
a

6.63 ± 0.85
8.13 ± 0.77

7.73 ± 0.73

to select the appropriate amount of soy okara that can be added

Texture

into the pasta formulations after consideration of its functional

characteristics.

3.3 | Sensory quality

Abbreviations: CL = cooking loss, DWS = durum wheat semolina, OA = overall acceptability, OCT = optimum cooking time, SO = soy okara.
6.73 ± 0.78b
b

5.83 ± 0.83c
b
a

8.20 ± 0.61a
8.23 ± 0.81

6.53 ± 0.81
6.90 ± 0.75

Sensory analysis performed using the 9‐point hedonic rat‐

Flavor

ing revealed decreased sensory attributes, namely flavor

(8.23 ± 0.81–5.83 ± 0.83), taste (8.10 ± 0.84–5.00 ± 0.90), texture
(8.13 ± 0.77–5.50 ± 0.86), and overall acceptability (8.40 ± 0.67–
5.90 ± 1.18) with increasing the level of soy okara at 0%–50%
7.96 ± 0.80a
a

a
a
7.90 ± 0.71a

7.90 ± 0.75a
8.26 ± 0.58

7.93 ± 0.82
7.83 ± 0.79

(Table 2). However, a nonsignificant difference was found among

the samples for color score (p > .05). Among all the samples durum
Color

wheat semolina pasta was most acceptable and differ significantly

from other samples in terms of texture which may be due to the
presence of gluten in durum wheat semolina which produced elastic
Cohesiveness
Cooking, textural, and sensory properties of soy okara‐fortified pasta sample

0.75 ± 0.03b
b

0.78 ± 0.03b
b

0.80 ± 0.02b

dough resulting to pasta having good textural and structural fea‐

a

0.76 ± 0.03

0.76 ± 0.03
0.82 ± 0.01

tures (Omeire, Umeji, & Obasi, 2014). The pasta sample containing
10% soy okara had revealed the sensory score similar to control and
after that a significant reduction was observed which could be the
results of the pronounced beany flavor of legumes‐based sources
(Wójtowicz & Mościcki 2014). Pasta formulated with low soy okara
12.35 ± 0.34a
b

a
12.47 ± 0.61a

12.66 ± 0.16a
a
10.08 ± 0.32

12.47 ± 0.24
12.70 ± 0.07
Hardness (g)

content (10%–20%), ranked like moderately on hedonic category,

while other samples were just below that category. Although accept‐
ance was lower in the sample with higher soy okara content in the
formulation (30%–50%), still acceptance scores obtained by such for‐
mulations remained satisfactory. These observations are consistent
d

14.41 ± 0.20a
b
9.44 ± 0.12e

10.43 ± 0.10 c

with the earlier findings (Omeire et al., 2014; Wójtowicz & Mościcki
f

9.88 ± 0.90
8.71 ± 0.10

10.80 ± 0.10

2014) that developed good quality food products after blending the
CL (%)

wheat with different levels of legumes flour. Similarly, Guimarães

et al. (2018) also suggested that pasta up to 50% okara flour can be
used to obtain the satisfactory sensory score of 6.9. Sensory results
of present work suggested the feasibility of soy okara utilization into
e
6.30 ± 0.05b
a

5.30 ± 0.01d
c

5.00 ± 0.01e
7.30 ± 0.20

5.00 ± 0.20
6.00 ± 0.05

pasta products to obtain the nutritional benefits without the risk of

OCT (min)

harming the potential consumer with sensory alterations.

3.4 | Color measurements

TA B L E 2

DWS: SO

The color measurement was done for control and soy okara‐fortified
60:40
80:20
100:0

50:50
70:30
90:10

pasta based on L, a, b, and ∆E score acquired using handheld colorim‐

eter. Results indicated that control pasta had a lightness (L) value of
6 of 9 | KAMBLE et al.

53.26 ± 0.10 which increased significantly (up to 57.46 ± 1.46) upon than the control pasta (p < .05). Percentage DPPH inhibition activ‐
a combination of durum wheat semolina with 50% soy okara. This ity of control pasta was 10.87 ± 0.10% which increased with the
increase is in line with Guimarães et al. (2018) who also observed in‐ addition of a higher content of soy okara in the pasta formulations
creased in lightness values (69.80 ± 0.04–70.13 ± 0.24) with increased (10.87 ± 0.10%–56.21 ± 0.05%). The findings of the current work
soy okara content in pasta formulations (33.87–50.60 g/100 g). The are in agreement with those of Pan et al. (2018) who observed the
redness (a) value of all the soy okara‐supplemented pasta ranged higher antioxidant potential of noodles made with different levels
from 0.75 ± 0.23 to 1.87 ± 0.28 and differ nonsignificantly from the of soy okara. Similarly, Rani et al. (2018) also showed a higher level
control samples at the highest level of replacement. Similarly, yel‐ of antioxidant in soy‐fortified noodles which could be linked with
lowness (b) values of soy okara‐based pasta samples were not mark‐ the presence of higher polyphenol including isoflavone of soy flour
edly influenced by the levels of soy okara. These increased L values which is known for their excellent antioxidant potential.
(p < .05) reported here are in a good agreement with the outcomes
of Senthil, Ravi, Bhat, and Seethalakshmi (2002) who observed the
3.6 | IVPD of the pasta
similar trends for soy‐fortified fried snacks. The overall color differ‐
ence (∆E) was reported to be highest in case of pasta supplemented Protein digestibility is an important indicator while evaluating the
with 50% soy okara (52.26 ± 1.40) which could be due to the occur‐ quality of a protein source. The IVPD of the control pasta made from
rence of greater polyphenolic pigments in the composite flour used durum wheat semolina was 94.71 ± 0.01%. However, upon blending
for pasta preparation (Rani et al., 2018). with soy okara IVPD decreased significantly (p < .05) as presented
in Table 3. The maximum reduction in IVPD was observed in pasta
having 50% soy okara (75.68 ± 0.10%), while the minimum reduc‐
3.5 | TPC and antioxidant activity
tion of 91.47 ± 0.03% was observed in pasta fortified at 10% level.
TPC of control and soy okara‐fortified pasta formulations are pre‐ This decreased IVPD of soy okara‐enriched pasta samples may be
sented in Table 3. Compared to the durum wheat semolina pasta, ascribed with the occurrence of the high content of dietary trypsin
all the soy okara supplemented samples had significantly higher inhibitors and other antinutrients in okara flour which reduced the
(p < .05) TPC. As the concentration of soy okara increased from protein digestibility through inhibition of proteolytic enzymes activ‐
0% to 50%, TPC also increased. The durum wheat semolina pasta ity (Gilani, Xiao, & Cockell, 2012). According to Lu et al. (2017), de‐
had a TPC of 158.37 ± 0.40 mg GAE/100 g, which increased from creased protein digestibility could also be attributed to oxidation of
163.14 ± 1.07 to 232.90 ± 0.85 mg GAE/100 g with the increased soy protein leads to aggregation from okara flour when subjected
fortification of soy okara (10–50 g/100 g). Guimarães et al. (2018) to heating during the extrusion processing. Khetarpaul and Goyal
found a similar increase in TPC for okara–vegetable‐enriched (2007) reported a significant reduction in IVPD of the noodles sub‐
pasta formulation and this increase could be due to the integra‐ stituted with soy flour at 15% level (71.49 ± 0.54%–68.16 ± 0.54%).
tion of okara which is known for their high phenolic content. Pan
et al. (2018) stated that increasing substitution of durum wheat
3.7 | IVSD of the pasta samples
flour by dried okara powder lead to the greater TPC in the noodles.
Phenolic compounds are the secondary metabolites of plants which The GI is the monitoring of influence on the blood glucose level im‐
have presented various biological functions, namely antiallergens, mediately after the ingestion of a food product. Foods are catego‐
anti‐inflammatory, antitumor, antioxidants as well as antimicrobial rized into three groups of GI: low GI; ≤55, medium GI = 55–69, and
properties (Tian et al., 2017). Outcomes of antioxidant activity as high GI; ≥70. The reduced rate of starch hydrolysis characterizes the
calculated by DPPH assay showed that all the soy okara‐contain‐ lower GI of the food product and could be helpful in controlling the
ing pasta formulations have significantly higher antioxidant activity disease circumstances, namely diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular

TA B L E 3 Antioxidant capacity, in vitro protein digestibility, and glycaemic Index of soy okara‐fortified pasta

DWS: SO TPC (mg GAE/100 g) DPPH (%) IVPD (%) HI GI

c f a a
100:0 158.37 ± 0.40 10.87 ± 0.10 94.71 ± 0.01 0.68 ± 0.01 27.41 ± 0.01a
90:10 163.14 ± 1.07c 21.90 ± 1.73e 91.47 ± 0.03b 0.66 ± 0.00 b 26.75 ± 0.02b
c d c c
80:20 167.28 ± 0.86 29.39 ± 0.26 80.74 ± 0.01 0.51 ± 0.01 20.85 ± 0.01c
70:30 174.14 ± 0.01c 34.32 ± 0.01c 80.00 ± 0.01d 0.48 ± 0.01d 19.41 ± 0.01d
b b e e
60:40 198.04 ± 12.70 42.45 ± 0.05 76.15 ± 0.15 0.40 ± 0.01 16.24 ± 0.05e
50:50 232.90 ± 0.85a 56.21 ± 0.05a 75.68 ± 0.10 f 0.31 ± 0.02f 12.38 ± 0.01f

Note: The values were mean ± standard deviations of three independent readings. Means in the columns with different superscripts were signifi‐
cantly (p < .05) different based on Duncan's test.
Abbreviations: DWS = durum wheat semolina, GI = glycaemic index, HI = hydrolysis index, IVPD = in vitro protein digestibility, TPC = total phenolic
content, SO = soy okara.
KAMBLE et al. | 7 of 9

FIGURE 1 FTIR spectra for durum wheat semolina and soy okara‐fortified pasta samples

problems. The control pasta showed a GI value of 27.41 ± 0.01 which transmittance bands at 1,010.34, 1,529.51, 1,696.52, 2,362.82,
reduced significantly (p < .05) in soy okara‐fortified pasta at all the 2,931.54, 3,635.25, 3,745.03, and 3,846.13 cm−1 regions. The trans‐
levels (Table 3). The maximum reduction in GI was found in pasta con‐ mittance peak at 1,010.34 cm−1 region corresponds to the stretching
taining soy okara at a 50% level (12.38 ± 0.01). Kang et al. (2018) also vibration of the C–O–H group and could be related to the amorphous
reported a similar decrease in predicted GI in okara‐supplemented state of starch granules (Bashir & Aggarwal, 2016). The sharp peak at
pasta at 10% level and this reduction in GI of durum wheat pasta 1529.51 cm−1 region shows the presence of amide II band resulting
in the presence of soy okara could be the results of higher protein from N–H bond vibrations joined with CN stretching, whereas the peak
and total dietary fiber, especially the soluble fractions of okara flour. at 1696.52 cm−1 attributed with the presence of amide I band as a re‐
Kumar and Prabhasankar (2015) and Giuberti and Gallo (2018) sug‐ sult of C=O stretching. Further, higher intensity of amide I band region
gested that incorporation of legumes source in food products led to (1,696.52 cm−1) for okara‐fortified pasta suggests significant improve‐
a significant reduction in rapidly digestible starch and increased the ment of β‐sheet structures as a result of the high protein content of
content of slowly digestible starch which is responsible for reducing soy okara (Jeong, Kim, & Lee, 2017). Absorption bands in the 2,362.82
the rate of starch hydrolysis, subsequently accountable for the low and 2,931.54 cm−1 regions were attributed to the stretching vibrations
GI response. According to Liu et al. (2018), decreased starch digest‐ of CN and N–H bond. The active absorption band at 3,635.25 cm−1
ibility may be the combined effect of two phenomena; first one deals indicates the occurrence of stretching vibration of O–H bond, whereas
with the extrusion process which destroys the double helix structure 3,745.03 and 3,846.13 cm−1 was assigned with O–H group.
of starch granules and subsequently increased the rapidly digestible
starch (RDS). Another effect was consistent with the hypothesis that
dietary fiber reduced the RDS content through embedment of RDS 4 | CO N C LU S I O N S
in their matrix, caused the formation of RS1, which can affect the
digestion and absorption of starch. The outcomes of the studies showed that acceptable pasta of high
nutritive value could be developed with soy okara. However, cook‐
ing and sensory properties of pasta were adversely influenced by
3.8 | FTIR spectroscopy of pasta
the integration of soy okara. Nonetheless, the addition of soy okara
The FTIR analysis revealed that all pasta samples had similar FTIR in pasta positively decreased the GI values and this hypoglycaemic
spectra with peaks located in the same wavenumber regions (Figure 1). effect of okara foods is probably ascribed with its high dietary fiber.
Despite the increased intensities of absorbance, the infrared spec‐ Research suggests that soy okara as a cheap and readily available
trum of soy okara‐supplemented pasta (10%–50%) did not differ nutrient source has immense potential to produce functional pasta
significantly from control pasta since all the samples displayed same with reduced starch digestion.
8 of 9 | KAMBLE et al.

AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S Giuberti, G., & Gallo, A. (2018). Reducing the glycaemic index and in‐
creasing the slowly digestible starch content in gluten‐free cereal‐
The authors express heartfelt thanks to Dr. Satish Chandra based foods: A review. International Journal of Food Science and
Kushwaha, Lab In‐charge (Food Science and Technology Lab), Technology, 53, 50–60. https​://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.13552​
Guimarães, R. M., Silva, T. E., Lemes, A. C., Boldrin, M. C. F., da Silva, M.
NIFTEM, Haryana, for providing the necessary facilities and valu‐
A. P., Silva, F. G., & Egea, M. B. (2018). Okara: A soybean by‐product
able suggestions to carry out the study.
as an alternative to enrich vegetable paste. LWT‐Food Science and
Technology, 92, 593–599. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2018.02.058
Gull, A., Prasad, K., & Kumar, P. (2015). Effect of millet flours and car‐
C O N FL I C T O F I N T E R E S T rot pomace on cooking qualities, color and texture of developed
pasta. LWT‐Food Science and Technology, 63, 470–474. https​://doi.
The authors have declared no conflicts of interest for this article.
org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.03.008
Gull, A., Prasad, K., & Kumar, P. (2018). Nutritional, antioxidant, mi‐
ORCID crostructural and pasting properties of functional pasta. Journal of
the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences, 17, 147–153. https​://doi.
Rakhi Singh https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5006-1889 org/10.1016/j.jssas.2016.03.002
Jalgaonkar, K., & Jha, S. K. (2016). Influence of particle size and blend
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