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Psychometric Properties of the ASPeCT‐DD: Measuring Positive Traits in

Persons with Developmental Disabilities

Article in Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · September 2009

DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-3148.2009.00494.x

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Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 2009

Psychometric Properties of the ASPeCT-DD:

Measuring Positive Traits in Persons with
Developmental Disabilities
Cooper Woodard
Clinical Services, The Groden Center, Providence, RI, USA

Accepted for publication 7 January 2009

Background The Assessment Scale for Positive Character Results Results indicate a four-factor solution, with poor
Traits-Developmental Disabilities (ASPeCT-DD) was to moderate correlation among the factors. Test-retest
designed to measure the presence and strength of reliability and measures of internal consistency were in
selected positive or strength-based traits in persons with the fair to excellent range, and inter-rater reliability mea-
developmental disabilities. These traits may help to deter- sures were good. Initial evaluation of validation is
mine level of happiness or value associated with the more encouraging. Discussion Limitations of this study are dis-
commonly measured external indicators of quality of life. cussed, as are related opportunities for future research
Method The present study examines the psychometric endeavours.
properties of this scale by exploring the factor structure,
test-retest and split-half reliability, and inter-rater reli- Keywords: autism, character strengths, developmental
ability measures. Also presented is an analysis of descri- disabilities, measurement, positive psychology
minant and convergent validity.

ceptions and positive traits and strengths associated

Introduction
with the quality of life construct for persons with devel-
Significant resources have been devoted to teaching, opmental disabilities. This may omit important informa-
training, and supporting persons with developmental tion from the ‘how are we doing as service providers’
disabilities. However, only recently has research looked equation, and inhibit the creation of interventions that
more closely at whether or not these interventions and could establish or maximize these perceptions, traits,
services improve the life experiences of this population. and strengths of character. This study explores the evo-
While this re-focusing has led to the development of lution of the quality of life concept and instruments that
instruments to measure ‘quality of life’ for persons with measure this concept, and how person-based percep-
developmental disabilities, there are several unanswered tions may not be fully captured by these instruments.
questions relating to their utility. Do these measures Discussed next are the specific person-based perceptions
quantify both environmentally-based and person-based that may contribute to quality of life and the related
determinants of what makes a life enjoyable, valuable, concept of well-being, and factors that may make evalu-
and worth living? Do they measure how people with ation of these perceptions or traits challenging for per-
developmental disabilities perceive the world or what sons with developmental disorders. Finally, we describe
they think or do to become happy, satisfied, and content a plan for evaluating the structure and psychometric
with their lives? Do they measure to what extent a per- properties of a scale designed to measure positive traits
son with a developmental disability is actively engaged in persons with developmental disabilities.
in a meaningful life, opposed to relying on externally
evident markers (e.g. having a job) that may or may not
Evolution of the Concept of ‘Quality of Life’
indicate a quality life?
Questions such as these suggest that current measures Quality of life has been a relatively challenging concept
have not as yet tapped the internal, person-based per- to define and operationalize for both developmentally

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2 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities

disabled and typically developing people. Researchers is experiencing’ (p. 338). Although the emotional well-
have suggested that it is either a subjective concept being component is defined by being happy and feeling
dependent on the evaluator (Borthwick-Duffy 1989), a proud, rarely addressed are these elusive but essential
general set of feelings and experiences, or an elusive ‘perceptions’ that may define the quality of social rela-
concept that leads to a positive outcome (Hughes et al. tionships, determine how life challenges are understood
1995). Citing a need for some objective agreement on and handled, and contribute to the creation of happi-
what constitutes quality of life for persons with develop- ness.
mental disabilities, Hughes et al. (1995) reviewed the lit- In more recent research with persons with develop-
erature between 1970 and 1993, and suggested a 15- mental disabilities (e.g. Sheppard-Jones et al. 2005), sur-
dimension quality of life definition. This comprehensive vey instruments tap quality of life components by
listing reviewing over 20 years of research demonstrates including relationships, safety, health, choice-making
the range and complexity of the concept of quality of opportunities, community participation, well-being and
life for this population. The framework included psy- satisfaction, and rights. The resulting measure, the Core
chological well-being, social relationships, employment, Indicators Consumer Survey (Human Services Research
material well-being, self-determination ⁄ autonomy ⁄ per- Institute, 2001) includes items identified as related to
sonal choice, personal competence ⁄ community adjust- personal perception (and well-being). These specifically
ment ⁄ independent living skills, community integration, include items such as ‘Are you ever afraid or scared
social acceptance, personal development and fulfillment, when you are at home?’ and ‘Do you have a best
residential environment, recreation and leisure, normal- friend?’ which may indirectly tap internally based per-
ization, individual and social demographic indicators, ceptions and traits such as courage, kindness, and
civic responsibility, and support services received. Each empathy. While such items begin to approximate how
of the 15 dimensions was broken down into subgroups the person perceives the world and its challenges, they
(e.g. job satisfaction, vocational skills, and others for are omitted if the person being evaluated is not able to
employment), and each subgroup was further related to self-report. The researchers note that this procedure is
a representative measure (e.g. responding positively ‘acceptable practice,’ although it excludes the only items
toward going to work as representative of job satisfac- possibly related to character strengths, traits, or disposi-
tion). tional perceptions which may have a central positive
In an attempt to simplify this concept, a reduced effect on quality of life via effective coping, elevating
group of eight similar core domains of quality of life mood ⁄ affect, and encouraging engagement with the
was subsequently identified by an international group world.
of experts in the field (Schalock & Verdugo 2002). This Sheppard-Jones et al. (2005) acknowledge the signifi-
revised listing overlapped significantly with previous cance of these omissions when they discuss the idea that
findings and included emotional well-being, interper- there are ‘some individuals who have a characteristically
sonal relationships, material well-being, self-determina- sunny outlook on life, even when events are stacked
tion, personal development, physical well-being, social against them’ (p. 282). The researchers, as others dis-
inclusion, and rights. Using this reduced model, cussed previously, are identifying the importance of per-
researchers have created measures to assess quality of son-based traits such as optimism and courage in
life in persons with developmental disabilities (Bonham coping not only effectively, but positively with life chal-
et al. 2004). The items of this instrument tend to focus lenges. However, items directly assessing the internal
on external elements that can be ‘checked off’ or verified mechanisms that may help to elevate mood and main-
by an observer, perhaps reflecting the difficulties inher- tain active and functional engagement with the world
ent in evaluating complex internal concepts in persons are at best indirectly assessed. In a related vein, Dykens
often challenged with communication difficulties, lim- (2006) reports that only 1% of quality of life questions
ited cognitive capacities, and limited abilities to self- are related to happiness, contentment, or zest for life, as
reflect or introspect. For example, the social domain is compared with 58% of the questions that dealt with spe-
usually represented by whether or not the person has cific external conditions. Further and perhaps most
friends in the community. Personal development is often importantly, Dykens cites observations by Edgerton
related to receipt or non-receipt of needed services. (1996) that suggest finding or creating happiness and
While the researchers developed this externally oriented contentment which depends mainly on internal disposi-
scale, they note that it is ‘primarily the perception of the tions, characteristics, and thinking styles rather than
individual that reflects the quality of life that he or she simply taking stock of what is externally available. That

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 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 3

is, quality of life may be less determined by what you to or contribute to quality of life as they pertain to psy-
have, and more determined by what you choose to do chological well-being, as well as through effective cop-
with what you have. ing or adjustment, and the overall value or quality of
currently measured quality of life indicators. For exam-
ple, we might ask if the person with a developmental
Positive Traits and Well-being
disability tries new things he might not be good at ini-
So if there are character strengths, positive traits, or dis- tially or which scare him, tapping the courage and self-
positional perceptions that contribute to quality of life, efficacy related to environmental mastery and openness
what exactly are they? This is a question often asked by to new experiences. We could explore adjustment to
researchers of positive psychology (Seligman & negative events by examining optimism or resilience, or
Csikszentmihalyi 2000), a growing area of psychology we might ask if social relationships are not only present
with its roots in the works of psychologists such as and numerous, but marked by empathy, trust and reci-
Maslow and Rogers. Positive psychology re-focuses procity.
attention from what is wrong with human functioning,
to what is healthy, good, and contributing to well-being.
Challenges in Evaluating Positive Traits in
Researchers in this area have begun to explore some of
Persons with Developmental Disabilities
these ‘elusive’ internal dispositions and characteristics
that current quality of life research for persons with There may be a variety of reasons why such traits or
developmental disabilities have not as yet fully tapped. internal dispositions have not traditionally been mea-
While not an exhaustive listing, Seligman (2002) sug- sured in persons with developmental disabilities, either
gests they include hope, optimism, gratitude, and for- as elements of quality of life or the sub-category of well-
giveness, and researchers (Shogren et al. 2006) have also being. Limited resources may have needed to be direc-
identified the important role of selected traits (e.g. opti- ted toward more pressing problem behaviour reduction,
mism) in predicting life satisfaction. Others have sug- although we would suggest that maximizing positive
gested that ‘flow’ contributes to happiness (Nakamura traits may prove to have the same effect. Maximizing
& Csiksentmahalyi 2005), self-efficacy is needed for suc- strengths may render some behaviours unnecessary; by
cess (Maddux 2005), and humor is related to lessened increasing forgiveness, for example, there would be no
depression and may moderate stress regardless of the motivation for retaliatory aggression. Other challenges
intensity of the stressor (Lefcourt 2005). Still other may include the assessment procedure itself. Options
researchers propose positive effects of courage, kind- for assessment have traditionally included interviews or
ness, and resilience, yet rarely are such characteristics questionnaires (Hughes et al. 1995), alone or in combina-
measured and targeted for improvement in persons tion with each other. However, such procedures often
with developmental disabilities (with the exception of depend on the accurate and effective communication
empathy (e.g. Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright 2004). Omit- skills, cognitive capacities, and self-reflection, self-obser-
ting these areas from the assessment, training, treatment, vation, and introspection abilities of the person being
or supports that a person with developmental disabili- assessed, which are often areas of deficit for persons
ties receives may remove important variables affecting with developmental disabilities. ‘Higher functioning’
quality of life. portions of the population have often been selected to
The internal nature of these positive traits or disposi- compensate for this problem, leading to large groups of
tional perceptions may suggest that they have to do persons with developmental disability being excluded
mainly with the more familiar dimension of well-being from research (e.g. Alberto et al. 2005). Further, even a
or adjustment, established models of which may inform ‘high functioning’ person with a developmental disabil-
or be relevant to the umbrella construct of quality of life ity may be challenged to conceive of and discuss their
(Roberts et al. 2005). One model of well-being (Ryff & individual level of complex constructs such as optimism
Singer 2005) indicates that component dimensions or courage. Other options for assessment include direct
include self-acceptance, trusting, empathic, and give- observation or permanent product measures, which are
and-take relations with others, autonomy and self-direct- externally oriented procedures familiar to the behaviour-
edness, a sense of mastery and competence in managing ally trained researcher or practitioner. But these types of
the environment, a purpose or goal in life, and openness measures are not well suited to measuring the internal
to new experiences and personal growth. The variables perceptions, traits, or dispositions that are the focus of
of interest in this study may therefore be most relevant this study. This is because the behavioural markers

 2009 The Author. Journal compilation  2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities
4 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities

reflective of these internal positive traits or perceptions and adults diagnosed with a developmental disability
are likely to be subtly and infrequently expressed in (Autism, Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD-
highly individualistic, context specific ways, by persons NOS), Asperger’s Disorder, or Mental Retardation) were
for whom the expression of courage for example, is very assessed using the ASPeCT-DD, as well as the positive
unique. and negative scales of the Nisonger Child Behaviour
For these reasons, a fourth option was selected for this Rating Form (NCBRF) (Aman 1991). We (1) conducted a
study, an informant-report survey measure completed factor analysis on ASPeCT-DD scores, and (2) explored
by staff who spend extended amounts of time with the test-retest reliability by comparing a portion of the sam-
person being evaluated. While this type of assessment ple’s scores to scores collected 9 months earlier. We fur-
capitalizes on the sensitivity, positivity, and intuitive ther examined reliability by calculating split-half
skills often present in staff who work with persons with reliability and other measures of internal consistency,
developmental disabilities, there are also distinct limita- and calculating inter-rater reliability on 20% of the sam-
tions and challenges. Informant-report survey measures ple. We also explored descriminant and convergent
may decrease the accuracy of the assessment not only validity by (3) correlating ASPeCT-DD scores with posi-
because it is not the person being evaluated who is com- tive and negative scales of the NCBRF. We hypothesized
pleting the survey, but also because the proxy evaluator that test-retest reliability and measures of internal reli-
may introduce distinct biases. He or she may want to ability would be high, as would inter-rater reliability
see positive traits that do not actually exist, and may measures. We hypothesized that ASPeCT-DD scores
also be responsible for the progress of the person being would show significant, high correlations with the posi-
evaluated, potentially inflating ratings. Or, the evaluator tive scales of the NCBRF, and low or negative correla-
may want to make clear that problems are occurring tions with the negative NCBRF scales.
and the person is in need of additional supports, lead-
ing to excessively negative ratings. Researchers may
Method
introduce procedures to minimize such biases (e.g. spe-
cific instructions) or try to measure their impact (e.g.
Participants
inter-rater reliability measures), but some error will cer-
tainly persist as a result of using this method. In this The participants for this study were 169 children, ado-
study, we chose to accept and explore the potential for lescents, and adults who were enrolled in the school
error associated with this form of assessment, rather and adult programmes of the Groden Network. The
than not attempt to measure positive traits, create Groden Center school is located in Providence, Rhode
behavioural measures that may or may not reflect the Island, and specializes in the education and treatment
strengths of interest, or omit from the research persons of persons with autism or related disorders. The partic-
who are unable to communicate fully, accurately, or pre- ipants from the school (n = 77) were 83% male, and
cisely. ages ranged from seven to 21 with an average age of
13.8 years (SD = 3.95). Each student had been diag-
nosed with a developmental disability (Autism 61%,
Creation of a Tool for Measuring Positive
Pervasive Developmental Disorder 26%, and Mental
Traits
Retardation (primary diagnosis) 13%), and 51% had
Dykens (2006) suggests that one issue preventing pro- comorbid psychiatric diagnoses (e.g. Obsessive-compul-
gress in exploring positive traits in persons with devel- sive disorder, Depression, Anxiety Disorder). The sam-
opmental disabilities is the lack of novel assessment ple was 10% African-American, 3% Asian, 80%
tools appropriate to this grouping. One way therefore to Caucasian, 2% Hispanic, and 5% mixed ethnic back-
move forward is to create and evaluate the tools ground.
designed to measure a selection of the proposed internal The participants from the adult programme (n = 92),
or person-based determinants of the happy, pleasant, or the Cove Center, also located in Providence, Rhode
good life. The purpose of this research is to demonstrate Island, were 77% male, and ages ranged from 21 to 50
the utility of an instrument designed to measure with an average age of 32.0 years (SD = 7.18). Each per-
selected positive traits in persons with developmental son had been diagnosed with a developmental disability
disabilities, the Assessment Scale for Positive Character (Autism 52%, Pervasive Developmental Disorder 13%,
Traits-Developmental Disabilities (ASPeCT-DD), by fur- Mental Retardation (primary diagnosis) 32%, and Asper-
ther examining its psychometric properties. Children ger’s Disorder 2%), and 57% had comorbid psychiatric

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 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 5

diagnoses (e.g. Obsessive-compulsive disorder, Depres- adaptive social), and six behaviour and emotional prob-
sion, Anxiety Disorder). The sample was 10% African lem areas in children (conduct problems, insecure ⁄
American, 2% Asian, 87% Caucasian, and 1% mixed eth- anxious, hyperactive, self-injury, stereotypic, self-
nic background. isolated ⁄ ritualistic, and overly sensitive). The NCBRF
has been evaluated for reliablity (e.g. Girouard et al.
1998), and validated with other measures (e.g. Aman
Raters
et al. 1996).
The raters were any staff person who was familiar with
the child or adult participant, and had worked with that
Design and data analysis
person for at least 3 months. This included direct care
workers, teachers, and supervisors, most of whom had a One hundred sixty-nine persons were assessed with the
college or graduate level of education. All raters had ASPeCT-DD in October of 2006 (n = 61) and April of
taken part in the orientation and behavioural training 2007 (n = 108). Supervisors from the Groden Center
offered by the Groden Center, and were briefed by the and the Cove Center were instructed as to the purpose
researcher (or supervisor if a teacher or direct care of the scale and the research, and asked to complete
worker completed the scale) as to the purpose of the the scales or have a teacher or direct care worker famil-
scale and research project. One hundred forty-eight of iar with the person being rated complete the scale.
the 169 ratings had responses to the question of the Additionally, approximately 60% of the sample who
amount of time the rater had known the participant already had no NCBRF negative scales completed for
(88%), and responses ranged from 0.25 years to 16 years. other research projects or educational purposes were
Responses were rounded up to the nearest quarter of a assessed using this instrument in April of 2007. All par-
year. The mean time that raters indicated that they had ticipants had the positive scales of the NCBRF com-
known the participant was 3.7 years, with a standard pleted in April of 2007. In addition, 20% of the sample
deviation of 3.76 years. was randomly selected, and additional ASPeCT-DD
scales were completed by raters who were not directly
responsible for the progress of that participant. The
Materials
analyses for the present research project were orga-
The measure used in this study was the ASPeCT-DD. nized into three blocks, factor analysis, reliability, and
This 26-item scale was developed at the Groden Center, validity.
and is composed of items assessing 10 positive trait
areas: Empathy, optimism, forgiveness, kindness,
Factor analysis
humor, gratitude, self-efficacy, courage, self-control,
resilience. Trait areas were selected and items were gen- A factor analysis was conducted on the sample
erated from a review of literature on positive psychol- responses (n = 169), using a promax (oblique) principal
ogy, and certain items were adapted from other scales components analysis (PCA). While some theoretical
including the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) basis existed for the measure, it was not deemed clear
(Carver & Scheier 2003); Child-Report Sympathy Scale or strong enough to merit use of factor analysis over
(Zhou et al. 2003); Heartland Forgiveness Scale (Thomp- PCA. A promax (oblique) principle components analysis
son & Snyder 2003); The Empathy Quotient (Simon was used to allow the factors of the solution to correlate
Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004); The Self-efficacy with each other.
Scale (Choi 2003); Gratitude, Resentment, and Apprecia-
tion Test (GRAT) (Watkins et al. 2003); Self-Control Scale
Reliability
(Tangney et al. 2004). The scale is completed by a
respondent who is familiar with the person being rated, Test-retest reliability was evaluated by comparing Octo-
and the respondent rates the person on a 5-point Likert ber of 2007 ASPeCT-DD scores to scores collected in Jan-
scale (see Appendix). Total scores can range from a low uary of 2006 for the school-based portion of the sample
of 26 to a high of 130. (n = 61). Split-half reliability and Cronbach’s Alpha
Additionally, ratings on the NCBRF (parent version) were calculated to evaluate the internal consistency of
(Aman et al. 1996) were used in this research study. This the four factors of the scale, and inter-rater reliability
is a 76-item informant-based questionnaire developed to was calculated on a randomly selected 20% of the sam-
assess two positive social areas (compliant ⁄ calm and ple (n = 34).

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6 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities

Validity Table 2 Descriptive statistics for all scale items

Convergent and descriminant validity were evaluated (#) items Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis
by correlating ASPeCT-DD scores collected in October
of 2006 and January of 2007 with positive and negative (1) Courage 1 2.73 1.05 0.16 )0.42
scales of the NCBRF for all participants. (2) Empathy 1 2.89 1.23 )0.05 )0.94
(3) Humor 1 3.41 1.19 )0.32 )0.84
(4) Kindness 1 3.07 1.22 )0.05 )1.00
Results (5) Forgiveness 1 3.10 1.34 )0.15 )1.16
(6) Empathy 2 3.21 1.05 )0.24 )0.71
The average total score on the ASPeCT-DD for this par-
(7) Forgiveness 2 2.92 1.02 )0.11 )0.68
ticipant group was 80.45, with a standard deviation of
(8) Kindness 2 3.27 1.09 )0.14 )0.74
13.32. The scores ranged from 40 to 121. Means and (9) Empathy 3 2.65 1.30 0.21 )1.13
standard deviations for the individual factors are pre- (10) Resilience 1 2.70 1.07 0.31 )0.53
sented in Table 1. (11) Self-control 1 2.77 1.22 0.29 )0.88
(12) Courage 2 2.65 0.93 0.17 )0.46
(13) Empathy 4 2.70 1.16 0.07 )1.02
Factor analysis
(14) Resilience 2 2.99 0.96 )0.05 )0.39
Prior to conducting the factor analysis, data was exam- (15) Self-control 2 3.11 1.04 )0.05 )0.55
ined for skewness, kurtosis, outliers, and multicollinearity. (16) Optimism 1 3.51 0.96 )0.33 )0.42
Table 2 lists descriptive statistics for each scale item. (17) Humor 2 2.59 1.25 0.21 )1.01
(18) Gratitude 1 3.18 1.18 )0.15 )0.93
The current data primarily meets statistical assumptions,
(19) General Happiness 3.74 0.95 )0.62 0.41
and there is an absence of total score outliers and multi-
(20) Self-efficacy 1 3.04 1.03 )0.01 )0.56
collinearity. (21) Self-control 3 3.40 0.95 )0.02 )0.62
A promax (oblique) PCA was conducted on the (22) Gratitude 2 3.71 1.03 )0.72 0.18
ASPeCT-DD responses of the entire sample of 169 peo- (23) Forgiveness 3 3.20 1.01 )0.24 )0.45
ple. Analysis of the scree plot suggested either a three (24) Forgiveness 4 3.28 1.30 )0.16 )1.21
or four factor solution, and a four factor solution was (25) Optimism 2 3.47 1.05 )0.53 )0.21
selected as no item loaded >0.40 on more than one fac- (26) Self-efficacy 2 3.04 1.25 )0.09 )0.98
tor. This four-factor solution accounted for 59.6% of the
variance, and is represented in Table 3. The factor corre-
lations ranged from r = 0.12 to r = 0.45, suggesting poor
rated in 2006 were rated by the same informant in 2007.
to moderate relationships among the factors Table 4.
The correlation between these two sets of scores was fair
(r = 0.56), and significant at the P < 0.01 level (one-
Reliability tailed).
Internal reliability and consistency: split-half reliability
Test-retest reliability: ASPeCT-DD total scores collected
was calculated by comparing responses to the first 13
in October of 2007 were compared with scores collected
items of the scale with responses to the last 13 items for
in January of 2006 (for the original piloting of the scale)
168 participants (one was excluded because of missing
for the school-based portion of the sample. Sixty-one of
data). Correlation between these two forms was high
the 77 students for whom ASPeCT-DD scores were
(r = 0.76), and the Guttman Split-half Coefficient for the
available in October of 2007, also had scores recorded in
scale was 0.86.
January of 2006. Approximately 56% of the 61 students
Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated for each factor to
further evaluate the internal consistency of the scale.
Table 1 Means and SD for individual factors Cronbach’s Alpha was found to be excellent to accept-
able at 0.94 for factor 1, 0.81 for factor 2, 0.72 for factor 3,
Mean SD and 0.78 for factor 4.
Inter-rater reliability: a random selection of 20% of the
Factor 1 (positive relations) 30.01 9.55
sample (n = 34) was selected for the purpose of calculat-
Factor 2 (active coping) 20.62 4.86
ing inter-rater reliability. These secondary raters, while
Factor 3 (acceptance coping) 15.28 4.08
Factor 4 (positive outlook) 14.45 3.09 familiar with the participants being rated, were staff
who were neither supervisory nor directly responsible

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 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 7

Table 3 Factor structure of the Assessment Scale for Positive Table 5 Correlations of the Assessment Scale for Positive
Character Traits-Developmental Disabilities (ASPeCT-DD) Character Traits-Developmental Disabilities (ASPeCT-DD)
scores with NCBRF sub-category scores
(#) items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
ASPeCT-DD
(2) Empathy 1 0.71
(6) Empathy 2 0.91 NCBRF Sub-categories: positive
(9) Empathy 3 0.89 1) Compliant ⁄ calm 0.56**
(13) Empathy 4 0.88 2) Adaptive ⁄ social 0.64**
(4) Kindness 1 0.82 NCBRF sub-categories: negative
(8) Kindness 2 0.87 1) Conduct problems )0.19*
(18) Gratitude 1 0.79 2) Insecure ⁄ anxious 0.18*
(26) Self-efficacy 2 0.62 3) Hyperactive )0.15
(3) Humour 1 0.47 4) Self-injury ⁄ stereotypic )0.39**
(17) Humour 2 0.42 5) Self-isolated ⁄ ritualistic )0.39**
(1) Courage 1 0.70 6) Overly sensitive )0.09
(12) Courage 2 0.62
(10) Resilience 1 0.74 *Indicates significance at the P < 0.05 level.
(14) Resilience 2 0.47 **Indicates significance at the P < 0.01 level.
(15) Self-control 2 0.52
(21) Self-control 3 0.66 with each of the two positive sub-categories and six neg-
(20) Self-efficacy 1 0.78 ative sub-categories on the NCBRF to evaluate the con-
(5) Forgiveness 1 0.66 vergent and discriminant validity of the scale. The two
(7) Forgiveness 2 0.42 positive sub-categories include compliant ⁄ calm and
(23) Forgiveness 3 0.55 adaptive social, and the six negative sub-categories
(24) Forgiveness 4 0.79 include conduct problems, insecure ⁄ anxious, hyperac-
(11) Self-control 1 0.79 tive, self-injury ⁄ stereotypic, self-isolated ⁄ ritualistic, and
(16) Optimism 1 0.78 overly sensitive. Total ASPeCT-DD scores were moder-
(25) Optimism 2 0.86
ately correlated with the positive scales (significant at
(19) General Happiness 0.57
the P < 0.01 level), Table 5 and not correlated to any
(22) Gratitude 2 0.56
notable degree to the sub-category scores for conduct
problems, insecure ⁄ anxious, hyperactive, or overly sen-
sitive. Significant (at the P < 0.01 level) negative correla-
Table 4 Factor correlation matrix of the Assessment Scale for tions were found for total ASPeCT-DD scores and the
Positive Character Traits-Developmental Disabilities
self-injury ⁄ stereotypic and self-isolated ⁄ ritualistic sub-
(ASPeCT-DD)
category scores.
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Discussion
Factor 1 1.0 0.44 0.12 0.45
Factor 2 1.0 0.39 0.41 The results of an examination of the psychometric prop-
Factor 3 1.0 0.26 erties of the ASPeCT-DD demonstrates a strong factor
Factor 4 1.0 structure. Interpretations of the factors are suggested as
follows: (1) traits that serve to foster positive relations
with others (positive relations), (2) active engagement
for the progress of the person being rated. Inter-rater and coping with challenging problems (active coping),
reliability was found to be good (r = 0.68) per estab- (3) traits that promote positive coping through accep-
lished guidelines (Aman 1991), and significant at the tance (acceptance coping), and (4) happiness and posi-
P < 0.01 level (one-tailed). tive outlook on life (positive outlook). The correlations
among the factors indicates poor to moderate relation-
ships, with the highest correlations being found between
Validity
factors 1 and 2, and factors 1 and 4. This moderate rela-
Convergent and discriminant validity: ASPeCT-DD tionship between traits that foster positive relations with
scores for the entire sample (n = 168) were correlated others, and both active coping and a positive outlook

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8 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities

may suggest that the quality of a person’s relationships ask whether or not a person is happy, rarely do they
with others creates strong social networks that support ask if the person is actively trying to explain or under-
the ability to cope with life challenges. These social net- stand events in their lives in a way that creates this hap-
works may also contribute to or result from a generally piness or elevates subjective mood, makes negative
positive outlook. It was expected that factor one would events more manageable, or contributes to the creation
be as highly correlated with factor three, but the rela- of hope. The four factors of the ASPeCT-DD are there-
tionship between positive relations with others and for- fore related to the concepts of quality of life and well-
giveness was the lowest of all the correlations. being, but rather than asking what is present or not
However, the generally moderate relationships among present, the positive character trait groupings ask what
the various factors identified suggest they are tapping internal traits are available and to what extent. These
related, but not identical constructs. questions re-focus attention from what supports are
The outcome of the factor analysis informs our under- available to the person and how they affect the person,
standing of the quality of life construct, as well as the to what skills lie within the person that allow the person
related concept of well-being. In considering the dimen- to make the supports good, of value, or positive.
sions of quality of life often cited by researchers, our
first factor is clearly related to social or interpersonal
Reliability
relationships dimension. However, this factor does not
indicate the presence or frequency of these relationships, The test-retest correlation coefficient for the child por-
but rather constructs related to the quality of the interac- tion of the participant sample was found to be moderate
tions. For the social interactions that do exist, the first at r = 0.56, which is fair (and approaching good) for a
factor of the ASPeCT-DD asks whether or not they are clinical scale (Aman 1991). This is despite about half of
marked by empathy, kindness, and humor, reflective of the raters changing from time one to time two, which
the well-being model discussed previously. may have had a dampening effect on this statistic. The
Our second and third factors, active and acceptance- results of the scale remained relatively constant over a
based coping, are less directly associated with quality of 9-month period, suggesting that the scale is measuring
life dimensions or well-being. The positive traits that enduring constructs in a fairly consistent manner. Mea-
these two factors represent however, support taking part sures of internal consistency were somewhat higher,
in new, unfamiliar, or fearful activities, ‘bouncing back’ suggesting that the items of the scale were related to
or accepting and moving past failure, hurt, or dis- each other in a significant way and that there was some
appointment, and maintaining self-control under stress. unity to the measure. Internal consistency was especially
Such positive skill groupings might easily colour or high for factor 1. Finally, inter-rater reliability was good,
affect many of the quality of life concepts. For the qual- which suggests that different raters were able to rate the
ity of life dimension of employment for example, these same person in a consistent manner. The secondary rat-
ASPeCT-DD factor results may inform us as to whether ers were not directly responsible for the progress of the
or not this person tries new jobs they may not succeed person being rated, lessening (but most likely not elimi-
at immediately, keeps working despite being told they nating) any potential bias. The inter-rater reliability is
are not doing a good enough job, or lets go of the hurt especially encouraging, given the inherent problems in
of being told such a thing. For the community integra- informant-rated measures.
tion or inclusion dimensions, is the person likely to try
to meet new people? Is he going to keep trying when
Validity
rejected socially? Is she going to be able to forgive her-
self for socially inappropriate behaviour, or forgive oth- Validity indicators are preliminary in the present
ers for making fun of her? The second and third factors research, given a variety of challenges. First, there were
of the ASPeCT-DD are also indirectly related to models no other measures available to our knowledge that
of well-being. The positive traits contained in these two explored the internal positive traits of persons with
factors may affect a person’s likelihood to engage in developmental disabilities. Second, the length, complex-
autonomous behaviour that warrants courage, or ity, or wording of many of the measures available for
become more self-accepting by forgiving one’s self. evaluating positive traits in typically developing popula-
The fourth and final factor is the chosen perception of tions negated their use in this study. Third, persons
seeing the bright side of life, and having a positive with developmental disabilities, while having similar or
explanatory style. While quality of life measures may even identical diagnoses, present with a wide variety of

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 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 9

social styles, cognitive strengths and limitations, com- sures and well-being in a unique way. Expanding on
munication skills, and a host of other variables that cre- the presence of externally based quality of life indica-
ate unique personality presentations. It would be tors, the ASPeCT-DD explores the internally-based per-
unlikely to create a single behavioural marker or set of ceptions, traits, or dispositions that a person exercises to
markers that are truly representative of the positive make those indicators positive, of value, or mood elevat-
traits being explored. For these reasons, we chose to ing. Reliability and validity measures are encouraging,
establish convergent validity with the positive scales of although further work needs to be done to ensure the
the NCBRF not only because the scale was widely used, scale is actually measuring what it intends to measure.
but also because the items included wording related to A limitation to this study includes the sample size only
the internal trait perspective we were pursuing. For beginning to approach levels acceptable for a factor
example, interactions with others were both ‘positive’ analysis. Another limitation is the sample being pre-
and ‘initiated’ by the person being rated. Rules were not dominantly male, with a wide age span and multiple
only followed but redirection was ‘accepted,’ and there diagnoses. Future research directions could include
were questions related to empathy and kindness additional evaluation of the validity of the scale, and
(‘Shared with or helped others’). Finally, there were exploring the relationship between the ASPeCT-DD
questions related to self-control (‘Resisted provocation, scale and existing quality of life measures. Researchers
was tolerant’) as well as the presentation of a happy or may also want to explore whether or not parents,
cheerful demeanor. Correlations with the two positive employers, or friends perceive positive traits in the same
scales of the NCBRF were moderate as expected, and way as staff working with persons with developmental
significant at the P < 0.01 level. disabilities, and how larger samples of persons with
Discriminant validity of the ASPeCT-DD was explored more uniform diagnoses might affect the scale and
by correlation with the NCBRF negative sub-category scores.
scores. We could have found high, negative correlations Another significant research opportunity may result
which would have suggested that measuring positive from a general reorienting in the direction of positive
traits is simply the mirror image of what is commonly trait evaluation. How do we establish or maximize
done, which is measuring problem ⁄ deficit areas. We these traits? As positive psychology is an emerging
could have found no significant correlations, which field, empirical evidence supporting specific interven-
would have suggested that there is no relationship at all tions are limited and those related to persons with
between positive traits and common indicators of some developmental disabilities are even more rare. One
behavioural and emotional difficulties. What we research study working with typically developing
expected and found was relatively low, at times negative adults attempted to empirically validate a set of spe-
correlations, two of which showed a significant relation- cific interventions targeting positive traits and percep-
ship at the P < 0.01 level. The results may suggest that as tions (Seligman et al. 2005). The exercises focused on
positive traits become established and strengthened, increasing gratitude, increasing awareness of positive
behavioural and emotional difficulties tend to diminish. aspects of self, and identifying strengths of character.
These results may represent a protective effect of positive Five treatment exercises included a gratitude visit
traits against behavioural or emotional problems, and the where a letter of gratitude was written and delivered
contribution these traits offer towards stability or effec- to someone, writing down three good things that hap-
tive functioning. It is notable that the two significant neg- pen each day, writing about a time when the partici-
ative correlations were found between ASPeCT-DD pant was at their best, using personal strengths in a
scores and the NCBRF sub-categories related to self- new way, or using personal strengths more often. The
injury, isolation, and stereotypic and ritualistic behav- researchers found that using personal strengths in a
iour. This relationship may suggest that as a person with new way and writing three good things each day
a developmental disability becomes more engaged with increased happiness and decreased depression for
people and events in the world, they focus less on 6 months. The gratitude visit caused large positive
inwardly directed or self-based behavioural practices. changes for 1 month, and the other exercises resulted
in positive but short-lived effects. The researchers sug-
gested that interventions in combination might result in
Future directions
even more robust findings, and pointed to the need for
These results suggest that the factor structure of exploration of interventions with other populations,
ASPeCT-DD scale may be related to quality of life mea- including persons with disabilities.

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10 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities

There are a number of other examples of related types of interventions is to increase positive relations
research that has examined the effects of interventions with others by practicing some of the strengths that
on positive traits or dispostional perceptions. Research- make relationships of value.
ers have studied the effects of direct teaching on empa- Other interventions currently being piloted at the
thy to medical students (Kramer et al. 1989), and using Groden Center include specially constructed journals
letter writing and group discussion to increase forgive- that prompt students to identify positive events that
ness (Worthington et al. 2000). Other research made use may take place that day or that evening. This builds
of psychoeducational groups to increase forgiveness into the student’s day the practice of scanning for good
(McCollough & Worthington 1995), or discussed the use things to expect, to promote optimism. Selected stu-
of practicing behaviours, modeling, and verbal persua- dents may practice facing a specific hierarchy of feared
sion techniques to enhance self-efficacy (Van de Laar & objects (such as pictures of dogs, videos about dogs,
Van der Bijl 2001). There are some examples of research and then seeing a dog from a distance), or practice in
designed to explore the effects of interventions on select drama therapy or social skills groups the importance
positive traits in persons with developmental disability, of trying new, perhaps threatening activities to aug-
and these studies both adapt interventions used with ment courage levels. The students at the Groden Cen-
typically developing persons, and add new options. ter also make extensive use of cognitive picture
Agran et al. (2002) trained students with developmental rehearsal to target a wide variety of desired behaviours
disabilities to (verbally or with the aid of cue cards) or thinking patterns. This procedure can be used to
identify problems and take personal responsibility for targeting trying something new, helping others, or
creating potential solutions. Reeve et al. (2007) used acknowledging that the student knows what to do and
video modeling, directed prompting, and token rein- can handle the situation.
forcement to increase helping behaviours that general- These programmes are being piloted for the purpose
ized to novel settings and stimuli. This generalization of equipping people with developmental disabilities
suggests that a more foundational concept or perception with some of the internal, person-based strengths that
(kindness or empathy perhaps) was enhanced, and a may augment quality of life. While these interventions
narrow, rote behaviour alone was not the result. may not impress the reader as novel, their adaptation,
With openness to and a history targeting internal pro- application, and expressed use for present purposes
cesses to affect self-control, a number of interventions are developing areas. By increasing traits such as self-
designed to increase positive traits are being piloted at efficacy, empathy, kindness, courage, optimism, and
the Groden Center. The interventions were adapted resilience, our hope is to acknowledge and maximize
from interventions in studies cited previously with typi- the active role persons with developmental disabilities
cally developing persons, and similar research on per- can have in creating their own happiness and quality
sons with developmental disabilities. The interventions life. We hope that practitioners will consider this per-
include school-wide ‘good deeds,’ wherein students are spective and begin to reorient to the creation of addi-
reinforced for helpful acts of kindness, or thoughtful tional positive interventions that can be empirically
acts that somehow met the need of another person. evaluated. The psychometric properties of the ASPeCT-
Other individualized programmes being piloted include DD suggest that there is a tool with preliminary reli-
specific, pointed, and individualized positive affirma- ability and validity that may be an aid in measuring
tions reviewed repeatedly with the student. These affir- the impact of positive interventions on this important
mations are designed to change thinking about areas set of constructs.
where current perceptions may be hindering the pro-
gress or development of the person. For example, a stu-
Acknowledgments
dent with low scores on self-efficacy about academics
may have an affirmation such as ‘I can do good work at I would like to thank Jim Bodfish for his guidance and
school everyday.’ Classrooms are also piloting the use suggestions in this research project, Matthew Goodwin
of identification of a classroom ‘helper’, giving status to and Gerry Groden for their editorial assistance, and June
the person whose job is to assist the teacher with vari- Groden for her editorial assistance and ongoing support
ous responsibilities throughout the day. Similarly, stu- of research in this important area. I would also like to
dents have had individual programming added to thank the staff of the Groden Center and the Cove Cen-
practice scanning for opportunities to help others, and ter for completing all of the many surveys needed to
identifying the emotions of others. The purpose of these conduct this research project.

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 Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 11

Correspondence sis of empirical measures. American Journal on Mental Retarda-

tion 99, 623–641.
Any correspondence should be directed to Cooper Human Services Research Institute (2001). Consumer survey
Woodard, PhD, The Groden Center, 86 Mt. Hope Ave. phase II technical report. Retrieved December 16, 2001,
Providence, RI 02906, USA (e-mail: cwoodard@groden from http://www.hsri.org/cip/docs/PhaseII% 20Consumer%
center.org). 20Survey% 20Report_new.pdf.
Kramer D., Ber R. & Moore M. (1989) Increasing empathy
among medical students. Medical Education 23, 168–173.
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Appendix
Assessment Scale for Positive Character Traits-Developmental Disabilities (ASPeCT-DD).
Developed at The Groden Center by Cooper Woodard, PhD,
June Groden, PhD, and Matthew Goodwin, MA.
Client Name:___________________________ Rater:________________________
Date:__________ Age of Client:____ How long have you known client?____________
Directions: Please rate each item by circling the number that best describes the client at the current time, as compared
to peers with similar levels of functioning. Use the following scale:
1 = Not at all characteristic of this person
2 = A little characteristic of this person
3 = Somewhat characteristic of this person
4 = Very characteristic of this person
5 = Extremely characteristic of this person

1) I think this person is courageous 1 2 3 4 5

2) This person is bothered, concerned, or upset when someone else is uncomfortable or distressed 1 2 3 4 5
3) This person has a nice sense of humor 1 2 3 4 5
4) This person can be thoughtful and helpful to others 1 2 3 4 5
5) This person does not hold a grudge against others 1 2 3 4 5
6) This person shows caring for other people 1 2 3 4 5
7) This person can accept when he or she has made a mistake 1 2 3 4 5
8) This person shows kindness to others 1 2 3 4 5
9) When I am sad, this person responds to my feelings with concern 1 2 3 4 5
10) This person tries to solve his or her problems 1 2 3 4 5
11) This person does not lose his or her temper 1 2 3 4 5
12) Even when this person is afraid, they try to do what is right or expected of them 1 2 3 4 5
13) This person shows a sensitivity to the needs and feelings of others 1 2 3 4 5
14) This person ‘bounces back’ easily 1 2 3 4 5

15) This person is generally able to control him ⁄ herself 1 2 3 4 5

16) I think this person generally expects good things to happen to him or her 1 2 3 4 5
17) This person uses humor to cope with difficulties 1 2 3 4 5
18) This person shows thanks for help from others 1 2 3 4 5
19) I think this person is happy 1 2 3 4 5
20) Even when things are hard, this person keeps on trying 1 2 3 4 5
21) This person tries to follow directions 1 2 3 4 5
22) This person seems to enjoy life and is thankful for life’s simple pleasures 1 2 3 4 5
23) This person gets over his or her mistakes in a reasonable amount of time 1 2 3 4 5
24) This person does not try to retaliate or get back at others who have hurt him or her 1 2 3 4 5
25) This person usually thinks things will go his or her way 1 2 3 4 5
26) It is fairly easy for this person to make new friends 1 2 3 4 5

 2009 The Author. Journal compilation  2009 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities

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