2022

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY A

LAB REPORT
BRIAN CLENDON KINUTHIA F16/140157/2020

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UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
INTRODUCTION
Water has many uses. From domestic consumption to agriculture and as far as
building and construction. In order to ascertain that water is indeed suitable for such
purposes, various laboratory tests have been developed in order to determine various
qualities of water. Qualities such as colour, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity
and various others help technicians and engineers determine the safety and quality of
water. This finally helps to determine the appropriate use of water and more
importantly if the water is polluted or not. If the latter is determined, then appropriate
measures can be undertaken in order to eliminate or mitigate pollutants.
In the Engineering and Microbiology Lab the following tests were undertaken to
determine various aspect of the samples of water provided. The tests investigated the
following aspects:
1. Hardness
2. Alkalinity
3. Residual Chloride
4. Solids
5. Hydrogen Ion Concentration
6. Dissolved Oxygen
7. Colour
8. Turbidity

OBJECTIVES
Each experiment had unique objectives that were case sensitive. The objectives were
as follows:
1. Hardness
The objective of this test was to calculate both total hardness and calcium hardness.
2. Alkalinity
The objective of this experiment was to calculate two factors, phenolphthalein
alkalinity and total alkalinity.
3. Residual Chlorine
The objective of this experiment was to determine the concentration of residual
chlorine using a Lovibond Comparator and disc.
4. Solids
The objective of this experiment was to measure the amount of suspended solids,
dissolved solids, and solids that settled in the given water sample.
 5. Hydrogen Ion Concentration
The aim of this experiment was to measure the concentration of hydrogen ions in a
water sample placed in a ph meter.

6. Dissolved Oxygen
The aim of this experiment was to calculate the amount of a dissolved oxygen after
carrying out a series of reactions on a given water sample.
7. Colour
The aim of this experiment was to measure the extent of the colour of the water
sample by use of a Lovibond Nessleriser used in conjunction with a night light
cabinet.
8. Turbidity
The aim of this experiment was to measure the cloudiness of water by use of a
Lovibond Turbidimeter

PROCEEDURES
The methods employed and materials used varied from experiment to experiment.
They are outlined as follows:
1. Hardness
To determine total hardness, 50 ml of the sample was pipetted into a flask and 1ml of
ammonia buffer solution added as well as 1 total hardness indicator tablet added. The
solution was then titrated using EDTA solution and the total hardness
To determine calcium hardness, similar steps were followed but 1ml of sodium
hydroxide was used instead of the ammonia and 1 calcium hardness indicator was
used instead of the total hardness indicator
2. Alkalinity
To determine alkalinity, 100ml of the sample was put in a conical flask and
phenolphthalein indicator added. The sample was then titrated with sulphuric acid
until the solution turned colourless. The volumes used so far was noted. Methyl
orange was added and the solution titrated until it turned orange red. The total volume
used was noted.
Phenolphthalein alkalinity and total alkalinity were calculated from these volumes
noted.
 3. Residual Chloride
Two cells were filled with 10ml of the sample. To one cell we added 0.1ml acid ortho-
otolodine and the other was left alone. This cell was placed in the right hand
compartment of the Lovibond Comparator disc and the other was placed in the left
hand compartment. Readings were taken after one minute and then after five minutes
by matching the standards of the disk with the colours of the cell.
4. Solids
To measure suspended solids, a filter paper was dried and weighed analytically before
being placed on a suction pump. 50ml of the water sample was shaken vigorously and
added on top of the suction pump to be filtered. The pump was turned on and the
contents filtered. The filter pater was then carefully taken out and oven dried then
measured again and suspended solids calculated using the data obtained.
To measure dissolved solids, the filtrate from the suction pump was placed in a dish of
known weight and the water left to evaporate in an oven leaving behind dissolved
solids. The dish was weighed again and the volume of dissolved solids calculated
from the data obtained.
To measure settled solids, the water sample provided was shaken vigorously and
poured rapidly onto an imhoff cone and after an hour of being left to settle the reading
was taken at the bottom of the cone.
5. Hydrogen Ion Concentration
To determine hydrogen ion concentration, 75ml of the sample was placed in a beaker
and electrodes from the ph meter placed in the beaker. The ph value was then read out
on the meter after some time once it had stopped fluctuating.
6. Dissolved Oxygen
To calculate dissolved oxygen, the sample was placed in a dissolved oxygen bottle
and the stopper replaced so as to not leave any air bubbles. The stopper was removed
and manganese sulphate solution as well as alkali azide-iodide solution were added in
quick succession before replacing the stopper and shaking the contents vigorously
until a precipitate formed.
Next 2ml of concentrated sulphuric acid was added and the contents shaken again
until the precipitate dissolved. 203ml was then measured and transferred to an
arlenmayer flask and titrated against sodium thiosulphate solution until the colour
changed to pale yellow. 1ml of starch indicator was added and titration carried out
until the blue colour disappeared.
The volume of sodium thiosulphate dispensed was then used to calculate the amount
of dissolved oxygen in the water sample.
 7. Colour
To measure the extent of colour in a given water sample, a Nessler cylinder was filler
with the sample and placed in a lovibond nesleriser. The colour was then matched
against a standard hazen disc and the colour read directly
8. Turbidity
To measure turbidity, a Lovibond turbidimeter was turned on and calibrated using pre-
existing samples of known turbidity. Then the sample to be measured was placed in a
vial and the vial placed in the apparatus. The extent of turbidity of the water sample
was read out from the display on the apparatus

RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS

The results obtained and calculations done were case sensitive and were outlined as
follows:
1. Hardness
total hardness=volume of ETDA used ×20
6.3 ×20=126 mg CaCO3 / L

Calcium Hardness=volume of ETDA used × 20

2.6 ×20=520 mg CaCO3 / L

2. Alkalinity
Phenopthalein Alkalinity=volume of acid used ×10
1.6 mgCaCO 3
1.6 ×10=
L
Total Alkalinity=total vlume of acid used ×10
41 mgCaCO 3
4.1 ×10=
L

3. Residual Chloride
The blank cell read 0.1mg/L after one minute and 0.2mg/L after five minutes
The coloured cell read 1.0mg/L after one minute and 1.0mg/L after five minutes
4. Solids
The settled solids read 2ml/L after being left to settle for an hour.
To calculate suspended solids, the following data was obtained and calculations made:
Weight of dry filter paper – 180mg
Weight of dry filter paper and contents – 184mg
Weight difference – 4mg
weight difference 4 80 mg
Total suspended solids= × 1000= × 1000=
volume of sample filtered 50 L
To calculate for dissolved solids, the following data was obtained and calculations
made:
Weight of dish – 65.929g
Weight of dish and dissolved solids after evaporating water – 65.969
Weight difference – 0.040g – 40mg
weight difference 40 800 mg
Total dissolved solids= × 1000= ×1000=
volume of water evaporated 50 L

5. Hydrogen Ion Concentration

The ph meter read 7.5 for the given water sample

6. Dissolved Oxygen
The volume of sodium thiosulphate used was 4.6ml.
0.92mg
Dissolved oxygen=volume of sodium thiosulphate used × 0.200=4.6 ×0.20=
L

7. Colour
The colour of the water sample matched the 20 degrees Hazen standard on the disc.
8. Turbidity
The Lovibond Turbidimeter read 4.2 NTUs for the given water sample that was
provided.

DISCUSSIONS AND CASE CONCLUSIONS

1. Hardness
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters. The
dissolved minerals in water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water pipes
and difficulty in producing lather with soap.
Water with more than 180 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be very hard
and water with less than 75 mg/L is considered to be soft.
Hardness is normally determined by titration with ethylene diamine tetra acidic acid or
EDTA which was what was provided to conduct the experiment.
Our sample registered 126 mg CaCO3 / L total hardness which is well below the
prescribed levels of water hardness. It is, however, moderately hard. It is still expected
that such a sample would lather fairly easily and cause very little scale formation in
hot water pipes.
Our sample also registered 520 mg CaCO3 / L of calcium hardness which is above the
prescribed limits 300 mg CaCO3 / L as prescribed by the WHO for drinking water. This
rendered the sample of water unable to be used for drinking. However, any other use
of such a water sample is acceptable.
2. Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is its acid-neutralizing capacity comprised of the total of all
titratable bases. The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the
amount of lime and soda needed for water softening. Alkalinity of water is mainly
caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH−), bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), and
carbonate ions (CO32−). The amount of Alkalinity that is considered to be within safe
parameters of any water sample ranges from 20-200 mg/L.
Phenolphthalein alkalinity is determined by titration to a pH of 8.3 and indicates the
total hydroxide and half the carbonate present. Total alkalinity is determined by
titration to a pH of 5.1, 4.8, 4.5 or 3.7 depending upon the amount of carbon dioxide
present. Continuing the titration to a ph of 4.3 yields total alkalinity.
1.6 mgCaCO 3
Our sample read a phenolphthalein alkalinity of and a total alkalinity of
L
41 mgCaCO 3
which is well within the prescribed parameters
L

3. Residual Chloride
Chlorine (Cl2) does not occur naturally in water but is added to water and wastewater
for disinfection. While chlorine itself is a toxic gas, in dilute aqueous solution, it is not
harmful to human health. In drinking water, a residual of about 0.2 mg/L is optimal.
The residual concentration which is maintained in the water distribution system
ensures good sanitary quality of water.
Our blank cell in this case read 0.2mg/L against its coloured counterparts which read
1.0mg/L. This renders the water sample in the blank cell within safe limits as
prescribed.
4. Solids
Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension. The date obtained from the
lab experiments carried out are important to the operators of the wastewater treatment
plant because they roughly approximate the amount of organic matter existing in the
total solids of wastewater, activated sludge, and industrial wastes.
The prescribed limits of total dissolved solids per litre of majority of fresh water rivers
and lakes typically are less than 1500 mg/L while the prescribed limits for suspended
solids for the same is 50mg/L
Our sample registered total dissolved solids of 800mg/L which is well below the
prescribed limits of fresh water.
Our sample also registered 80mg/l of total suspended solids which is slightly above
prescribed limits. This renders the water sample turbid and unpalatable for
consumption.
Solids that can settle are unacceptable and render any water sample unpalatable for
consumption. However, this doesn’t render such water useless. It can be used for
agricultural or construction purposes.
Our sample registered settleable solids of 2ml/L which made it unpalatable. However,
it is suitable for agricultural or construction use.

5. Hydrogen Ion Concentration

pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity,
whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution. Pure water is neutral, with a
pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for
domestic use and living organisms need.
Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of water. A high pH
makes the taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection,
thereby causing the need for additional chlorine. The amount of oxygen in water
increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other
substances.
Our sample registered 7.5 on the ph scale which made it suitable for domestic use.
 6. Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters of
water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution. The
higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.
Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and very sensitive to temperature. The saturation
concentration at 20°C is about 9 mg/L and at 0°C is 14.6 mg/L.
The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on pressure, temperature,
and salinity of the water. Dissolved oxygen has no direct effect on public health, but
drinking water with very little or no oxygen tastes unpalatable to some people.
Our sample registered 0.92mg/L which is well below the prescribed parameters. This
is a good indication of some level of pollution at the source where the water was
collected. The source of the sample would not sustain aquatic life.

7. Colour
Colour is measured by comparing the water sample with standard colour solutions as
elaborated earlier under procedures. Pure water registers 0 degrees hazen while the
highest colour water can attain is 70 degrees hazen.
Our sample registered 20 degrees hazen which rendered it unaesthetically pleasing to
the eye.
8. Turbidity
Turbidity is the cloudiness of water and is a measure of the ability of light to pass
through
water. It is caused by suspended solids. Turbidity in drinking water is aesthetically
unacceptable. Turbidity of more than 5 NTUs can be visible to the average
person while in muddy water it can exceed 100 NTUs. The sample provided
registered 4.2 NTUs and given the parameters, it was aesthetically pleasing to
the average person.

CONCLUSION
From the experiments, various qualities of water have been assessed and case
sensitive conclusions drawn. In practise, one parameter of water quality is not enough
to determine its suitable purpose or how to prescribe a treatment procedure for it. A
good water engineer needs to consider all parameters in order to determine if the water
is suitable for domestic, agricultural or construction purposes.
A good engineer will also take care to ensure that the water environment after his
engineering project is just as good as before he undertook the project by conducting a
series of tests in the manner we have as elaborately discussed.