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QUA N T U M F I E L D T H E O RY A P P ROAC H TO
C O N D E N S E D M AT T E R P H Y S I C S
E D UA R D O C . M A R I N O
Institute of Physics
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
4843/24, 2nd Floor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Delhi – 110002, India
79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107074118
DOI: 10.1017/9781139696548
c Eduardo C. Marino 2017
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2017
Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Marino, Eduardo C., author.
Title: Quantum field theory approach to condensed matter physics / Eduardo
C. Marino (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro).
Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge
University Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017026500| ISBN 9781107074118 (alk. paper) |
ISBN 1107074118 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Condensed matter. | Quantum field theory.
Classification: LCC QC173.454 .M38 2017 | DDC 530.4/1–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017026500
ISBN 978-1-107-07411-8 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Concerning matter, we have been all wrong. What we have been calling matter is
actually energy, the vibration of which has been lowered so much as to be
perceptible to the senses. There is no matter.
A. Einstein
Contents
Preface page xv
2 Vibrating Crystals 25
2.1 The Harmonic Approximation 25
2.2 Classical Description of Crystal Oscillations 27
2.3 Quantum Description of Crystal Oscillations 28
2.4 Thermodynamics of Phonons 32
3 Interacting Electrons 35
3.1 Quantum Theory of Many-Electron Systems 35
3.2 Non-Interacting Electrons 38
3.3 Electron-Electron Interactions: the Coulomb Interaction 39
3.4 The Hubbard Model 40
3.5 Exchange Interactions and Magnetism 41
3.6 The Heisenberg Model 43
3.7 Electron-Phonon Interactions 44
4 Interactions in Action 48
4.1 Magnetic Order 48
4.2 Strongly Correlated Systems 56
4.3 Conductivity 60
4.4 Superconductivity 65
vii
viii Contents
16 Polyacetylene 261
16.1 The Su–Schrieffer–Heeger Model 262
16.2 The Takayama–Lin-Liu–Maki Model 264
16.3 The Gross–Neveu Model 266
16.4 The Peierls–Yukawa Mechanism 269
16.5 Solitons in Polyacetylene 271
16.6 Polarons in Polyacetylene 274
16.7 The Charge and Spin of Solitons 276
16.8 Conductivity in Polyacetylene 277
16.9 Index Theorem and Fermion Fractionalization 278
27 Graphene 437
27.1 Crystal Structure and Tight-Binding Approach 437
27.2 A Concrete Realization of the Dirac Sea 440
27.3 Pseudo-Chirality, Klein Phenomena and Zitterbewegung 443
27.4 Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene 445
27.5 Electronic Interactions in Graphene 446
27.6 Velocity Renormalization 448
27.7 DC-Conductivity 450
27.8 The Quantum Valley Hall Effect 452
27.9 The Electronic Spectrum of Graphene 453
The inception of quantum field theory (QFT) occurred in 1905, when Einstein,
inspired by the work of Planck, postulated the quantization of the electromagnetic
radiation field in terms of photons in order to explain the photoelectric effect. Two
years later, Einstein himself made the first application of this incipient QFT in the
realm of condensed matter physics (CMP). By extending the idea of quantization
to the field of elastic vibrations of a crystal, he used the concept of phonons in order
to obtain a successful description of the specific heat of solids, which has become
one of the first great achievements of the quantum theory. Since their early days,
therefore, we see that CMP and QFT have been evolving together side by side.
In 1926, the quantum theory of the electromagnetic field was formulated
according to the principles of quantum mechanics, thereby providing a rational
description for the dynamics of photons, which were postulated by Einstein more
than 20 years before. QFT soon proved to be the only framework where the two
foundations of modern physics, namely, quantum mechanics and the special theory
of relativity, could be combined in a sensible way.
From then on, QFTs grew up mainly in the realm of particle physics, until
they eventually became some of the most successful theories in physics. Famil-
iar examples are the Standard Model (SM) of fundamental interactions and, more
specifically, Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), which exhibits some theoretical
predictions that can match the experimental results up to twelve decimal figures. It
is difficult to find any other model, ever proposed, possessing such accuracy.
Condensed Matter Physics (CMP), by its turn, has proved to be one of the richest
areas of physics, keeping under its focus of investigation an incredible variety of
systems and materials. These exhibit a plethora of unsuspected kinds of behavior,
frequently associated to different responses to all types of external agents, such as
electric and magnetic fields, voltage and temperature gradients, pressure, elastic
stress and so on. The understanding of these phenomena is an enterprise that is
frequently as interesting as it is challenging. Furthermore, like in no other area of
xv
xvi Preface
physics, mastering the principles and mechanisms of the phenomena under inves-
tigation has produced countless technological by-products. These sometimes have
produced such impact on the society that its whole structure has been transformed,
and many human habits changed. One such example was the development of the
transistor, which ocurred after the physics of doped semiconductors was mastered.
The whole revolution of electronics, miniaturization and informatics would have
been impossible without it.
For decades, CMP made a description of solids that was based on the concept of
independent electrons moving on a crystalline substrate. This picture has worked
extremely well due to the peculiar properties of the quantum-mechanical behav-
ior of electrons in a periodic potential and served for understanding an enormous
amount of properties of metals, insulators and semiconductors. Adding further ele-
ments to this picture has enabled the understanding of magnetic materials. Then
superconductivity, one of the most beautiful, interesting and useful phenomena in
physics, was understood by including the interaction of independent electrons with
the crystal lattice vibrations.
By the 1980s, however, the discovery of the quantum Hall effect and the follow-
ing efforts employed to understand it brought two important features to the center
of attention in the realm of CMP. The first one is the existence of material systems
where the electrons, rather than being independent, are strongly correlated due to
interactions. The second one is the fact that the physical properties of certain states
of matter are determined by sophisticated topological constraints that fix the value
of some quantities with an incredible accuracy and guarantee the conservation of
others, a fact that would not be otherwise anticipated. Both features usually lead to
unsuspected results.
Since that time, a large number of new materials either have been developed or
are being designed that present strongly correlated electrons, topological phases or
both. For understanding such a large amount of new sophisticated advanced materi-
als, an efficient method, capable of describing the quantum-mechanical properties
of a system of interacting many-particle systems and their possibly nontrivial topo-
logical aspects, was required. QFT was the natural response to this demand. By
then, it had become one of the most powerful theoretical tools available in physics,
with applications ranging from particle physics to quantum computation, passing
through hadron physics, nuclear physics, quantum optics, cosmology, astrophysics
and, most of all, condensed matter physics, which is the subject of this book.
Here I present a QFT approach to many different condensed matter systems that
have attracted the interest of the scientific community, always trying to explore the
beauty, depth and harmony that are provided by a unified vision of physics in such
approaches. This not only fosters a deeper understanding of the subject; it opens
new ways of looking at it.
8 Independent Electrons and Static Crystals
and it is easy to see that the quantity between parentheses above is an integer. We
conclude, therefore, that (1.13) with the condition (1.14) satisfies (1.12).
The solution of (1.14) for the vectors bi in three dimensions would be
2π
b1 = a2 × a3 , (1.16)
V0
where V0 is given by (1.5). The vectors b2 and b3 are obtained by cyclic permu-
tations. An example in two dimensions would be the square lattice, for which the
solution of (1.14) would be
ai
bi = 2π , i = 1, 2. (1.17)
|ai |2
For a one-dimensional lattice, the solution of (1.14) would be
a1
b1 = 2π . (1.18)
|a1 |2
The set of vectors q in (1.13) clearly form themselves a Bravais lattice with
primitive vectors bi , namely
This is called “reciprocal lattice,” a name derived from the fact that the vectors bi
have dimension of inverse length, whereas the corresponding vectors of the original
lattice, namely ai have dimension of length. Notice that there is only one reciprocal
lattice associated to a given Bravais lattice and that the latter is the reciprocal of
the former.
The Fourier components of a periodic function possessing the same symmetry
of a certain Bravais lattice only depend on wave-vectors, which belong to the cor-
responding reciprocal lattice. This fact has deep consequences, as we shall see. For
instance, the Fourier transform of a function satisfying (1.10), for a certain Bravais
lattice {R},
f (Q) = d 3 X f (X) exp {−iQ · X} , (1.20)
V
becomes after making X = r + R, V = R V0
f (Q) = d 3r f (r + R) exp {−iQ · (r + R)}
R V0
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