Boi Meng.2013.The Role of Authenticity in Forming Slow Tourists' Intentions

Tourism Management 57 (2016) 397e410
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman
The role of authenticity in forming slow tourists' intentions:

Developing an extended model of goal-directed behavior
Bo Meng a, Kyuhwan Choi b, *
a
Department of Tourism Management at Shanxi University, No. 92, Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006, Shanxi Province, PR China
b
Department of International Tourism at Dong-A University, 255, Gudeok-ro, Seo-gu, Busan 602-760, South Korea
h i g h l i g h t s
This study incorporates authenticity-related constructs into the model of goal-directed behavior.
The results implied that the extended MGB is an improvement over the MGB.
All antecedents of intention were found to be important constructs in our extended model.
This study provides an insightful understanding of the slow tourist decision-making process.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Despite the rapid growth in the slow tourism industry, research on slow tourists' behavior is rare. This
Received 24 October 2013 study develops an extended model of goal-directed behavior to more comprehensively explain the
Received in revised form formation of tourists' intentions to visit a slow tourism destination. Specifically, the extended model
22 February 2016
incorporates the critical constructs (i.e., perception of authenticity, knowledge, and information search
Accepted 5 July 2016
behavior) into the original model of goal-directed behavior (MGB). The results of an on-site survey
Available online 19 July 2016
(N ¼ 387) revealed that the model provides a satisfactory fit with the data and explains greater amounts
of variance in behavioral intention. Three authenticity-related variables formed positive and significant
Keywords:
Slow tourism
causal relationships with the constructs in the extended model of goal-directed behavior. All the con-
Perception of authenticity structs in the original MGB were significant predictors of both desire and intention. The theoretical and
Model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) practical implications of the findings are discussed.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction sustainability directions was the slow tourism, which applies the
“slow philosophy” from the slow food and slow city movements
The problems of global warming, environmental pollution and (Dickinson & Lumsdon, 2010; Heitmann, Robinson, & Povey, 2011).
significant socio-economic inequalities are forcing tourism com- Slow tourism refers to the form of tourism in which the tourists
panies and tourists to evaluate the impact from the tourism in- take their time on their journey and engage with people and places
dustry (Frey & George, 2010). As responses to these threats, tourism (Dickinson & Lumsdon, 2010; Gardner, 2009; Slow Travel.com,
researchers have made efforts to develop new alternative tourism 2013). This tourism form shares common ideas with the sustain-
paradigms to make the tourism industry sustainable (e.g., respon- able tourism paradigms (e.g., alternative tourism, eco-tourism, and
sible tourism, justice tourism, ethical tourism, eco-tourism, pro- responsible tourism). For instance, alternative tourism is consid-
poor tourism, volunteer tourism, peace tourism) (Ceballos- ered “developed from a reaction to the negative impacts of mass
Lascurain, 1991; Goodwin & Francis, 2003; Middleton, 1998; tourism” (Smith & Eadington, 1992, p.3). More specifically,
Weeden, 2001). responsible tourism is about “treating local people as people”
As such, one of the tourism industry's responses to the future “understanding the culture you are visiting” “respecting the people
who are hosting your visit” and “treading softly on the environ-
ment of your hosts” (Lea, 1993, p.708). Consistent with these forms
* Corresponding author. of tourism, the slow idea achieves sustainable development
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (B. Meng), [email protected] (K. Choi).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.07.003
0261-5177/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
398 B. Meng, K. Choi / Tourism Management 57 (2016) 397e410
through authentic experiences (e.g., deep engagement with un- depends on an individual's knowledge of certain fields and infor-
spoiled nature and places; slow activities in the form of training/ mation about specific products/services (Baloglu, 2001). Thus, both
education and community participation). As such, slow tourism knowledge of authentic activities and behavior associated with
and its related slow destinations focus on authentic experiences as searching for authenticity-related information are believed to be
well as the benefits that accrue to the localities (Timms & Conway, effective variables in the formation of authenticity perception.
2012). Thus, this study extended the MGB by incorporating three con-
Despite of the importance of slow tourism, little is known about structs (i.e., perception of authenticity, knowledge and information
how slow tourists behave. From the practical respective, compre- search behavior), which are expected to improve understanding of
hending and predicting slow tourists' behavior is important to tourists' intentions.
developing proper marketing strategies and increasing tourism The specific purposes of this study are the following: 1) to
market shares. To reach this goal, the factors influencing tourists' develop a model by inserting perceptions of authenticity, knowl-
decision-making processes can provide some clues. Among socio- edge and information search behavior into the original MGB (atti-
psychological theories, the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and tude, subjective norm, perceived behavior control, positive
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) are considered as a representa- anticipated emotion, negative anticipated emotion, frequency of
tive theories used in previous studies. The TRA suggests that an past behavior, desire and behavioral intention) in the context of
individual can make a rational decision and reasoned choice slow tourism and 2) to provide practical suggestions and strategies
depending upon the relationship between attitudes toward for tourism marketers and government agencies. This study helps
behavior, subjective norms, and actual behavior (Ajzen, 1985). This verify the context of slow tourism and provides an insightful un-
theory assumed that individuals' decisions are derived from the derstanding of the slow tourist decision-making process.
intensity of volitional efforts for the specific decisions (Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975). Unlike TRA which are solely dependent on volitional
2. Literature review
aspects of one's decision/behaviors, the TPB provides a well-
defined structure which explains human behaviors by adding the
2.1. Slow tourism and its authentic characteristics
concept of perceived behavior control (PBC) to the original ante-
cedents in the TRA (i.e., attitude and subjective norms) (Ajzen,
Although there is no clear definition of slow tourism, slow
1991). Although these theories, the TRA and the TPB, are often
tourism is believed by researchers as a new form of tourism
used to understand tourists' intentions, the limitations of these
(Dickinson & Lumsdon, 2010; Oh, Assaf, & Baloglu, 2016). Generally,
theories have also been noted. That is, they do not consider the
slow tourism is defined as traveling more slowly, taking in the
influence of past behavior, affective factors and motivational pro-
sights, and immersing oneself in the local landscape. Further,
cesses (Conner & Armitage, 1998; Leone, Perugini, & Ercolani,
“slowing” the pace of a holiday provides more opportunities to
1999). Thus, based on the conceptualization of the TRA and TPB,
interact and connect with local people and places on a deeper level
Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) proposed the Model of Goal-directed
(Dickinson & Lumsdon, 2010; Dickinson, Lumsdon, & Robbins,
Behavior (MGB) to enhance the capacity and address the limita-
2011). Actually, slow tourism is a concept modeled after the slow
tions of the TPB. They claimed that motivational, affective, and
food and slow city movements (Heitmann et al., 2011). Thus, slow
habitual processes should be considered during the decision-
tourism shares the “slow” concept with these movements:
making process. In terms of the motivational process, desire was
addressing the issue of time poverty by encouraging more thor-
suggested as an important variable in forming behavioral intention.
ough connections to local people, places and life (Gardner, 2009;
In terms of the affective factors, anticipated affective reaction to a
Heitmann et al., 2011; Slow Travel, 2013). The idea of “slow” de-
specific behavior is a significant determination that can reflect in-
rives from slow food in Italy in the 1970s. Local organizations
dividuals' emotions. Since anticipated emotion constructs repre-
taught visitors how to best enjoy their products and, having created
sent the motive of promoting a positive situation and avoiding a
a market for their products, set up a worldwide mail-order business
negative situation of affairs, two types of emotions, positive and
(Perini & Watson, 2001). From then on, this new business has
negative anticipated emotion, are believed to be the predictors of
begun to establish itself in the food industry, as mass-produced
desire. In terms of the habitual process, past behavior or behavior is
food gives way to a growing preference for seasonal, local and
considered as a critical variable influencing the decision-making
traditional products (Nosi & Zanni, 2004). By extending the slow
process (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). Therefore, the MGB in-
food movement's philosophy to all aspects of urban living, the slow
corporates desire, positive and negative anticipated emotions, and
city appeared and differentiated itself from other cities by broad-
past behaviors along with the original factors in the TPB. Moreover,
casting an anti-globalization message, promoting local food and
researchers have emphasized the necessity for a revision of existing
cultural differences, and fostering networks and transnational
socio-psychological theories to include new constructs that are
cooperation (Heitmann et al., 2011). Slow City Movement, a non-
considered critical in a certain context or that alter existing paths
governmental organization established in 1999 in Italy, has
among latent variables (Ajzen, 1991; Conner & Abraham, 2001; Oh
spread across 25 countries and has certified more than 100 cities
& Hsu, 2001).
worldwide (Cittaslow, 2013). These slow ideas reflected a social
Slow tourism activities provide more detailed and authentic
phenomenon caused by a modern society characterized by fast
experiences (Dickinson & Lumsdon, 2010). Hence, slow tourists are
living and people who are often over-scheduled, task-orientated,
in essence those who have a strong orientation towards a sense of
and stressed (Dickinson & Lumsdon, 2010). By traveling slow,
authenticity and an intention to participate in authentic activities
authentic experiences usually result in the sustainable develop-
(e.g., Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2011; Shen, Guo, & Wu, 2012). In other
ment. For instance, slow food requires the standards of eco-friendly
words, individuals whose perceptions of authentic activities are
products/services and slow modes of transportations are often low-
especially sensitive are potential customers of slow tourism. Thus,
carbon means of travel (Cohen, 2002; Dickinson et al., 2011).
tourists who seek out authentic touristic experiences provide
However, as Scott (2011) and Weaver (2011) have criticized the
important clues for understanding slow tourist decision-making
validity of sustainable tourism, slow tourism's contributions to the
processes. Furthermore, the formation of perceptions mainly
environment remain in doubt by scholars. For instance, in a slow
B. Meng, K. Choi / Tourism Management 57 (2016) 397e410 399
situation, tourists' personal benefit of travel may outweigh the imagery, expectations, beliefs, etc. (i.e., the constructivist
nebulous societal costs of climate change. If a large number of slow approach), and finally to the post-tourist's requirement for the
tourists fly to a destination and then rely on local public transport, experience of “hot” authenticity, which resides in a tourist's feel-
in the destination context, their holiday meets the low-carbon ings of being true to oneself (i.e., post-modernized approach)
criteria, but overall the carbon footprint remains high (Dickinson (Cohen, 2002; Wang, 1999). As such, the objectivist approach as-
& Lumsdon, 2010). Tourists would naturally like to choose a sumes that authenticity comes from the originality of a toured
convenient way (traveling by air) rather than a slow way. Addi- object, such as a site or tourism attraction; the constructivist
tionally, the slow tourism rejects homogenization and is usually approach refers to objects linked to identity and meaning (Cohen,
small-scaled. Yet this label of slow can attract people's attention, 1988). The post-modernized approach is associated with the
which may paradoxically ruin the slow atmosphere by over- concept of existential authenticity, which is defined as “an exis-
crowding with tourists (Heitmann et al., 2011; Knox, 2005). Still, tential state of being that is to be activated by tourism” (Wang,
although there are potent criticisms, this new tourism paradigm is 1999, p.359). It resides in the subject (i.e., the tourist) rather than
believed to be a growing market in the tourism industry (Dickinson in the toured object. Of these three approaches, the existential
& Lumsdon, 2010; Heitmann et al., 2011). approach to authenticity is most appropriate for understanding
According to evidence from several sources, essential elements contemporary tourists' experiences because in empirical studies,
in slow tourism include slow food (e.g., local food) (Hjalager & this construct has more explanatory power (Kim & Jamal, 2007;
Richards, 2002; Long, 2013; Parasecoli & Lima, 2012; Smith & Wang, 1999). Thus, this study employed the approach of existen-
Costello, 2009), slow transportation (e.g., local buses and trains) tial authenticity to measure slow tourism.
(Dickinson & Lumsdon, 2010) and slow places/cities (slow cities are
those smaller areas which highlight the succession of seasons, are
respectful of citizens' health, offer authenticity of products and 2.2. Model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) and its extended model
food, have a rich of fascinating craft traditions and valuable works,
and are characterized by spontaneity of religious rites. Such slow The MGB proposed by Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) has been
cities, respect traditions through the joy of a slow and quiet living, recognized by many researchers as a useful framework for under-
such as one can observe in Orvieto in Italy and Damyang in Korea) standing human intentions. The MGB is an extended model based
(Cittaslow, 2013; Mayer & Knox, 2006; Timms & Conway, 2012). on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Theory Reasoned
Specifically, food-related slow experiences are achieved through a Action (TRA). However, the MGB differs from previous models in
connection to cultural heritage by sharing aspects of production, three respects: 1) the intention to perform a behavior is primarily
preparation and consumption with slow tourists. In this manner, motivated by the desire to perform the behavior, and this desire is
the food is an expression of a specific community, and culinary assumed to reflect the effects of attitude, subjective norms,
heritage is composed not only of ingredients and dishes but also perceived behavioral control, and anticipated emotions; 2) antici-
bodily practices and living performances that define individuals pated emotions for a specific behavior can be imperative variables
and communities (Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis, & Cambourne, in a decision-making process; and 3) past behavior or habits are
2003). Some modes of transportation, such as local trains, local assumed to be a significant determinant of desire, intention and
buses, cycling, and walking, also enhance slow experiences. Tour- human behaviors (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001).
ists who use these modes experience a greater connection to the Specifically, the MGB identified antecedents toward a certain
outdoors and nature, and by removing them from their hectic behavior in the original TPB (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, and
schedule, tourists are able to rediscover a sense of self (Fallon, 2012; perceived behavioral control) that affect intention indirectly
Watts, 2008). In addition, slow tourism activities are connected to through desire (Leone, Perugini, & Ercolani, 2004; Perugini &
specific slow places (e.g., slow cities). There, slow tourists are Bagozzi, 2001). The role of desire as the major predictor of inten-
encouraged to relax and refresh their mind and body and interact tion mediates the attitude, the subjective norm, perceived behav-
with the local community (Dickinson et al., 2011; Timms & Conway, ioral control and anticipated emotions in the MGB (Bagozzi, 1992;
2012). Hunter, 2006; Leone et al., 1999). In the TPB, if positive attitudes
Due to the particular characteristics of slow tourism, slow are strong enough, they will influence intentions. However because
tourists can perceive high-authenticity experiences that are motivational content has been described as “someone intends to do
enjoyable in ways that “fast tourism” is not (Dickinson & Lumsdon, something only if he is motivated to do it” (Davis, 1986, p74), re-
2010). Thus, the perception of authenticity in slow activities is the searchers have believed that attitudes cannot activate intention
critical factor in tourists' decision-making process. Tourism without desire (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001; Taylor, Ishida, & Wallace,
authenticity was described as follows: tourist settings can be 2009). Second, anticipated affective reactions to the performance or
viewed as a continuum, with the fast and frontmost region being non-performance of a behavior are also important determinants of
the one most purposed for show and the backmost region being the intention (e.g., Conner & Armitage, 1998; Triandis, 1977). In an
one that is most authentic (MacCannell, 1976). From this definition, uncertain situation, people may have forward-looking emotions
slow tourism, which requires more time and deeper engagement, toward future behaviors (Gleicher et al., 1995). With other original
apparently shows more of the “backmost region” to tourists. In the variables of the TPB, both positive and negative emotions are
tourism-related literature, a considerable amount of attention has assumed to predict desire in that these emotions lead to the dy-
been given to measures of authenticity (e.g., Brown, 1996; Cohen, namic self-regulatory process implied by the appraisal of success or
1988; Wang, 1999). Generally, three approaches are exemplified: failure (Carver & Scheier, 1990). Finally, the influence of past
the objectivist approach, the constructivist approach and the post- behavior was found to have an effect on individual desire and
modernized approach (Wang, 1999). The three approaches reflect intention (e.g., Bagozzi & Warshaw, 1992; Bentler & Speckart, 1981;
the transition from the modern tourist's concern with the “cool” Fredricks & Dossett, 1983). Past behavior is regarded as a proxy of
authenticity which is associated with the originality of an object habits and is expected to influence both desire and intention
(i.e., the objectivist approach), then to the authenticity projected (Conner & Armitage, 1998). It was theorized and empirically shown
onto toured objects by tourists or tourism producers in terms of that past behavior influences desire and intention (Ouellette &
Wood, 1998; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001).
Researchers have emphasized the necessity for a revision of the 2.4. Hypothetical relationships
existing socio-psychological theories to include new constructs
that are considered critical in a certain context or that alter existing 2.4.1. Perception of authenticity, desire, knowledge and information
paths among latent variables (Ajzen, 1991; Conner & Abraham, search behavior
2001; Oh & Hsu, 2001). New variables introduced to the original Perceptions, formed by the individuals' attitudes, interests, and
model should be imperative factors that affect decision-making opinions acquired during their lives, are responses to the cognition
behaviors. This process was described by Bagozzi (1992) as the of objects, behavior and events (Oliver, 1997). Some empirical
broadening and deepening of a theory. In tourism-related contexts, studies supported the possible relationship between perception of
researchers have modified the MGB by incorporating some new authenticity and desire (e.g., Lin & Wang, 2012; Ramkissoon &
constructs (Han & Ryu, 2012; Lee, Song, Bendle, Kim, & Han, 2012; Uysal, 2011; Shen et al., 2012). Ramkissoon and Uysal (2011)
Song, Lee, Norman, & Han, 2012). For instance, Han and Ryu (2012) found that perceptions of authenticity play a critical role in
extended the MGB by incorporating important factors relating to altering tourists' cultural behavioral intentions. Lin and Wang
re-buying intentions and tested the new model in a full-service (2012) claimed that the authenticity perceived by tourists affects
restaurant setting. Lee et al. (2012) developed an extended MGB their souvenir-repurchasing intention. These studies demonstrated
to explore potential travelers' decision-making processes by that people who had a stronger orientation towards the sense of
introducing constructs of perception of influenza A H1N1 and non- authenticity and who perceived more authenticity in tourism ac-
pharmaceutical interventions when the risk during the 2009 H1N1 tivities have a greater intention to participate in authentic activ-
infection discouraged international travel. Song et al. (2012) ities. Because the role of desires in predicting intention can be
extended the MGB by incorporating the perception of gambling justified by the strong motivational content and explains how in-
strategy with respect to the behavioral intentions of casino visitors. tentions become energized (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001), those with a
In this regard, this study extended the original MGB by including more authenticity-conscious mind are more likely to choose slow
the perception of authenticity, knowledge, and information search tourism with a strong desire.
behavior into the slow tourists' intention-formation process. In addition, previous literature assumes that the formation of
certain perceptions or cognitions primarily depends on variables
2.3. Slow tourism and MGB such as an individual's knowledge about certain fields and the
extent to which the individual seeks out information about a spe-
In order to explore slow tourist behavior, our study chooses cific product or service (Baloglu, 1999; Oliver, 1997). Knowledge can
MGB as a framework for the following reasons. First, as stated be considered as the search for prior knowledge, which is formed
above, the MGB is an excellent model in explaining tourist behavior when the tourists acquire information and store it in their long-
compared to previous models. Although some socio-psychological term memory (Bettman, 1979; Ratchford, 2001). Meanwhile, in-
theories such as TRA and TPB were employed to examine tourist formation search behavior occurs when the internal search cannot
behavior, the MGB was empirically demonstrated to have more provide sufficient and adequate information and the consumers
explanatory power in predicting tourists' behaviors in various need to collect information from the external world (Bettman,
tourism and hospitality contexts including restaurants (e.g., Han & 1979). Knowledge and information search behavior are highly
Ryu, 2012) and tourism destination marketing (Lee et al., 2012; related constructs that apply to different consumers' situations
Song, You, Reisinger, Lee, & Lee, 2014). In particular, the MGB was (Engel, Blackwell, & Miniard, 1995; Hawkins, Best, & Coney, 2000).
also used to understand tourist behaviors in eco/sustainable Therefore, both prior knowledge of internal memory and infor-
tourism. These forms of tourism usually have elements in common mation from the external world can enable consumers to focus on
with slow tourism (e.g., environmentally friendly activities and particular product attributes (Brucks, 1985; Fodness & Murray,
green hotels) (Han & Yoon, 2015; Song et al., 2012). Thus, the MGB 1997). In this sense, the slow tourists who had prior knowledge
can be employed in our study as a useful model in examining slow of authentic activities and who are actively searching for informa-
tourist behaviors. Second, our study chose the MGB as the theo- tion about authentic tourism activities are more sensitive to the
retical background after considering the features of slow tourism. perceptions of authentic activities.
Slow tourism is an emerging concept with various sustainable/ Based on the literature, the following hypotheses are proposed:
green elements (e.g., interaction with local people, culture, and H1. Knowledge has a positive influence on the perception of
food; use of low-carbon modes of transportation, etc.) (Fallon, authenticity.
2012; Timms & Conway, 2012). Since slow tourism is much
different from mass tourism, slow tourists would experience some H2. Information search behavior has a positive influence on the
inconvenience. In this sense, slow tourists should have a certain perception of authenticity.
goal to achieve while traveling (Oh et al., 2016). Therefore, the MGB, H3. Perceptions of authenticity have a positive influence on
which is used to predict a goal behavior, is the optimal framework desire.
for examining slow tourists' behaviors. Third, as a new phenome-
non, slow tourism is inconvenient to the tourists who have already
gotten used to mass tourism. In other words, it is necessary for a 2.4.2. Attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and
slow tourist to overcome some difficulties to achieve such a trip. In desire
addition, since the green benefits are also found in slow tourism, An attitude toward a behavior refers to the degree to which an
keeping the rapid growth of slow tourism also helps the sustainable individual has a favorable/unfavorable evaluation of performing a
development of tourist destinations. As somewhat of a hard and specific behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Individuals tend to have a positive
green trip, prompting a continuous trip is important for the future attitude when the outcomes of a specific behavior are positively
development of slow tourism. Thus, tourists' past habits should be evaluated; thus, one is likely to have a strong attitude to perform
considered as a critical construct inducing tourists' continuous such a behavior (Ajzen, 1991). The desire to perform the act was
behavior. Therefore, the MGB, which indeed reflects frequency of added to strengthen the predictive power in explaining intention,
past behavior, is considered to be an ideal model for slow tourism. as it was the main motivational source to perform an action (Malle,
1999; Malle & Knobe, 1997). 1998; Carver & Scheier, 1990). Leone et al. (2004) stated that
A subjective norm is defined as a perceived social pressure to anticipated emotions affect behavioral desire because the
perform or not to perform a particular behavior (Ajzen, 1991). An emotional constructs represent the hedonic motive of promoting a
individual is likely to consider and comply with the opinions of positive situation of affairs and avoiding a negative situation of
other people when performing a specific behavior. The influences affairs. Therefore, two types of emotions, positive and negative
are usually from friends, family, and colleagues (Bearden & Etzel, anticipated emotions, are believed to be the predictors of desire
1982; Cheng, Lam, & Hsu, 2005). Similar to attitude, a subjective and intention.
norm would not directly influence an individual's behavioral In empirical studies, Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) showed that
intention. It indirectly affects the behavioral intention through two anticipated emotions have a critical role in forming desire. Kim
desire (Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001). et al. (2012) identified that both positive anticipated emotions and
Perceived behavior control is a non-volitional dimension that negative emotions significantly influence the international tourists'
refers to an individual confidence or ability to carry out a behavior. desires. A recent study by Chen (2013) investigated the airline
Many studies have verified it as an important factor forming passengers who participated in carbon offset plans, revealing that
intention, which affects the decision-making formation in the TPB positive anticipated emotions have a positive effect on desire. In the
(Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Madden, 1986; Conner & Abraham, 2001; studies about slow customers' behaviors, the study results
Taylor & Todd, 1995M). In general, the strength of an individual's demonstrated that slow tourists' anticipated emotions influence
intention to undertake a specific behavior is decided by whether their behaviors. For instance, in the study of green activities, Han
the person has sufficient resources or opportunities to perform that Hwang, and Woods (2014) found that green golfers' positive or
behavior (Ajzen & Madden, 1986; Ajzen, 1991). However, Lokhorst negative emotions significantly influence their desire. Additionally,
and Staats (2006) discovered that there might be some intention to Han and Yoon (2015) studied green consumerism in hotel cus-
perform the behavior even if attitudes and subjective norms are tomers (i.e., slow lodging) and revealed that both positive and
entirely neutral. As a result, it is assumed that perceived behavior negative anticipated emotions significantly influence the desire
control reinforces an individual's desire and actual behavior in the toward the behavior. Thus, based on the literature review, two
MGB (Carrus, Passafaro, & Bonnes, 2008; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001; anticipated emotions for a target behavior are hypothesized to
Prestwich, Perugini, & Hurling, 2008). significantly influence the individuals' desire-related target
By applying the MGB to tourism-related domains, growing behavior in slow tourism.
empirical evidence has revealed that attitudes, subjective norms
H7. Positive anticipated emotion has a positive influence on
and perceived behavioral control were significant variables in the
desire.
formation of desire (Han & Ryu, 2012; Kim, Lee, Lee, & Song, 2012;
Lee et al., 2012; Song et al., 2012). For instance, Lee et al. (2012) H8. Negative anticipated emotion has a positive influence on
proposed an extended MGB to understand tourist's decision- desire.
making processes under the condition of the 2009 H1N1 influ-
enza crisis and identified that attitudes and subjective norms affect
behavioral intention indirectly through desire. Han and Ryu (2012) 2.4.4. Frequency of past behavior, desire, and intention
extended MGB in the context of repurchase decision-making and Frequency of past behavior is usually considered to be a proxy of
proved that attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavior habit, and studies agree that if an individual performs a particular
control played a critical role in the formation of intention through behavior frequently and habitually, this behavior will enhance the
desire. Moreover, studies relating to slow elements also revealed individual's desire and behavioral intentions (Bagozzi & Warshaw,
the possible influential relationships existing between these factors 1992; Bentler & Speckart, 1981). Studies have demonstrated that
(i.e., attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavior control) desire is a strong predictor of intention (Bagozzi, 1992; Perugini &
and slow tourist behavior. Kuo and Dai (2012) investigated the low- Bagozzi, 2001). According to Bagozzi (1992), desire is a proximal
carbon tourism (i.e., the use of ecofriendly means of transport, cause of intention, while other variables in the MGB are distal
choosing environmentally certified hotels, preferring local food causes in which influence is mediated by desire.
and/or organic food), finding that tourists' attitude, subjective In the tourism and leisure contexts, a relationship among these
norms, perceived behavior control significantly influenced tourists three variables can be found in many empirical studies (Chen, 2013;
behaviors. Jeoushyan, Su, and So (2013) examined behaviors of food Han et al., 2014; Song et al., 2012). For instance, Chen (2013)
festival visitors (similar to slow food). Their study results indicated confirmed that desire is the most important determinant of pas-
that visitors' attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavior sengers' intention in carbon offset schemes. Han et al. (2014)
control behavioral intentions. In the study on green lodging, which investigated players' favorable/unfavorable attitudes toward
is very similar to slow accommodation, Han, Hsu, and Sheu (2011) screen golf. The results showed that their past behavior was a
suggested that attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavior powerful predictor of their intention to play screen golf. Moreover,
control positively affected the intention to stay in a green hotel. some studies further suggested the relationships among three
Therefore, based on the literature review, this study posits the variables in the context of tourism with slow elements. When Song
following hypotheses in the context of slow tourism: et al. (2012) examined the tourists' intention to participate in
H4. Attitudes have a positive influence on desire. environmental activities, which are a kind of slow activities, the
study results indicated that there are positive and causal relation-
H5. Subjective norms have a positive influence on desire. ships among past behavior, desire, and intention. As a kind of slow
H6. Perceived behavior control has a positive influence on desire. food tourism, Lee, Bruwerb, and Song (2015) investigated wine
tourists' decision-making processes using the MGB framework.
Their results revealed that desire had a positive influence on
behavioral intention. In addition, based on the literature review,
2.4.3. Anticipated emotions and desire
this study posits the following hypotheses:
Individuals usually consider the emotional consequence of both
achieving a goal and failing to achieve a goal (Bagozzi & Pieters, H9. Past behavior has a positive influence on desire.
Fig. 1. Conceptual model.
H10. Past behavior has a positive influence on intention. normally scan the information about authentic tourism activities”).
To assess the perception of authenticity, four items were developed,
H11. Desire has a positive influence on intention.
as suggested by previous research (Cho, 2012; Shen et al., 2012;
The proposed model is presented in Fig. 1. The model includes Wang, 1999) (e.g., “I like to be connected with local ways of life”).
the original variables in the MGB and new constructs (i.e., The original MGB was also modified to fit the context of slow
perception of authenticity, knowledge, and information search tourism. Specifically, tourists' attitudes related to slow tourism
behavior). were measured with seven items, as suggested by previous
research (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001) (e.g., “I think
3. Method that going for slow tourism is a positive”). By the same context, the
subjective norm was measured with five items, as suggested by
3.1. Measures for study variables previous research (Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001)
(e.g., “Most people who are important to me think it is okay for me
A list of measurement items was generated after an extensive to go for slow tourism”). Perceived behavior control was evaluated
review of research on human behavior, tourist behavior theories, with five items, as suggested by previous research (Ajzen, 1985,
and tourism authenticity (Ajzen & Madden, 1986; Ajzen, 1985, 1991; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001) (e.g., “Whether or not I travel for
1991; Bentler & Speckart, 1981; Lam & Hsu, 2004; Oh & Hsu, slow tourism is completely up to me”). Anticipated emotions were
2001; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001; Ramkissoon & Uysal, 2011; Shen operationalized with ten items (five items on positive emotion and
et al., 2012; Wang, 1999). The survey measurement items for each five items on negative emotion) (e.g., “If I succeed in achieving my
construct are shown in Table 1. To ensure the face validity of the goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel excited”; “If I fail in
constructs, four tourism scholars were invited to review and refine achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel unsatisfied”),
the items to reflect the contents of slow tourism. as suggested by previous research (Lee et al., 2012; Perugini &
Three newly added constructs, knowledge, information search Bagozzi, 2001, 2004). Lastly, desire was measured with four items
behavior, and perception of authenticity, were selected from the (e.g., “I want to travel by slow tourism in the near future”), and
literature. Four items were used to assess knowledge as suggested intention was measured by five items (e.g., I intend to travel by slow
by previous research (Bettman & Park, 1980; Park & Lessig, 1981; tourism in the near future), as suggested by previous research (Lee
Smith & Park, 1992) (e.g., “I feel very knowledgeable about et al., 2012; Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001, 2004). All items were
authentic tourism activities”), and three items were used to assess measured on a 7-point Likert-type scale (from 1 ¼ not at all,
information search behavior as suggested by previous research 7 ¼ very much) except frequency of past behavior. The frequency of
(Moorthy, Ratchford, & Talukdar, 1997) (e.g., “Before going a trip, I past behavior was assessed as a continuous variable, ranging from
Table 1
Measurement items, standardized loadings, Cronbach alpha and composite reliability.
Variables and measurement items Standardized Cronbach's Composite

loadings alpha reliability
Knowledge (KL)
I feel very knowledgeable about authentic tourism activities 0.914 0.964 0.930
If a friend asked me about authentic tourism activities, I could give them advice about different activities related to 0.941
authenticity in tourism
If I have to find authentic tourism activities, I would need to gather very little information in order to make a wise 0.942
decision
I feel very confident about my ability to tell the difference among different authentic activities 0.940
Information Search Behavior (ISB)
Before going a trip, I normally scan the information about authentic tourism activities 0.929 0.951 0.903
When choosing a trip, I normally use the information concerning its authenticity 0.981
I spend time seeking information about the authentic tourism activities 0.885
Perception of Authenticity (PA)
I like to be connected with local ways of life 0.924 0.939 0.898
I want to experience the unique life style and customs experience 0.926
I like the calm and peaceful atmosphere during the visit 0.846
I like the feeling of being myself meaningful during traveling 0.857
Attitude (AT)
I think that slow tourism is positive 0.932 0.971 0.965
I think that slow tourism is useful 0.930
I think that slow tourism is valuable 0.896
I think that slow tourism is benefit 0.883
I think that slow tourism is attractive 0.907
I think that slow tourism is enjoyable 0.902
I think that slow tourism is necessary 0.920
Subject Norm (SN)
Most people who are important to me think it is okay for me to go for slow tourism 0.907 0.974 0.966
Most people who are important to me support that I go for slow tourism 0.924
Most people who are important to me understand that I go for slow tourism 0.939
Most people who are important to me agree with me about going for slow tourism 0.971
Most people who are important to me recommend going for slow tourism 0.962
Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)
Whether or not I travel for slow tourism is completely up to me 0.902 0.843 0.924
I am capable of going for slow tourism 0.887
I am confidence that if I want, I can go for slow tourism 0.898
I have enough resource, time and opportunities to go for slow tourism 0.924
Positive Anticipated Emotion (PAE)
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel excited 0.912 0.970 0.962
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel glad 0.940
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel satisfied 0.949
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel happy 0.950
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel proud 0.903
Negative Anticipated Emotion (NAE)
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel unsatisfied 0.904 0.977 0.960
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel angry 0.929
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel disappointed 0.953
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel worried 0.978
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel sad 0.969
Desires (DE)
I want to travel by slow tourism in the near future 0.957 0.958 0.940
I wish to travel by slow tourism in the near future 0.969
I am eager to travel by slow tourism in the near future 0.895
My wish to travel by slow tourism in the near future can be described desirably 0.884
Behavioral Intention (BI)
I intend to travel by slow tourism in the near future 0.938 0.959 0.937
I am planning to travel by slow tourism in the near future 0.960
I will make an effort to travel by slow tourism in the near future 0.883
I will certainly invest time and money to travel by slow tourism in the near future 0.860
I am willing to travel by slow tourism in the near future 0.906
Note 1. Goodness-of-fit statistics: c2 ¼ 2552.144 (df ¼ 944, p < 0.001), RESEA ¼ 0.066, CFI ¼ 0.937; NFI ¼ 0.903.
1 ¼ never, 5 ¼ occasionally, 7 ¼ very many times (Perugini & sampling that perfectly represents the entire population is almost
Bagozzi, 2001). impossible) (e.g., Han, 2013; Song et al., 2012).
A brief description of slow tourism was first presented to the
3.2. Data collections and demographic profile respondents before they started. Moreover, the definition of slow
tourism was also included in the questionnaire. Survey participants
The survey was conducted using a nonprobability convenience traveling on Galmaet-gil (Seagull Road) in Busan were considered
sampling technique. This type of survey approach has been widely potential respondents. Seagull Road is a typical slow tourism
employed in consumer behavior and marketing, especially, when destination in South Korea where tourists can experience the
the entire population is too large (using an independent random uniqueness of oceanic culture. To achieve the goal of understanding
slow tourists' decision making process, respondents with slow correlations between the study constructs proposed in the model
tourism experiences were targeted. An on-site survey was con- were generally equal to or less than 0.75, indicating no high
ducted for Korean domestic visitors since they almost presented multicollinearity (Green, 1978).
the total visitors (Yonhap News, 2012). Only respondents who had Then, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to assess the
experiences with at least three slow activities or programs on measurement model and test data quality involving construct
Seagull Road (e.g., slow-walking-related activities; oceanic culture reliability and validity. Table 1 shows that the Cronbach's alpha
exhibitions; seafood experiential programs; and bird-watching values were above the cut-off point of 0.7, indicating an acceptable
programs) were invited to participate in the survey. The question- level of reliability for each construct (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994).
naires were completed in the presence of the field surveyors. Four The fit statistics of the measurement model indicated that the
well-trained surveyors randomly distributed 500 questionnaires to model fits the data well (c2 ¼ 2552.144, df ¼ 944, p < 0.001;
tourists at three main entrances/exits on Seagull Road. To obtain a RESEA ¼ 0.066, CFI ¼ 0.937; NFI ¼ 0.903). As shown in Table 1, the
representative sample, field surveyors distributed questionnaires composite reliability values, which evaluate the multi-item scales
on both weekdays and weekends from July 10 to July 20, 2013. used in this study, were between 0.898 and 0.966, exceeding the
Additionally, to ensure higher response and usable rates, minimum requirement of 0.600 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). This finding
completeness was checked on site. Finally, 412 questionnaires were indicated that the multi-item measures used in the present study
collected (a response rate of 82.4%). After excluding unusable re- are highly reliable. A construct validity test was conducted using
sponses and extreme multivariate outliers, 387 were used for factor loadings for each construct to determine the average vari-
analysis. ance extracted (AVE) and the correlation between constructs. As
SPSS 12 and AMOS 5 were used to analyze the data. According to shown in Table 2, convergent validity exists because all AVE values
the two-step approach by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), first, exceeded the suggested cut-off of 0.50 (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) with the maximum likelihood & Tatham, 2006). Discriminant validity was also tested. Fornell and
estimation method was used to estimate a measurement model, Larcker (1981) indicated that discriminant validity exists when the
and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was then used to test the proportion of variance extracted in each construct exceeds the
causal relationships. Descriptive information on the sample square of the coefficient representing its correlation with other
revealed that 47.5% of the tourists were male and 52.5% were fe- constructs. As show in Table 2, all AVE values were greater than the
male. The most frequently reported age groups of the respondents squared correlations between constructs, indicating an adequate
were 20e29 (35.7%) and 30e39 years (33.9%). Among respondents, level of discriminant validity.
approximately 51% reported that they were single and 49% stated When comparing MGB and EMGB (Table 3), Chi-square tests
that they were married. With a regard to education, most of the indicated that there was a significant difference between the two
respondents held a bachelor's or higher degree (77.5%). models, D c2 (450) ¼ 706.978, p < 0.001. The R2 for behavioral
intention in the MGB improved from 0.575 to 0.617 by including
perception of authenticity, knowledge and information search
4. Results behavior. Therefore, the EMGB performed better than the MGB at
explaining slow tourists' behavioral intentions.
4.1. Measurement model
To confirm if the data assumed multivariate normality, Mar- 4.2. Structural model results
dia's standardized coefficient was used. Since Mardia's standard-
ized coefficient for the measurement model was 42.92, which is As presented in Fig. 2, the results of SEM confirmed that the
higher than the criterion of 5, the data in the current study was proposed structural model fits the data well: c2 ¼ 2234.186,
deemed non-normally distributed (Byrne, 2006). Thus, boot- df ¼ 990, NFI ¼ 0.916, RMSEA ¼ 0.057. In terms of hypothesis
strapping was used to estimate structural equation modeling testing, hypotheses 1 and 2 posited that knowledge and informa-
(Nevitt & Hancock, 2001). Meanwhile, as in Table 2, the tion search behavior have a positive effect on the perception of
Table 2
Correlations among latent constructs (Squared correlation).
KL ISB PA AT SN PBC PAE NAE DE BI
KL 1.000
ISB 0.621 (0.385) 1.000
PA 0.525 (0.275) 0.516 (0.266) 1.000
AT 0.194 (0.037) 0.192 (0.036) 0.546 (0.298) 1.000
SN 0.168 (0.028) 0.147 (0.021) 0.383 (0.146) 0.636 (0.404) 1.000
PBC 0.072 (0.005) 0.042 (0.002) 0.363 (0.131) 0.553 (0.305) 0.534 (0.285) 1.000
PAE 0.162 (0.026) 0.210 (0.044) 0.473 (0.223) 0.656 (0.430) 0.613 (0.375) 0.522 (0.272) 1.000
NAE 0.212 (0.045) 0.141 (0.019) 0.034 (0.001) 0.112 (0.012) 0.611 (0.373) 0.043 (0.002) 0.179 (0.032) 1.000
DE 0.274 (0.075) 0.267 (0.071) 0.535 (0.286) 0.667 (0.444) 0.616 (0.379) 0.594 (0.352) 0.682 (0.465) 0.248 (0.061) 1.000
BI 0.334 (0.112) 0.304 (0.092) 0.475 (0.225) 0.553 (0.305) 0.525 (0.275) 0.595 (0.354) 0.582 (0.338) 0.240 (0.057) 0.751 (0.564) 1.000
AVE 0.769 0.757 0.688 0.797 0.853 0.752 0.837 0.827 0.798 0.748
Mean 3.347 3.803 4.958 5.471 5.353 5.175 5.252 3.479 5.086 4.611
SD 1.386 1.382 1.206 1.021 1.095 1.112 1.061 1.297 1.155 1.172
Note 1. The numbers in the parenthesis indicate squared correlation among latent constructs; all correlations are significant at p < 0.01.
Note 2. ISB ¼ Information Search Behavior; KL ¼ Knowledge; PA ¼ Perception of Authenticity; AT ¼ Attitude; SN ¼ Subjective Norm; PBC ¼ Perceived Behavioral Control;
PAE ¼ Positive Anticipated Emotion; NAE ¼ Negative Anticipated Emotion; DE ¼ Desire; BI¼ Behavioral Intention.
Note 3. AVE ¼ Average Variance Extracted.
Note 4. Frequency of Past Behavior (FPB) was not included in the measurement model since it was a single indicator. Mean and SD values for frequency of past behavior were
2.144 and 0.798.
Table 3
Comparison of MGB and EMGB.
c2 df CMIN/df NFI CFI RMSEA R2 for DE R2 for BI
MGB 1527.208 540 2.828 0.926 0.946 0.069 0.626 0.575

EMGB 2234.186 990 2.257 0.916 0.951 0.057 0.634 0.617
Suggested value <3.0 >0.90 >0.90 <0.08
Note1: DE ¼ desires; BI ¼ behavioral intention.
Fig. 2. Findings from structural equation model (N ¼ 387).
authenticity. Both predictor variables (bKL/ PA ¼ 0.271, t ¼ 4.631, Furthermore, all predictor variables were statistically significant
p < 0.01; bISB/ PA ¼ 0.294, t ¼ 5.109, p < 0.01) exerted a positive in predicting desire (DE) as follows: perception of authenticity
influence on the perception of authenticity. Thus, H1 and H2 were (bPA/ DE ¼ 0.087, t ¼ 2.015, p < 0.05), attitude (bAT/ DE ¼ 0.180,
supported. t ¼ 2.535, p < 0.05), subject norm (bSN/ DE ¼ 0.160, t ¼ 2.606,
Table 4
Results of the structural model.
Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect
PA DE BI PA DE BI PA DE BI
KL 0.271** e e 0.024* 0.014* 0.271** 0.024* 0.014*

ISB 0.294** e e e 0.026* 0.015* 0.294** 0.026* 0.015*
PA e e e e e 0.050* e 0.087* 0.050*
AT e 0.987* e e e 0.104* e 0.180* 0.104*
NB e 0.180* e e e 0.092* e 0.160* 0.092*
PBC e 0.160* e e e 0.125* e 0.217** 0.125*
PAE e 0.217** e e e 0.112* e 0.195* 0.112*
NAE e 0.195* e e e 0.070* e 0.121* 0.070*
FPB e 0.121* 0.953** e e 0.307* e 0.531* 1.260**
DE e 0.531* 0.577* e e e e e 0.577*
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

p < 0.05), perceived behavioral control (bPBC/ DE ¼ 0.217, t ¼ 3.807, theories to include new constructs, some criteria should be met
p < 0.01), positive anticipated emotion (bPAE/ DE ¼ 0.195, t ¼ 2.805, first: the proposed variables are behavior-specific and comply
p < 0.05), negative anticipated emotion (bNAE/ DE ¼ 0.121, t ¼ 2.688, with the principle of compatibility; the factors are conceptually
p < 0.05), and frequency of past behavior (bFPB/ DE ¼ 0.531, independent of existing constructs of the original model; and the
t ¼ 2.007, p < 0.05); thus, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8, and H9 were newly added constructs are considered casual factors that deter-
supported. Overall, seven constructs (i.e., PA, AT, SN. PBC, PAE, NAE, mine decisions (Ajzen, 1991; Conner & Abraham, 2001; Oh & Hsu,
and FPB) played an essential role in explaining the formation of the 2001). In this study, added constructs (i.e., perception of authen-
tourists' desire for slow tourism. In addition, desire (bDE/ ticity; knowledge; information search behavior) apparently met
BI ¼ 0.577, t ¼ 3.135, p < 0.05) and frequency of past behavior these criteria and theoretically contribute to improve the under-
(bFPB / BI ¼ 0.953, t ¼ 3.373, p < 0.01) served as important ante- standing of the complicated process of slow tourist decision-
cedents in predicting the tourists' behavioral intention for slow making.
tourism. Moreover, perception of authenticity was a significant and Second, according to previous research on the possible re-
direct predictor of desire, which in turn indirectly influenced lationships among perception of authenticity, desire and intention,
behavioral intention. This finding reveals that tourists' perception the perception of authenticity in slow tourism was proven to be a
of authenticity can influence their desire along with the anteced- significant predictor in determining desire and behavioral inten-
ents that have been tested in the MGB. tion. This finding suggests that a tourist's awareness and under-
To show all changes in dependent variables as one-unit changes standing of authenticity in tourism can prompt him or her to
in an independent variable, the total effect on each dependent participate in various forms of slow activities. Thus, tourists who
variable was examined in this study. As shown in Table 4, FPB, with preferred authentic activities can be targeted as potential slow
the largest total impact (1.260), is the most powerful antecedent in tourism customers. Furthermore, the results also demonstrated
predicting BI, followed by desire (0.577), perceived behavioral that both knowledge and information search behavior have sig-
control (0.125), positive anticipated emotion (0.112), attitude nificant influence on the perception of authenticity. This result
(0.104), subjective norm (0.092), negative anticipated emotion provided us with clues regarding how to increase an individual's
(0.070), perception of authenticity (0.050), information search perception of authenticity.
behavior (0.015), and knowledge (0.014). Third, as the results indicated, all antecedents of desire in the
original MGB were found to be important constructs in our
5. Discussion extended model. Many previous studies have emphasized the sig-
nificance of these variables (e.g., Han & Ryu, 2012; Han et al., 2014;
Little research has focused on slow tourists' decision-making Kim et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2012). This study agrees with other
processes. The current study aims to provide a deeper under- studies in the literature. Hence, slow destination operators should
standing of slow tourists' behavioral intention by incorporating actively develop and execute various marketing strategies to in-
three critical constructs, knowledge, information search behavior, crease attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavior control, and
and perception of authenticity, into the original MGB. The effects positive and negative emotions.
of knowledge, information search behavior, and perception of Fourth, our results indicated that the frequency of past behavior
authenticity in the EMGB were supported by the model's had the greatest total impact on behavioral intention. In previous
increased power in predicting slow tourists' intention. In terms of studies employing the MGB (e.g., Perugini & Bagozzi, 2001; Song
hypothesis testing, the study results revealed a satisfactory fit for et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2009), desire was one of the predomi-
the data, and all 11 hypotheses in the study model were sup- nant variables explaining tourists' decision-making processes.
ported. Specifically, the findings indicated that FPB and DE were However, in a slow tourism context, FPB plays a major role in
found to be the most important constructs for the intention for- explaining intention formation. In other words, slow tourists'
mation. It is noteworthy that the relative importance of DE and decision-making processes differ from decision-making in other
FPB was not consistent with previous studies, which reported tourism-related settings. This finding is consistent with Han and
that desire was the most significant construct in predicting Ryu (2012) study concerning restaurant customers' re-buying de-
behavioral intention (e.g., Bagozzi & Dholakia, 2006; Taylor, cision-making behavior. In their study, the frequency of past
2007). However, it is possible that antecedent variables in the behavior had a greater role in intention than the original key var-
model differed based on the context (Song et al., 2011). Perceived iables in MGB.
behavior control, negative anticipated emotion and subjective
norms were found to be more important determinants to desire, 5.2. Managerial implications
while other constructs, such as attitude and positive anticipated
emotion, are less critical variables to desire. Overall, the study From a practical perspective, the marketing focus of businesses
achieved all its objectives. should create and strengthen their reputations of offering an
authentic tourism experience, through building various manage-
5.1. Theoretical implications ment strategies. A strong reputation of providing an authentic and
detailed tourism experience can be used as a precious treasure for
The current study has some theoretical implications. First, the every slow tourism destination. Therefore, advertising the detailed,
prediction of slow tourists' behavioral intention towards slow leisurely features of slow tourism products to the public will in-
tourism in the extended MGB is well supported. The results of the crease slow-orientated behaviors in tourists' day-to-day lives, and
comparison between the two models implied that the original eventually enhance their decisions to purchase slow tourism
MGB is insufficient for understanding tourists' behavioral inten- products. In addition, improving, in general, tourists' authentic
tion in the slow tourism context, while the EMGB is an improve- awareness and perceptions is one of the critical approaches to
ment over the MGB. This process was described by Bagozzi (1992) encouraging more slow-tourism purchasing decisions. By doing so,
as the broadening and deepening of a theory. Researchers the segment of customers attracted to the slow tourism market is
emphasized that for a revision of the existing socio-physiological expected to increase to a larger share hold.
Second, since both knowledge and information search behavior reasonable prices of slow tourism products would reduce monetary
contribute to the formation of authenticity, an emphasis should be barriers. Slow products were generally labeled as a high-quality,
place upon how to increase the knowledge of authentic activities however, high-price image. Showing a clear and reasonable price
(e.g., how to eat slow food; and how to participate in slow walking). to tourists would make them estimate the costs, and clear out the
Thus, using various resources, supporting the tourists as they learn psychological pressure of the expenditure.
new approaches about enjoying slow products, by providing them In addition, managers could help tourists stimulate their
with educational materials, for instance, will contribute to helping emotional experiences with proper marketing strategies, such as
them increase their knowledge. In addition, the establishment of a sending free photos to reinforce their happy memories of slow
membership system could be introduced to increase the level of trips. In general, transforming intangible emotions into tangible
individuals' knowledge. Through the membership system, regular things would be an effective approach. For example, the souvenir
educational courses, as well as slow events (e.g., a slow walking with travelers' names on it can be presented to recall their “slow”
competition) should be carried out to spread awareness of slow ac- memories. A refrigerator magnet made with 100% recycled mate-
tivities. Moreover, making slow destination information available on rials that remind the visitor of their trip and other slow charac-
the map application in a smartphone would also alert tourists that teristics can be also developed as a decent marketing strategy that
slow products exist around them. Because information search supports authenticity without being gimmicky.
behavior is also very important to the perception of authenticity, Finally, the study result from FPB indicated that tourists who
information should be provided through some important channels have had favorable experiences at a specific slow tourism desti-
(e.g., internet; word-of-mouth). Therefore, effective ways to improve nation on a number of visits are more willing to go to other slow
the slow reputation would be carried out through: managing social tourism destinations. For those marketing slow tourism, the
media: tracking and monitoring the reputation of slow tourism development of effective strategies for slow activities is necessary
products; being an active social media participant; and advertising to improve tourists' favorable experiences.
the characteristics of slow practices to raise awareness. In addition,
positive word-of-mouth is a critical factor in forming the perception 5.3. Limitations and suggestions for future research
of authenticity, and thus, favorable slow tourists can be used as
message senders to the people around them. A reward system could This study has some limitations. First, the data were collected
be built up to stimulate these tourists to bring more newcomers. at slow destinations in a single metropolitan city. Therefore, the
Third, the significant influence from attitude revealed that an findings may not be generalized to all types of slow tourism ac-
excellent slow experience should be offered by enhancing signif- tivities. Future research is needed to test the applicability of the
icant slow tourism attributes (the good feeling of rest; deep theoretical framework in other slow tourism segments. Addi-
engagement in local culture and nature; and enjoying high- tionally, as various elements (e.g., food, accommodation and
quality, unique slow food). By surveying the slow tourists' expe- transportation etc.) exist in slow tourism, unique research on
riences (e.g., their favorite slow food items; favorite slow activ- different slow sectors should be carried out. Identifying the at-
ities; length of staying in slow destinations; number of tributes of slow tourism and examining the variables, such as
companions, etc.), clues can be unearthed to develop new, slow attitude and satisfaction, of these slow attributes will help us
activities for slow destination managers. Consequently, a more understand the roles of slow sectors in the choosing of slow
appropriate slow program can be developed to the corresponding tourism. Second, cultural differences should be examined. Future
tourism market. More importantly, quality improvement pro- studies should use a sample population that more adequately
grams should be introduced to keep “continuous excellence” in represents other cultural backgrounds. Third, future research
slow experiences. Quality strategies, such as benchmarking by should also ask non - visitors why they do not visit slow desti-
learning from other excellent slow destinations and establishing nations or do not prefer the way of slow tourism. Looking at
quality standards (e.g., ISO9000 standard), can prompt the consumer behavior in comparison helps turning non-visitors into
achievement of excellent quality in the slow experience. This will visitors. Finally, future research may include some other con-
ultimately garner positive attitudes in individuals who will structs not considered in the current model when explaining slow
participate in slow activities again. tourists' intention-formation process. For example, environmen-
Fourth, the study result of the significant influence by subjective tally friendly tourism behaviors may help in the understanding of
norm implied that salient referents (i.e., family, relatives, friends, the decision-making processes involved when slow tourists
colleagues, and co-workers) should be located to develop favorable participate in nature-based slow activities. In addition, the gap
perceptions towards slow tourism. Presenting the benefits of slow between tourists' awareness and actual behaviors should be
tourism (e.g., places of interest, the enjoyment of discovery, examined. The current study contributes to the line of research on
learning, and sharing, and a calm and peaceful atmosphere) to the the extension of the MGB. Although the MGB and its extended
public may improve such referents' favorable perceptions of slow versions have been used widely in the tourism literature, (e.g.,
tourism. As the Internet continues to grow as an effective market- Han & Ryu, 2012; Song et al., 2012), little is know about its
ing tool, positive outcome beliefs by communicating with these implication to slow tourism. Taking the perception of authenticity,
referents through various SNS (social networking service) websites knowledge and information-search behaviors together with the
would contribute to enhancing the positive perception of the slow MGB, the current research indicated that added constructs along
tourism movement. By doing so, these referents would generate with the original MGB are apparently useful in explaining slow
supportive actions towards slow tourism. In addition, inviting tourists' decision-making processes. Therefore, our research adds
important referents for a free trip to tourism destinations may also to a growing body of research examining the extended MGB and
increase their perception of slow benefits. significantly improves our understanding of intention formation
Fifth, because perceived behavior control has a stronger direct in the slow tourism context.
effect among antecedents of desire, it is essential to reduce the
possible effect of barriers (e.g., the distance of a slow destination for Acknowledgements
a one-day trip or unclear guidance that fails to explain a destination
or how to get there). Destination managers could also run free This work was supported by the Dong-A University research
shuttle buses to reduce the barriers in transportation. Investigating fund.
Appendix
Knowledge (KL) Mean S.D. Skew Kurtosis
I feel very knowledgeable about authentic tourism activities 3.392 1.425 0.142 0.260
If a friend asked me about authentic tourism activities, I could give them advice about different activities related to authenticity in tourism 3.276 1.509 0.345 0.365
If I have to find authentic tourism activities, I would need to gather very little information in order to make a wise decision 3.397 1.418 0.230 0.286
I feel very confident about my ability to tell the difference among different authentic activities 3.323 1.477 0.264 0.360
Information Search Behavior (ISB)
Before going a trip, I normally scan the information about authentic tourism activities 3.845 1.425 0.070 0.390
When choosing a trip, I normally use the information concerning its authenticity 3.829 1.427 0.170 0.498
I spend time seeking information about the authentic tourism activities 3.736 1.493 0.048 0.597
Perception of Authenticity (PA)
I like to be connected with local ways of life 4.821 1.298 0.315 0.134
I want to experience the unique life style and customs experience 4.857 1.316 0.345 0.058
I like the calm and peaceful atmosphere during the visit 5.090 1.299 0.546 0.329
I like the feeling of being myself meaningful during traveling 5.062 1.308 0.443 0.047
Attitude (AT)
I think that slow tourism is positive 5.503 1.113 0.355 0.030
I think that slow tourism is useful 5.447 1.079 0.415 0.364
I think that slow tourism is valuable 5.459 1.119 0.511 0.244
I think that slow tourism is benefit 5.219 1.117 0.196 0.158
I think that slow tourism is attractive 5.608 1.119 0.533 0.014
I think that slow tourism is enjoyable 5.527 1.089 0.462 0.319
I think that slow tourism is necessary 5.534 1.101 0.533 0.247
Subject Norm (SN)
Most people who are important to me think it is okay for me to go for slow tourism 5.361 1.144 0.364 0.030
Most people who are important to me support that I go for slow tourism 5.382 1.147 0.390 0.364
Most people who are important to me understand that I go for slow tourism 5.444 1.116 0.185 0.244
Most people who are important to me agree with me about going for slow tourism 5.224 1.135 0.223 0.158
Most people who are important to me recommend going for slow tourism 5.299 1.203 0.459 0.014
Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)
Whether or not I travel for slow tourism is completely up to me 5.299 1.177 0.389 0.075
I am capable of going for slow tourism 5.049 1.219 0.292 0.203
I am confidence that if I want, I can go for slow tourism 5.258 1.242 0.378 0.101
I have enough resource, time and opportunities to go for slow tourism 5.064 1.146 0.355 0.225
Positive Anticipated Emotion (PAE)
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel excited 5.054 1.098 0.034 0.077
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel glad 5.235 1.116 0.194 0.069
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel satisfied 5.377 1.111 0.274 0.109
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel happy 5.359 1.139 0.431 0.263
If I succeed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel proud 5.235 1.151 0.223 0.068
Negative Anticipated Emotion (NAE)
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel unsatisfied 3.775 1.328 0.103 0.103
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel angry 3.333 1.340 0.146 0.146
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel disappointed 3.509 1.347 0.019 0.019
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel worried 3.379 1.372 0.029 0.029
If I failed in achieving my goal (going for slow tourism), I will feel sad 3.400 1.385 0.045 0.045
Desires (DE)
I want to travel by slow tourism in the near future 5.191 1.158 0.177 0.021
I wish to travel by slow tourism in the near future 5.173 1.210 0.248 0.149
I am eager to travel by slow tourism in the near future 5.111 1.273 0.270 0.136
My wish to travel by slow tourism in the near future can be described desirably 4.870 1.253 0.142 0.124
Behavioral Intention (BI)
I intend to travel by slow tourism in the near future 4.684 1.254 0.255 0.158
I am planning to travel by slow tourism in the near future 4.563 1.229 0.188 0.143
I will make an effort to travel by slow tourism in the near future 4.726 1.214 0.204 0.273
I will certainly invest time and money to travel by slow tourism in the near future 4.418 1.349 0.031 0.214
I am willing to travel by slow tourism in the near future 4.664 1.236 0.170 0.140
Frequency of Past Behavior (FPB)
How many times have you traveled for a slow tourism in the past 12 months 2.144 0.798 0.020 0.941
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Tourism Management 57 (2016) 397e410

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

The role of authenticity in forming slow tourists' intentions:

Fig. 1. Conceptual model.

Variables and measurement items Standardized Cronbach's Composite

KL ISB PA AT SN PBC PAE NAE DE BI

c2 df CMIN/df NFI CFI RMSEA R2 for DE R2 for BI

MGB 1527.208 540 2.828 0.926 0.946 0.069 0.626 0.575

Note1: DE ¼ desires; BI ¼ behavioral intention.

Fig. 2. Findings from structural equation model (N ¼ 387).

Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect

KL 0.271** e e 0.024* 0.014* 0.271** 0.024* 0.014*

p < .05, p < .01, p < .001.

Knowledge (KL) Mean S.D. Skew Kurtosis

intentions, and perceived behavioral control. Journal of Experimental Social

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