Electrical Engineering

Principles & Applications

Chapter 4
Steady-State Sinusoidal
Analysis

Slide 1
 Outline

1. Identify the frequency, angular frequency,

peak value, RMS value, and phase of a
sinusoidal signal

2. Solve steady-state AC circuits using phasors

and complex impedances

Slide 2
 Importance of Sinusoidal Sources
• Appear in many practical applications
– Electric power is distributed by sinusoidal currents and voltages
– Sinusoidal signals are used widely in radio communications

• Any signal can be represented by a sum of sinusoidal

components (Fourier Analysis)

• Sinusoids have good mathematical properties

– Derivative is a sinusoid
– Integral is a sinusoid

Sinusoidal Steady-State
• Whenever the forced input to the circuit is sinusoidal the
response will be sinusoidal
• If the input persists, the response will persist and we call
it steady-state response
Slide 3
 Sinusoidal Currents or Voltages

Slide 4
 Sinusoidal Currents and Voltages
v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ )
Vm is the peak value

is the angular frequency in radians per second

is the phase angle

1
T is the period , where f = is the frequency
T
2π
ω = is the angular frequency, where: ω = 2πf
T

sin (z ) = cos z − 90 ( o
)
Slide 5
Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values of a Sinusoid
T T
V rms =
1
∫ v 2
(t ) dt I rms =
1
∫ i 2
(t ) dt
T 0
T 0
2
V
= rms
P avg
R Pavg = I rms
2
R
Note: for DC sources, the power is V2/R = I2R

The RMS value for a sinusoid is the peak value

divided by the square root of 2
Vm
V rms =
2
This is NOT true for other periodic waveforms such as
square waves or triangular waves
Slide 6
 Voltage Applied to Resistors
Voltage applied to a 50- resistance

Voltage 2
Vrms
Pavg =
R
(100 / 2 ) 2
= = 100W
50

Power
v 2 (t )
p(t ) =
R
= 200 cos (100πt ) W
2

Slide 7
 Real and Complex Signals
A complex number is given by:

Z = x + jy Rectangular form

Real part Imaginary part

−1
It can also be represented by a POINT in the complex Plane

Note that Z can be written as : | Z | ∠θ

Polar form y
Complex conjugate of z is: x
z* = x - jy
Slide 8
 Phasor Definition
Phasors are complex numbers that can be used to represent sinusoidal
signals

The magnitude of the phasor = Peak value

Angle of the phasor = phase of the sinusoid (written as a cosine)

Consider v1 (t ) = V1 cos(ωt + θ1 ) and i1(t ) = I1 sin(ωt +θ2 )

The phasor is V1 = V1∠θ1 The phasor is I1 = I1∠θ 2 − 90

The steady state analysis of sinusoidal signals is easily done

if signals are represented as phasors (vectors)

Slide 9
 Complex Numbers

z = x + jy Rectangular form

Real part
Imaginary part
−1

A complex number can be represented as a point in the complex Plane

Imaginary
Complex conjugate of z is:
y z
z* = x - jy
Real
x
Slide 10
 Complex Numbers in Polar Form
• Represent the complex number by the length of the
arrow and the angle between the arrow and the
positive real axis
• We write complex numbers in polar form as:
z = z ∠θ
= x 2 + y 2 ==> z = x2 + y2
2
z Imaginary
y y
tan θ = or θ = tan −1

x x
1 y
Polar to Rectangular: θ
x = z cos θ Real
x
y = z sin θ
jθ
In exponential form: =| Z | e
Slide 11
 Euler’s Identities
e jθ = 1∠θ = cos θ + j sin θ
Think of it as a complex variable in polar form

e − jθ = 1∠ − θ = cos θ − j sin θ Imaginary

e jθ = cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1

jθ − jθ e jθ + e − jθ 1 y
e +e = 2 cos θ  → cos θ = θ
2
x Real
e jθ − e − jθ
e jθ − e − jθ = j 2 sin θ 
→ sin θ =
2j
cos(θ ) = Re (e jθ ) = Re[cosθ + j sin θ ]
Real part of

jθ
Ae = A∠θ Exponential form of a complex number
Slide 12
 Complex Arithmetic
Let z1 = 5 + j 5, and Division

z2 = 3 − j 4 z1
=
5 + j5 z 2*
× *
z2 3 − j4 z2
5 + j5 3 + j4
z1 + z2 = (5 + j 5) + (3 − j 4) = 8 + j1 = ×
3 − j4 3 + j4
z1 − z2 = (5 + j 5) − (3 − j 4) = 2 + j 9 15 + j 20 + j 15 + j 2 20
=
9 + j 12 − j 12 − j 2 16
Multiplication
15 + j 20 + j 15 − 20
=
z1 z 2 = (5 + j 5)(3 − j 4) 9 + j 12 − j 12 + 16
− 5 + j 35
= 15 − j 20 + j15 − j 2 20 =
25
= 15 − j 20 + j15 + 20 = −
5
+ j
35
25 25
= 35 − j 5 = 0 . 2 + j1 . 4
Slide 13
 Examples
z 3 = − 10 + j 5
Phasor
Rectangular
−1 5
z1 = 5∠30o
z3 = (10 ) + ( 5 ) ∠ tan
2 2
( )
− 10
z1 = 5 cos(30o ) + j 5 sin(30 o ) = 11 . 18 ∠ − 26 . 57 o
= 4.33 + j 2.5 = x + jy
Wrong angle since real part
is negative; the true angle is:
Rectangular
Phasor θ = tan−1( y / x) ±180o
z2 =10+ j5 = −26.57 +180=153.43o
5 −1 Be careful when using your calculator
z2 = (10) + (5) ∠tan ( )
2 2
10
z3 z2
=11.18∠26.57o 5 153.43
5

26.57
-10 10

Slide 14
 Forms of a Complex Number

z2 = 10 + j5 Rectangular form

5 −1
z2 = (10) + (5) ∠ tan ( )
2 2
10
= 11.18∠26.57o Polar form

j 26.57o
= 11.18e Exponential form
Important Note:
1∠90o = cos 90 + j sin 90 = j

Slide 15
 Arithmetic Operations in Polar and Complex
Form
• To add or subtract two numbers you must
convert them to rectangular first and then do
the operation
• To multiply two complex numbers in polar form

z1 z 2 = z1 ∠ θ1 × z 2 ∠ θ 2
= z1 z2 ∠ (θ1 + θ 2 )

• To multiply two numbers in exponential form

z1 z 2 = z1 e jθ1 × z 2 e jθ 2
= z1 z 2 e j (θ1 +θ 2 )
Slide 16
 Division in Polar and Complex Form

• To divide two complex numbers in polar form

z1 z1 ∠ θ 1
=
z2 z2 ∠θ 2
z1
= ∠ (θ 1 − θ 2 )
z2

• To divide two numbers in exponential form

jθ 1
z1 z e
= 1

z2 z 2 e jθ 2
z1 j (θ 1 − θ 2 )
= e
z2

Slide 17
 Adding Sinusoids Using Phasors

Step 1: Determine the phasor for each term

Step 2: Add the phasors using complex arithmetic

Step 3: Convert the sum to polar form

Step 4: Write the result as a time function

Slide 18
 Using Phasors to Add Sinusoids

v1 (t ) = 20 cos(ωt − 45o ) V1 = 20∠ − 45 o

(
v2 (t ) = 10 sin ωt + 60 o
) V 2 = 10 ∠ − 30 o
V s = V1 + V 2
= 20 ∠ − 45 o + 10 ∠ − 30 o
= 14 . 14 − j14 . 14 + 8 . 660 − j 5
= 23 . 06 − j19 . 14
= 29 . 97 ∠ − 39 . 7 o

(
v s (t ) = 29 . 97 cos ω t − 39 . 7 o
)
Slide 19
 Phase Relationships
• To determine phase relationships from a phasor diagram,
consider the phasors to rotate counterclockwise. Then
when standing at a fixed point, if V1 arrives first followed
by V2 after a rotation of , we say that V1 leads V2 by .
Alternatively, we could say that V2 lags V1 by . (Usually,
we take as the smaller angle between the two phasors)

• To determine phase relationships between sinusoids from

their plots versus time:
– Find the shortest time interval tp between positive peaks of the
two waveforms.
– Then, the phase angle is:
= (tp/T ) × 360°
• If the peak of v1(t) occurs first, we say that v1(t) leads v2(t)
or that v2(t) lags v1(t)
Slide 20
 Phase Relationships

Slide 21
 Phase Relationships

Slide 22
 Complex Impedances: Inductances

iL = I m sin(ωt + θ ) IL = Im∠θ − 90 o

diL
vL = L
dt
= ωLIm cos(ωt + θ ) VL = ωLI m ∠θ = Vm ∠θ
Current through the inductor lags the voltage by 90o
V L = ω LI m ∠ θ ∠ ( 90 o − 90 o )
= ω L ∠ 90 o I m ∠ (θ − 90 o )
= ω L I L ∠ 90 o ZL = j L is called the impedance of
the inductor (measured in ohms)
= jω L I L
VL = Z LIL Ohm’s law in phasor form
Slide 23
 Complex Impedances: Inductances

In a pure inductance, current lags voltage by 90o

Slide 24
 Complex Impedances: Capacitance
Current through the capacitor leads the voltage by 90o

VC = Z C I C Ohm’s law in phasor form

1 1 1
Z = − j = = ∠ − 90 o
C
ωC jω C ωC

In a pure capacitance, current leads voltage by 90o

Slide 25
 Complex Impedances: Resistance

VR = RI R ZR = R

In a pure resistor, current & voltage are in phase

Capacitance Resistor
Inductance

The impedances that are pure imaginary are called reactance

Slide 26
 Complex Impedances

Z = R + jX

Slide 27
 Kirchhoff’s Laws in Phasor Form

We can apply KVL & KCL directly to phasors:

• KVL
The sum of the phasor voltages equals zero

for any closed path

• KCL
The sum of the phasor currents entering a

node must equal the sum of the phasor currents
leaving the node

Slide 28
Circuit Analysis Using Phasors and Impedances
1. Replace the time descriptions of the voltage and
current sources with the corresponding phasors. (All of
the sources must have the same frequency)

2. Express components by their complex impedances:

Replace inductances by their complex impedances
ZL = j L
Replace capacitances by their complex impedances
ZC = 1/(j C)
Resistances have impedances equal to their resistances
ZR = R
1. Analyze the circuit using any of the techniques studied earlier
in Chapter 2, performing the calculations with complex
arithmetic
Slide 29
 Example
In the circuit shown, find steady-state current, phasor voltages and
construct a phasor diagram

Vs = 100 ∠30 o
Z L = jω L = j 500 × 0.3 = j150 Ω
1 1
ZC = − j =−j = − j 50 Ω
ωC 500 × 40 × 10 −6

Z eq = 100 + j150 − j 50 = 100 + j100 = 141 .4∠ 45 o

Vs 100 ∠30 o
I= = = 0 . 707 ∠ − 15 o
Z eq 141 .4∠ 45 o Inductive Circuit
i (t ) = 0.707 cos( 500 t − 15 o )
Slide 30
 Example (cont.)

VR = RI = 100 × 0.707∠ − 15o = 70.7∠ − 15o

VL = jωLI = j150 × 0.707∠ − 15o = 106.1∠75o
1
VC = − j I = − j 50 × 0.707∠ − 15o = 35.4∠ − 105o
ωC

Since current drawn from the supply

lags voltage  inductive circuit
Slide 31
 Example
Find the voltage vc(t) in steady state

ZRC
Vc = Vs
ZL + RRC Z =
1
=
RC
1/ R +1/Z
70.71∠ − 45o
c

= 10∠ − 90 o
= 1
0 . 01 + j 0 . 01
j100+ 50− j50 1
=
70.71∠ − 45o
0 . 1414 ∠ 45 o
= 10∠ − 90o = 70 . 71 ∠ − 45 o
70.71∠45o
= 50 − j 50
= 10∠ −180o = −10
vc (t ) = −10 cos(1000t )

Slide 32
 Example (cont.)
Vs I R = Vc R
I=
Z L + Z RC = 10 ∠ −180o
100
10∠ − 90o
= = 0.1∠ − 180 o
50 + j 50
= 0.141∠ − 135o = −0.1
Vc
Ic =
Zc
10 ∠ − 180 o
=
− j 100
10 ∠ − 180 o
=
100 ∠ − 90 o

= 0 .1 ∠ − 90 o
= − j 0 .1
Slide 33
 Example
Use nodal analysis to find v1(t) in steady state

V1 V1 − V2
+ = 2∠ − 90o (1)
10 − j5
V2 V2 − V1 (0.1 + j 0.2)V1 − j 0.2V2 = − j 2 (1a)
+ = 1.5∠0o ( 2)
j10 − j5 − j 0.2V1 + j 0.1V2 = 1.5 (2a)
Solving (1a) and (1b)

V1 = 16.1∠29.7 o
v1 (t ) = 16.1 cos(100t + 29.7 o )
Slide 34
 Example
In the circuit shown, find steady-state current, phasor voltages and
construct a phasor diagram

(a) The transformed network is:

Vs 10∠ − 90o
I= = = 28.28∠ − 135o mA
Z 250 + j 250
i(t) = 28.28 cos(500t − 135o ) mA
VR = RI = 7.07∠ − 135o

VL = jωLI = 7.07 ∠ − 45o

i(t) lags vs(t) by 45o
Slide 35
 Example
Solve for mesh currents:

We write KVL equations for each of the meshes:

Solving we find
j100 I1 + 100(I1 − I 2 ) = 100
I1 = 1.414∠ − 45o A and I 2 = 1∠0o A
− j 200 I 2 + j100 I 2 + 100(I 2 − I1 ) = 0
Thus we have
Simplifying, we have
i1 ( t ) = 1 . 414 cos( 1000 t − 45 o )
( 100 + j100 )I1 − 100 I 2 = 100
and i 2 ( t ) = cos( 1000 t )
− 100 I1 + ( 100 − j100 )I 2 = 0
Slide 36
 Power in AC Circuits

Outline
• Compute power for steady-state AC circuits
• Determine load impedances for maximum
power transfer

Slide 37
 Power in AC Circuits

A voltage source delivering power to a load

impedance Z = R + j X

V Vm ∠ 0o
I = = Z ∠ = I m∠ −
Z
Im = Z
Vm

Slide 38
 Power for Resistive Load

v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt )
v(t )
i (t ) =
R
V
= m cos(ωt )
R
= I m cos(ωt )

p (t ) = v(t )i (t )
= Vm I m cos 2 (ωt )
Vm2
= cos 2 (ωt )
R
p(t) is always positive  energy flows always from source to load

Slide 39
 Power for Storage Elements
Inductive Load Capacitive Load

Current, voltage, and power versus time for pure energy-storage

elements
Slide 40
 Power for Storage Elements
Inductive Load: Capacitive Load:
Z = jω L = ω L ∠ 90 ° −j 1
Z = = ∠ − 90 °
v (t ) = V m cos( ω t ) ωC ωC
v (t ) = V m cos( ω t )
i (t ) = I m cos( ω t − 90 °) = I m sin( ω t )
i (t ) = I m cos( ω t + 90 °) = − I m sin( ω t )
p (t ) = v (t )i (t ) = V m I m cos( ω t ) sin( ω t )
p (t ) = v (t )i (t ) = −V m I m cos( ω t ) sin( ω t )
V I V I
= m m sin( 2ω t ) + m m sin( 0 ) Vm I m V I
2 2 =− sin( 2ω t ) − m m sin( 0 )
V I 2 2
= m m sin( 2ω t ) Vm I m
2 =− sin( 2ω t )
2
- Current lags voltage by 90º - Current leads voltage by 90º
- Average power absorbed by - Average power absorbed by
an inductor is zero a capacitor is zero

Slide 41
 AC Power Calculations for a General Load

Average Power: P = Vrms I rms cos θ (watts)

watts
P
Power Factor PF = cos θ =
V rms I rms
Lagging PF: I lags V (Inductive load)
Leading PF: I leads V (Capacitive load)

θ = θv − θi = θ z Power factor angle

θz = 0 PF = 1
Reactive Power: θ z = ±90° PF = 0

Q=VrmsIrms sinθ (Volt Amperes Reactive (VAR))

(Physical unit is Watt)
VAR

Slide 42
 Importance of Reactive Power
• No average power is consumed in a pure inductive
or capacitive load

• But, reactive power has current associated with

it and causes loss of power in transmission lines
and transformers

• Electric-power companies charge their industrial

customers for reactive power

Slide 43
 Power-Factor Correction
• Energy storage elements cause reactive power (increased
currents) without increasing average power

• This causes more power loss in transmission lines and also

high rating for equipment

• Industrial loads are usually inductive (motors), so they

result in positive Q

• To reduce losses, we need to make the power factor PF as

close to unity as possible (PF = 1)

• This can be achieved by adding capacitors in parallel to

the load to increase the PF

• Capacitors have –ve Q
capacitors force the overall Q

close to zero
Slide 44
 Apparent Power

Apparent power = Vrms I rms Units: volt-amperes (VA)

VA

Magnitude not phasors

P +Q =V
2 2 2
rms I 2
rms cos (θ ) + V
2 2
rms I 2
rms sin (θ )
2

= (Vrms I rms )
2

= ( apparant power ) 2

Apparent Power = P 2 + Q 2

Slide 45
 Apparent Power
Irms Irms
+ + +
R VRrms
Vrms Z =R + jX Vrms _
+
X
_ _ VXrms
_
Be careful!
2
V
P=I 2
rms R or P= Rrms Voltage
R across
2 R or voltage
Q=I V
Q=
2 across X but
rms X or
Xrms
not Z
X
Slide 46
 Power Triangle
• Power (P)  W
• Reactive Power (Q) VAR Volt Amperes Reactive

• Apparent Power  VA

Lagging PF Leading PF

Power triangles for inductive & capacitive loads

Slide 47
 Complex Power (S)
The computation of AC power is greatly simplified by
defining a fictitious but very useful quantity called the
complex power S *
S = Vrms I rms

Phasors
S = Vrms ∠ v . I rms ∠ − i

= Vrms I rms ∠( v − i )
= Vrms I rms cos ( v − i ) + jVrms I rms sin ( v − i )
= P + jQ

S = I rms
2
Z S is measured in VA

Slide 48
 Example
Compute the power and reactive power for each element. What
is the power factor at the source?

Note: Currents were calculated before and shown in Fig.

Source: P = Vsrms I rms cos(θ )
Vs 10
θ = θv − θi Vrms = = = 7.071V
2 2 = 7.071× 0.1× cos(45°)
= −90° − (−135°) = 0.5 W
I 0.1414
= 45° i.e. is +ve I rms = = = 0.1A
2 2 Q = Vsrms I rms sin(θ )
PF = cos(45)
Current lags voltage = 7.071× 0.1× sin(45°)
= 0.707lag
= 0.5 VAR

Slide 49
 Example (cont.)
Inductor:
QL = I rms
2
X L = (0.1) 2100 = 1VAR

Capacitor:
0.1
QC = I Crms
2
XC = ( ) 2 (−100) = −0.5VAR
2
Resistor:
0.1
PR = 2
I Rrms R =( ) 2100 = 0.5W Check:
2 Q = QL + QC
PL = 0
It is important to note that: P = PR
PC = 0
In real life, the values are much bigger (kW, MW, kVA)
Slide 50
 Example
Find the power, reactive power, and power factor of the
source. Also find the phasor current I

Load A has apparent power of 10 kVA

Load B has a power of 5 kW
Load A is capacitive (leading PF) QA is negative
Load B is inductive (Lagging PF) QB is positive
Important Note: Don’t over round the numbers!
Keep up to 4 decimal digits to get accurate results
Slide 51
 Example (cont.) given
θ A = θ vA − θ iA = cos −1 ( 0 .5) = 60 °
θ vA = 30 ° → θ iA = 90 ° Apparent power of A
Load A has apparent power of
10 kVA PA = V rms I Arms cos( θ A ) = 10 ,000 × 0 .5 = 5kW
Load B has a power of 5 kW
Q A = V rms I Arms sin( θ A ) = 10 ,000 × 0 .866 = 8 .66 kVAR
Load A is capacitive (leading PF)
Load B is inductive (Lagging PF) Q A = −8.66kVAR Negative because PF is leading

θ B = θ vB − θ iB = cos − 1 ( 0 . 7 ) = 45 . 57 °
θ vB = 30 ° → θ iB = − 15 . 57 ° given

1414
PA = V rms I Brms cos( θ B ) = × I Brms × 0 . 7 = 5 kW
B 2
Apparent 5000
power of B
I Brms = = 7 . 1439 A
999 . 8489 × 0 . 7
QB = V rms I Brms sin( θ B ) = 999 . 8489 × 7 . 1439 × 0 .7141
= 5 . 101 kVAR Q B = PB tan(θ B )
= 5000 tan( 45.57°)
= 5.101kVAR
Slide 52
 Example (cont.)
Power and reactive power at source:
P = PA + PB = 5 + 5 = 10kW
Q = QA + QB = −8.66 + 5.101 = −3.559kVAR

Apparent Power at source:

Vrms I rms = P 2 + Q 2 = (10) 2 + (−3.559) 2
= 10.61kVA
PF at source: −1 Q −1 −3.559
θ = tan ( ) = tan ( ) = −19.59°
P 10
PF = cos(θ ) = 0.9421 94.21% leading
Slide 53
 Example (cont.)
Apparent power

Vrms I rms 10.61kVA

I rms = = = 10.61A
Vrms 999.8489V
θ = θv − θi = source PF
− 19.59° = 30° − θ i
θ i = 49.59°

I = 2 × 10.61∠49.59°
= 15∠49.59°

Slide 54
 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

Slide 55
 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
- The Thévenin voltage is equal to the open-circuit
phasor voltage of the original circuit
V t = V oc
- We can find the Thévenin impedance by zeroing
the independent sources and determining the
impedance looking into the circuit terminals

- The Thévenin impedance equals the open-circuit

voltage divided by the short-circuit current
V oc Vt
Z t= = I n = I sc
I sc I sc
Slide 56
 Example

Find Thévenin and Norton equivalents

for the following circuit

Z t = (100) (− j100) = 70.71∠ − 45°

= 50 − j 50Ω
I sc = I R − I s
100∠0°
= − 1∠90°
100
= 1 − j = 1.414∠ − 45°
Vt = I sc Z t = 100∠ − 90°
Slide 57
 Example (cont.)

Slide 58
 Maximum Average Power Transfer

• If the load can take on any complex value, maximum

power transfer is attained for a load impedance equal to
the complex conjugate of the Thévenin impedance
• If the load is required to be a pure resistance,
maximum power transfer is attained for a load
resistance equal to the magnitude of the Thévenin
impedance

Slide 59
 Example
Determine the maximum power that can be delivered to
a load by the previous circuit
1. load is complex
2. load is a pure resistance

magnitude of
complex
the Thévenin
conjugate of
impedance
the Thévenin
impedance

P = I arms
2
Rload P = I brms
2
Rload
1 2 0.7654 2
=( ) × 50 = 25W =( ) × 70.71 = 20.71W
2 2

Slide 60