Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis
Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis
Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis
Chapter 4
Steady-State Sinusoidal
Analysis
Slide 1
Outline
Slide 2
Importance of Sinusoidal Sources
• Appear in many practical applications
– Electric power is distributed by sinusoidal currents and voltages
– Sinusoidal signals are used widely in radio communications
Sinusoidal Steady-State
• Whenever the forced input to the circuit is sinusoidal the
response will be sinusoidal
• If the input persists, the response will persist and we call
it steady-state response
Slide 3
Sinusoidal Currents or Voltages
Slide 4
Sinusoidal Currents and Voltages
v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt + θ )
Vm is the peak value
sin (z ) = cos z − 90 ( o
)
Slide 5
Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values of a Sinusoid
T T
V rms =
1
∫ v 2
(t ) dt I rms =
1
∫ i 2
(t ) dt
T 0
T 0
2
V
= rms
P avg
R Pavg = I rms
2
R
Note: for DC sources, the power is V2/R = I2R
Voltage 2
Vrms
Pavg =
R
(100 / 2 ) 2
= = 100W
50
Power
v 2 (t )
p(t ) =
R
= 200 cos (100πt ) W
2
Slide 7
Real and Complex Signals
A complex number is given by:
Z = x + jy Rectangular form
Polar form y
Complex conjugate of z is: x
z* = x - jy
Slide 8
Phasor Definition
Phasors are complex numbers that can be used to represent sinusoidal
signals
Slide 9
Complex Numbers
z = x + jy Rectangular form
Real part
Imaginary part
−1
Imaginary
Complex conjugate of z is:
y z
z* = x - jy
Real
x
Slide 10
Complex Numbers in Polar Form
• Represent the complex number by the length of the
arrow and the angle between the arrow and the
positive real axis
• We write complex numbers in polar form as:
z = z ∠θ
= x 2 + y 2 ==> z = x2 + y2
2
z Imaginary
y y
tan θ = or θ = tan −1
x x
1 y
Polar to Rectangular: θ
x = z cos θ Real
x
y = z sin θ
jθ
In exponential form: =| Z | e
Slide 11
Euler’s Identities
e jθ = 1∠θ = cos θ + j sin θ
Think of it as a complex variable in polar form
e jθ = cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1
jθ − jθ e jθ + e − jθ 1 y
e +e = 2 cos θ → cos θ = θ
2
x Real
e jθ − e − jθ
e jθ − e − jθ = j 2 sin θ
→ sin θ =
2j
cos(θ ) = Re (e jθ ) = Re[cosθ + j sin θ ]
Real part of
jθ
Ae = A∠θ Exponential form of a complex number
Slide 12
Complex Arithmetic
Let z1 = 5 + j 5, and Division
z2 = 3 − j 4 z1
=
5 + j5 z 2*
× *
z2 3 − j4 z2
5 + j5 3 + j4
z1 + z2 = (5 + j 5) + (3 − j 4) = 8 + j1 = ×
3 − j4 3 + j4
z1 − z2 = (5 + j 5) − (3 − j 4) = 2 + j 9 15 + j 20 + j 15 + j 2 20
=
9 + j 12 − j 12 − j 2 16
Multiplication
15 + j 20 + j 15 − 20
=
z1 z 2 = (5 + j 5)(3 − j 4) 9 + j 12 − j 12 + 16
− 5 + j 35
= 15 − j 20 + j15 − j 2 20 =
25
= 15 − j 20 + j15 + 20 = −
5
+ j
35
25 25
= 35 − j 5 = 0 . 2 + j1 . 4
Slide 13
Examples
z 3 = − 10 + j 5
Phasor Rectangular
−1 5
z1 = 5∠30o
z3 = (10 ) + ( 5 ) ∠ tan
2 2
( )
− 10
z1 = 5 cos(30o ) + j 5 sin(30 o ) = 11 . 18 ∠ − 26 . 57 o
= 4.33 + j 2.5 = x + jy
Wrong angle since real part
is negative; the true angle is:
Rectangular Phasor θ = tan−1( y / x) ±180o
z2 =10+ j5 = −26.57 +180=153.43o
5 −1 Be careful when using your calculator
z2 = (10) + (5) ∠tan ( )
2 2
10
z3 z2
=11.18∠26.57o 5 153.43
5
26.57
-10 10
Slide 14
Forms of a Complex Number
z2 = 10 + j5 Rectangular form
5 −1
z2 = (10) + (5) ∠ tan ( )
2 2
10
= 11.18∠26.57o Polar form
j 26.57o
= 11.18e Exponential form
Important Note:
1∠90o = cos 90 + j sin 90 = j
Slide 15
Arithmetic Operations in Polar and Complex
Form
• To add or subtract two numbers you must
convert them to rectangular first and then do
the operation
• To multiply two complex numbers in polar form
z1 z 2 = z1 ∠ θ1 × z 2 ∠ θ 2
= z1 z2 ∠ (θ1 + θ 2 )
z1 z 2 = z1 e jθ1 × z 2 e jθ 2
= z1 z 2 e j (θ1 +θ 2 )
Slide 16
Division in Polar and Complex Form
z2 z 2 e jθ 2
z1 j (θ 1 − θ 2 )
= e
z2
Slide 17
Adding Sinusoids Using Phasors
Slide 18
Using Phasors to Add Sinusoids
(
v2 (t ) = 10 sin ωt + 60 o
) V 2 = 10 ∠ − 30 o
V s = V1 + V 2
= 20 ∠ − 45 o + 10 ∠ − 30 o
= 14 . 14 − j14 . 14 + 8 . 660 − j 5
= 23 . 06 − j19 . 14
= 29 . 97 ∠ − 39 . 7 o
(
v s (t ) = 29 . 97 cos ω t − 39 . 7 o
)
Slide 19
Phase Relationships
• To determine phase relationships from a phasor diagram,
consider the phasors to rotate counterclockwise. Then
when standing at a fixed point, if V1 arrives first followed
by V2 after a rotation of , we say that V1 leads V2 by .
Alternatively, we could say that V2 lags V1 by . (Usually,
we take as the smaller angle between the two phasors)
Slide 21
Phase Relationships
Slide 22
Complex Impedances: Inductances
iL = I m sin(ωt + θ ) IL = Im∠θ − 90 o
diL
vL = L
dt
= ωLIm cos(ωt + θ ) VL = ωLI m ∠θ = Vm ∠θ
Current through the inductor lags the voltage by 90o
V L = ω LI m ∠ θ ∠ ( 90 o − 90 o )
= ω L ∠ 90 o I m ∠ (θ − 90 o )
= ω L I L ∠ 90 o ZL = j L is called the impedance of
the inductor (measured in ohms)
= jω L I L
VL = Z LIL Ohm’s law in phasor form
Slide 23
Complex Impedances: Inductances
Slide 24
Complex Impedances: Capacitance
Current through the capacitor leads the voltage by 90o
1 1 1
Z = − j = = ∠ − 90 o
C
ωC jω C ωC
Slide 25
Complex Impedances: Resistance
VR = RI R ZR = R
Capacitance Resistor
Inductance
Z = R + jX
Slide 27
Kirchhoff’s Laws in Phasor Form
Slide 28
Circuit Analysis Using Phasors and Impedances
1. Replace the time descriptions of the voltage and
current sources with the corresponding phasors. (All of
the sources must have the same frequency)
Vs = 100 ∠30 o
Z L = jω L = j 500 × 0.3 = j150 Ω
1 1
ZC = − j =−j = − j 50 Ω
ωC 500 × 40 × 10 −6
ZRC
Vc = Vs
ZL + RRC Z =
1
=
RC
1/ R +1/Z
70.71∠ − 45o
c
= 10∠ − 90 o
= 1
0 . 01 + j 0 . 01
j100+ 50− j50 1
=
70.71∠ − 45o
0 . 1414 ∠ 45 o
= 10∠ − 90o = 70 . 71 ∠ − 45 o
70.71∠45o
= 50 − j 50
= 10∠ −180o = −10
vc (t ) = −10 cos(1000t )
Slide 32
Example (cont.)
Vs I R = Vc R
I=
Z L + Z RC = 10 ∠ −180o
100
10∠ − 90o
= = 0.1∠ − 180 o
50 + j 50
= 0.141∠ − 135o = −0.1
Vc
Ic =
Zc
10 ∠ − 180 o
=
− j 100
10 ∠ − 180 o
=
100 ∠ − 90 o
= 0 .1 ∠ − 90 o
= − j 0 .1
Slide 33
Example
Use nodal analysis to find v1(t) in steady state
V1 V1 − V2
+ = 2∠ − 90o (1)
10 − j5
V2 V2 − V1 (0.1 + j 0.2)V1 − j 0.2V2 = − j 2 (1a)
+ = 1.5∠0o ( 2)
j10 − j5 − j 0.2V1 + j 0.1V2 = 1.5 (2a)
Solving (1a) and (1b)
V1 = 16.1∠29.7 o
v1 (t ) = 16.1 cos(100t + 29.7 o )
Slide 34
Example
In the circuit shown, find steady-state current, phasor voltages and
construct a phasor diagram
Vs 10∠ − 90o
I= = = 28.28∠ − 135o mA
Z 250 + j 250
i(t) = 28.28 cos(500t − 135o ) mA
VR = RI = 7.07∠ − 135o
Outline
• Compute power for steady-state AC circuits
• Determine load impedances for maximum
power transfer
Slide 37
Power in AC Circuits
V Vm ∠ 0o
I = = Z ∠ = I m∠ −
Z
Im = Z
Vm
Slide 38
Power for Resistive Load
v(t ) = Vm cos(ωt )
v(t )
i (t ) =
R
V
= m cos(ωt )
R
= I m cos(ωt )
p (t ) = v(t )i (t )
= Vm I m cos 2 (ωt )
Vm2
= cos 2 (ωt )
R
p(t) is always positive energy flows always from source to load
Slide 39
Power for Storage Elements
Inductive Load Capacitive Load
Slide 41
AC Power Calculations for a General Load
Slide 42
Importance of Reactive Power
• No average power is consumed in a pure inductive
or capacitive load
Slide 43
Power-Factor Correction
• Energy storage elements cause reactive power (increased
currents) without increasing average power
P +Q =V
2 2 2
rms I 2
rms cos (θ ) + V
2 2
rms I 2
rms sin (θ )
2
= (Vrms I rms )
2
= ( apparant power ) 2
Apparent Power = P 2 + Q 2
Slide 45
Apparent Power
Irms Irms
+ + +
R VRrms
Vrms Z =R + jX Vrms _
+
X
_ _ VXrms
_
Be careful!
2
V
P=I 2
rms R or P= Rrms Voltage
R across
2 R or voltage
Q=I V
Q=
2 across X but
rms X or
Xrms
not Z
X
Slide 46
Power Triangle
• Power (P) W
• Reactive Power (Q) VAR Volt Amperes Reactive
• Apparent Power VA
Lagging PF Leading PF
Slide 47
Complex Power (S)
The computation of AC power is greatly simplified by
defining a fictitious but very useful quantity called the
complex power S *
S = Vrms I rms
Phasors
S = Vrms ∠ v . I rms ∠ − i
= Vrms I rms ∠( v − i )
= Vrms I rms cos ( v − i ) + jVrms I rms sin ( v − i )
= P + jQ
S = I rms
2
Z S is measured in VA
Slide 48
Example
Compute the power and reactive power for each element. What
is the power factor at the source?
Slide 49
Example (cont.)
Inductor:
QL = I rms
2
X L = (0.1) 2100 = 1VAR
Capacitor:
0.1
QC = I Crms
2
XC = ( ) 2 (−100) = −0.5VAR
2
Resistor:
0.1
PR = 2
I Rrms R =( ) 2100 = 0.5W Check:
2 Q = QL + QC
PL = 0
It is important to note that: P = PR
PC = 0
In real life, the values are much bigger (kW, MW, kVA)
Slide 50
Example
Find the power, reactive power, and power factor of the
source. Also find the phasor current I
θ B = θ vB − θ iB = cos − 1 ( 0 . 7 ) = 45 . 57 °
θ vB = 30 ° → θ iB = − 15 . 57 ° given
1414
PA = V rms I Brms cos( θ B ) = × I Brms × 0 . 7 = 5 kW
B 2
Apparent 5000
power of B
I Brms = = 7 . 1439 A
999 . 8489 × 0 . 7
QB = V rms I Brms sin( θ B ) = 999 . 8489 × 7 . 1439 × 0 .7141
= 5 . 101 kVAR Q B = PB tan(θ B )
= 5000 tan( 45.57°)
= 5.101kVAR
Slide 52
Example (cont.)
Power and reactive power at source:
P = PA + PB = 5 + 5 = 10kW
Q = QA + QB = −8.66 + 5.101 = −3.559kVAR
I = 2 × 10.61∠49.59°
= 15∠49.59°
Slide 54
Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
Slide 55
Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
- The Thévenin voltage is equal to the open-circuit
phasor voltage of the original circuit
V t = V oc
- We can find the Thévenin impedance by zeroing
the independent sources and determining the
impedance looking into the circuit terminals
Slide 58
Maximum Average Power Transfer
Slide 59
Example
Determine the maximum power that can be delivered to
a load by the previous circuit
1. load is complex
2. load is a pure resistance
magnitude of
complex
the Thévenin
conjugate of
impedance
the Thévenin
impedance
P = I arms
2
Rload P = I brms
2
Rload
1 2 0.7654 2
=( ) × 50 = 25W =( ) × 70.71 = 20.71W
2 2
Slide 60