Food Security

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-018-0803-6

REVIEW

Rice bean: A healthy and cost-effective alternative for crop

and food diversity
Piverjeet Kaur Dhillon 1 & Beenu Tanwar 2

Received: 8 April 2017 / Accepted: 23 April 2018

# Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature and International Society for Plant Pathology 2018

Abstract
Rice bean (Vigna umbellata), an underutilized grain legume or pulse, is often considered a minor crop in Nepal and Northern India.
Rice bean is attracting attention worldwide owing to its high yielding ability, resistance to viral, fungal and bacterial diseases,
adaptability to grow in less-fertile lands, simple domestic processing and good nutritional potential, which help to make it an
affordable substitute for conventional pulses. However, the presence of some anti-nutritional factors such as phenols, saponins,
phytic acid, and enzyme inhibitors limit its usage, but simple domestic processing methods such as sprouting, pressure cooking and
fermentation can alleviate these problems and enhance its nutritional adequacy. Rice bean can be cultivated in a range of soils to
produce high quality grain as well as highly nutritious fodder for livestock, and thus a synergistic effect can be achieved for both
human and animal nutrition. Although a multipurpose crop, little has been done to assess its field diversity, to develop high yielding
varieties, or to tap its potential in terms of commercial importance and market value. Further research and promotion of rice bean
could play a significant role in a diversified sustainable approach to alleviate the global problem of protein and energy malnutrition.

Keywords Rice bean . Vigna umbellata . Domestic processing . Nutritive value . Food security . Nutritional security

1 Introduction developed and developing countries (Sultana et al. 2014).

Present over-reliance on these few major staple legume crops
Pulses and grain legumes are important constituents in the has unsustainable agronomic, ecological, nutritional and eco-
diets of people residing in developing countries (Katoch nomic risks which can only be addressed by utilizing im-
2013). Apart from adding variety to the diet, grain legumes proved cultivars, modern production technologies and ex-
are a low cost source of dietary protein and other nutrients and panded cultivation of underutilized minor crops (Schmidt
hence, are often termed ‘poor man’s meat’ (Modgil et al. et al. 2010). Crop diversification provides opportunities to
2012; Thongram et al. 2016). Dry beans such as mung bean introduce temporal and spatial heterogeneity into uniform
and black gram hold a prominent place in India (Goyal et al. cropping systems and will help develop resilience to biotic
2014; Goyal and Siddiqui 2014) whereas chickpea, pigeon and abiotic stresses. Additionally, underutilized legume crops
pea and lentil are the other most consumed pulse crops around are a source of essential vitamins, micronutrients and protein
the world. However, due to their cultivation on poor soils and and, thus, a valuable component for helping to attain nutrition-
susceptibility to biotic and abiotic stresses their productivity is al diversity and security. One such underutilized legume, rice
usually low, and thus, it is difficult to meet the increasing bean (Vigna umbellata) (Fig. 1), has great potential for
demands of an expanding human population, both in complementing traditional pulses in terms of both its nutri-
tional and economic potential.
Rice bean is a warm-season annual legume crop with yel-
* Beenu Tanwar low flowers, which is mainly used as a dried pulse and can
[email protected] also be used for fodder and green manure. Traditionally, it is
grown as an intercrop with cowpea, maize and sorghum in
1
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, School of India, Nepal, China and Bangladesh. Rice bean is thought to
Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, be the outcome of cross-fertility of a wild species, Vigna
Phagwara, Punjab 144411, India
2
umbellata var. gracilis, which is naturally found in southern
Department of Dairy Technology, Mansinhbhai Institute of Dairy and China, northern Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Burma and India
Food Technology, Dudhsagar Dairy Campus,
Mahesana, Gujarat 384002, India (Tomooka et al. 1991). Recently, owing to its nutritional
 Dhillon P.K., Tanwar B.

Fig. 1 Rice bean (Vigna

umbellata) plants and seeds

properties it has been further domesticated in south-east Asia 2 Cultivation

and north-east Asia. Rice bean has several other names, in-
cluding red bean, climbing mountain bean, mambi bean, ori- Rice bean is mostly cultivated on small areas of land by poor
ental bean, ohwi, ohashi, Dolichos umbellatus Thunb., and hill farmers of Northern Nepal, North-east India and various
Vigna calcarata (Roxb.) and Kurz. parts of South-east Asia (Mukherjee et al. 1980; Singh et al.
Rice bean has been classified as a crop well adapted to 1980; Saikia et al. 1999). Earlier, rice bean was cultivated as a
sub-humid regions with 1000–1500 mm precipitation, lowland crop using residual soil water after the harvest of
along with other adaptations to such factors as rainfall pat- long-season rice. Later, it was shifted to the lands where
tern, moisture distribution, temperature, cloud cover and shorter duration rice varieties were grown. Recent studies
relative humidity, soil characteristics, pests and diseases have documented that it establishes rapidly and thus can be
(Rachie and Roberts 1974). Appreciable levels of crude grown effectively on a wide range of soils under high temper-
protein with 59–93% protein digestibility and all essential atures and low rainfall conditions (Kaur et al. 2013; Katoch
amino acids (especially methionine, tryptophan, lysine, ty- 2013; Chandel et al. 1978). Also it has the potential to produce
rosine and valine), minerals, vitamins, and a relatively high high yield and high quality grain along with nutritious fodder
proportion of healthy, unsaturated fatty acids make it a for cattle (Anonymous 2016).
nutritious health package (Kaur and Kapoor 1990; Mohan Some important factors to be considered for the effective
and Janardhanan 1994; Katoch 2013). cultivation of rice bean are given below:
Despite possessing enormous potential to mitigate eco-
nomic and nutritional deficiencies, lack of scientific re-
2.1 Type of soil
search and consumer awareness has limited consumption
to some local communities of a few developing countries
The crop is well-adapted to the humid-tropics, has high local
such as India and Nepal and has prevented its global com-
adaptability, and can be grown with little effort and few inputs
mercialization (Buergelt et al. 2009). Hence, there is need
in diverse conditions including less fertile, exhausted and de-
for a review of recent scientific knowledge related to rice
graded marginal land, drought-prone sloping areas and un-
bean as a source of food and nutraceutical compounds to
irrigated ancient alluvial river fans (Joshi et al. 2006). Rice
aid nutritional security and extension and crop improve-
bean can grow in many types of soil, including gray, black,
ment programs.
yellow or cream colored soils, while red soils, having moder-
The taxonomic description of rice bean is:
ate fertility status, are considered best for its cultivation
(Khanal and Paudel 2009).
Kingdom : Plantae
Sub kingdom : Tracheobionta
Super division : Spermatophyta- Seed plants
2.2 Area and temperature
Division : Magnoliophyta- Flowering plants
Rice bean is mainly grown between 700 and 1300 masl, al-
Class : Magnoliopsida- Dicotyledons
though it is found in home gardens from 200 m up to 2000 m
Sub class : Rosidae
(Anonymous 2016). Most varieties are photoperiod sensitive,
Order : Fabales
tend to flower late and, in areas with ample water and high
Family : Fabaceae- Pea family
humidity, can produce excessive vegetative growth. Warm,
Genus : Vigna Savi- Cowpea
south-facing aspects are more suitable for cultivation, whereas
Species : Vigna umbellata
the crop fails to grow well on highly fertile soils, under shade
Source: Anonymous (2016) and in north facing aspects (Khadka and Acharya 2009).
Rice bean: A healthy and cost-effective alternative for crop and food diversity

2.3 Time for sowing and cropping pattern 2.5 Common weeds, pests, diseases, insects
and control measures
To promote better germination, seeds are typically soaked in
water for 10 to 12 h before sowing. Generally, rice bean is Weeds are normally not a major problem for rice bean.
grown as an intercrop with maize, thus, sowing usually ex- However, two or three weedings six weeks after sowing and
tends from April to July. In the USA, a range of planting times before the flowering stage are considered beneficial. Rice
has been established. For example, rice beans can be directly bean is less prone to disease attack than some pulses but a
seeded from April 15 to June 15 in the Mid-Atlantic region, few common diseases and insects, which can harm the crop
while April 10–30 is optimal for seeding rice bean in the are given below:
Southeast/Gulf Coast. Southwest and upper Midwest regions
are suitable for seeding of rice bean in April–July and June,
respectively (Joshi et al. 2006; Ashworth and Whealy 2012). 2.5.1 Common diseases (Khadka and Acharya 2009)
Some studies have shown that different types of cropping
pattern are as follows (Khadka and Acharya 2009; Zaman i) Rust. This disease caused by Uromyces appendiculatus
and Malik 2000; Joshi et al. 2006): (Pers.) Unger. infects a wide and heterogeneous range
of hosts, from primitive ferns to vegetables, grain
a. Mixed cropping. In this most common cropping pattern, crops, ornamental plants and forest trees. It is char-
seeds of rice bean are dibbled in between maize plants. acterized by whitish, minute and slightly raised pus-
Those varieties maturing in 140 to 150 days are used tules on the leaves of the rice bean plant, which
for inter-cropping. In relay cropping with maize, rice slowly turn reddish-brown. To overcome this prob-
bean is sown at the margins of the maize field. lem, Maneb (Indofil M 45) can be sprayed at the
Generally mixed cropping is employed when rice rate of 3 g/l of water before or immediately after the
beans are to be used as grains or seeds. appearance of rust pustules.
b. Sole cropping. When rice bean is produced in home or ii) Powdery Mildew. The causative agent is Oidiopsis
kitchen gardens for consumption by the family, sole taurica (Lev.) Salmon. Powdery mildew appears as
cropping is carried out, the green tender beans being used a white powdery coat on the leaves, stem and pods
as fresh vegetables. which gradually turn yellow, they dry brown, then
c. Planting on rice bunds. In this type of system, small- die and fall off, resulting in reduced yields, short-
seeded determinate or semi-determinate rice beans are ened production times, and fruit that has little fla-
sown on rice bunds and, after vegetative growth, the vor. Application of Triadimefun Bayletan 25% EC
plants are guided along the slopes of the terraces. and Carbendazin 0.5 g/l of water has proved bene-
d. Margins of uplands (Bari land). When maize plants attain ficial against this disease.
approximately knee-height, rice bean seeds are dibbled iii) Rhizoctonia Blight. This disease occurs due to the at-
between them. Later, when rice bean vegetative growth tack of a soil-borne pathogen, Rhizoctonia solani, on
is complete, the plants are guided along the slopes of the leaves and pods of the plant. The disease is character-
bari land (Khadka and Acharya 2009). ized by the appearance of small, pale greenish spots on
leaves and pods resulting in shriveling, browning and
drying. It can be effectively controlled by spraying
2.4 Harvesting and recommended seed varieties Bavistin at the rate of 1 g/kg of seed.
iv) Bacterial Blight. Pseudomonas spp. is responsible for
The crop is ready to harvest in 120 to 150 days after sowing, this seed-borne disease, which is characterized by
when approximately 75% of the pods turn brown. To obtain small, round, irregular or flat spots surrounded by
good yields, the pods are generally harvested in two, three or greenish-yellow zones on leaves. This can be prevented
more pickings and are usually collected either in the morning by using disease free seed or the seeds can be treated
or late afternoon to avoid seed loss due to shattering (Khadka with streptomycin.
and Acharya 2009). Mostly well-formed and mature grains, v) Cercospora Leaf Spot. This disease is caused by
free from pest infestation, are selected for sowing instead of Cercospora spp. (Deuteromycetes group) and is char-
immature, shriveled and old grains. Pods for seeds are usually acterized by small, dry spots on leaves. It can result in
collected from the middle of the plant rather than the upper significant losses unless protectant fungicides are used
portion as they have smaller pods with immature seeds. Some as a preventive treatment prior to infection and symp-
important seed varieties of rice bean, developed and analyzed tom development. Maneb (Indofil M 45) can be
for their yield by the State Agricultural Universities and sprayed at the rate of 3 g/l of water before or immedi-
Institutes of India, are summarized in Table 1. ately after the occurrence of dry spots.
 Dhillon P.K., Tanwar B.

Table 1 Various seed varieties of rice bean from India

Variety Developed by Average yield t/ha Recommended area Salient features

BRS 1 NBPGR, Bhowali 1.7 Hilly region Black seed color, high seed yield
PRR 1 GBPUA&T, Ranichauri 1.6 Hills of Uttarakhand Mature in normal duration, high seed yield
PRR 2 GBPUA&T, Ranichauri 1.5 North-west hilly region Mature in normal duration, high seed yield
RBL 1 PAU, Ludhiana 1.5 Punjab state Normal duration, high seed yield
RBL 6 PAU, Ludhiana 1.8 Plains Normal duration, high seed yield
RBL 35 PAU, Ludhiana 1.5 Plains Early maturing
RBL 50 PAU, Ludhiana 1.55 Plains Normal duration, high seed yield, green colored seed

Source: Dua et al. 2010

2.5.2 Common insects (Khadka and Acharya 2009) is delayed and there is shriveling of pods and final-
ly yield reduction. Dimethoate (0.03%) has been
i) Pod borers. Helicoverpa armigera Hubner and useful in lowering the number of aphids.
Lamides boeticus L are major pests of rice bean. They v) Pod bugs. Anoplocnemis spp. suck the sap from imma-
cause 77% damage to the pods and 43% damage to ture seeds within the pod; consequently the seeds wrin-
grains. These insects lay eggs in small clusters of 10 kle and black spots appear due to which seeds lose their
to 15 on leaves, buds and flowers. The larvae are more ability germinate and are considered unfit for human
destructive than adults and feed from inside the webbed consumption. Dimethoate and Monocrotophos are ef-
mass of leaves, buds and pods. Margosom Nemarin fective against this insect.
spray at the rate of 1.5 ml/l of water is prescribed for vi) Pod weevils. Young, small and coloured caterpillars of
Helicoverpa and Neem (Azadirachta indica) based Apion spp. feed on black immature pods while young
pesticides or Malathion (0.05%) for Lamides. adults feed on leaves and adult flowers. Thus, the seed
ii) Soybean caterpillar. Hairy Spilarctia casignata Kollar yield, seed quality, seed germination, and market value
attacks the lower surface of the leaf of rice bean and the are all adversely affected. No recommended preventive
leaf gradually turns papery brownish-yellow in color. It measures exist to date, however, Dimethoate,
is a serious pest of beans: however, it can either be Monocrotophos and artificial Pyrethroids are consid-
controlled manually by collecting or destroying the ered beneficial.
infested plant parts, eggs and young larvae or by vii) Green bugs. Both nymphs and adults belonging to
spraying artificial Pyrethroids such as Deltamethrin, Stink Nezara spp. suck sap from leaves, stems and
Cypermethrin or Fenvalerate, or by using Neem. pods making the whole plant weak. Immature pods
iii) Banded blister beetle, Mylabris pustulata Thunberg. and fruits become deformed, seeds become flattened,
These are fast moving insects that feed on the flowers shriveled and germination is also reduced. Manual
and foliage of rice bean. They cause direct damage management by collecting and destroying the nymphs
by feeding on petals, anthers and pollens, thus affect- and adults can be performed.
ing the yield considerably. Studies on crop losses viii) Leaf folder. Leaf feeding insect pests are of major
under field conditions showed that blister beetle importance because of their ability to defoliate or
caused up to 36% damage to flowers and 53% losses remove the chlorophyll content of leaves leading to
in yield with 1.96 beetles per plant in pigeon pea, and considerable reduction in yield. Hedylepta indicata
16% damage to flowers and 36% losses in yield at Fab. is very destructive as it attacks young leaves.
1.3 beetles per plant on the mung bean crop (Singh It folds the leaf and forms a web of many leaves.
2012). This pest can be controlled by hand picking or Manual and biological control is most effective,
by spraying artificial Pyrethroids. however spraying Monocrotophos and Dichlorvos
iv) Aphid. Aphis craccivora Koch is one of the most has been beneficial.
common aphid species. It has a preference for
members of the bean family and causes direct dam-
age to plants by stunting and distorting growth. It 3 Germplasm collections
feeds by inserting its stylet and removing plant sap
in large amounts, which encourages the growth of The World Vegetable Centre (formerly the Asian Vegetable
sooty moulds, and thus restricts photosynthesis. As Research and Development Center) based in Taiwan has 197
a result plant foliage curls, turns yellow, flowering accessions of rice bean, including eight genotypes from Nepal
Rice bean: A healthy and cost-effective alternative for crop and food diversity

and 24 from India. Among these, the Indian genotypes IC includes cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin, arabinoxylans, be-
7588, IC 8229, EC 18771, and IC 7506 are reportedly less ta-glucan, glucomannans, plant gums and mucilages and hy-
sensitive to photoperiod (Kim et al. 2015). In India, in addition drocolloids, along with smaller but significant amounts of
to the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) oligosaccharides which are resistant to digestion and absorp-
containing over 1700 accessions from several Asian countries tion but undergo partial or complete fermentation in the large
(World Vegetable Centre 2007), there is a collection held at the intestine (Cummings and Stephen 2007). The crude fiber in
Indian Institute for Pulses Research, and the NBPGR station at rice bean is reported to range between 3.60% and 5.56%,
Bhowali, Uttar Pradesh, where over 300 genotypes are main- respectively (Dutta 2000; Buergelt et al. 2009; Katoch 2013;
tained. In Nepal, the Plant Genetic Resources Unit of the Bajaj 2014). Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) and Acid
NARC maintains a collection of some 300 accessions from Detergent Fiber (ADF) contents of the whole seed of rice bean
various parts of the country (Negi et al. 1996). were 13.0 and 8.5 g/100 g, respectively. Rice bean contains
larger amounts of total soluble sugars (5.0–5.6 g/100 g) and
non-reducing sugars (4.7–5.3 g/100 g) and less starch (50-
4 Nutritional composition 55 g/100 g) than faba bean (Saharan et al. 2002 and Katoch
2013). Due to the absence of the enzyme α-galactosidase,
In the human diet, legumes are an excellent source of macro- oligosaccharides such as raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose
nutrients - not only carbohydrates but particularly protein as cause flatulence in humans. The levels of these oligosaccha-
well as healthy fats and dietary fiber. They are also a good rides, raffinose (1.56% to 2.58%), stachyose (0.94% to
source of micronutrients and vitamins (see Fig. 2 and Table 2 1.88%) and verbascose (0.85% to 1.23%), in rice bean geno-
for a comparison of macro- and micro-nutrients found in rice types, is much less in comparison to soybean (Katoch 2013).
bean and five other legumes). Absence of allergens or toxins,
low levels of flatulence-producing factors and easy removal of 4.2 Proteins and amino acids
anti-nutritional factors by simple domestic processing makes
it an excellent choice for enhancing food and nutritional secu- Legume crops are important and necessary supplements to
rity in both developed and developing nations. Not surprising- other protein sources. The protein content in rice bean seed
ly, with so many advantages, rice bean is garnering worldwide varies from 14% to 26% (Rodriguez and Mendoza 1991; Kaur
attention (Parvathi and Kumar 2006). and Kapoor 1992; Mohan and Janardhanan 1994; Saikia et al.
1999; Dutta 2000; Saharan et al. 2002; Buergelt et al. 2009;
4.1 Carbohydrates: Starch, soluble sugar and dietary Katoch 2013; Bajaj 2014). Katoch (2013) evaluated 16 differ-
fiber ent varieties of rice bean and observed the highest protein
content to be 25.6% (in the BRS-2 genotype). Katoch
Carbohydrates are the major component (50% to 70% of grain (2013) recommended BRS-2 as a highly suitable variety for
dry matter) of legumes and are generally classified as digest- human consumption. Parvathi and Kumar (2006) recorded the
ible and non-digestible (Bravo 1998). Total carbohydrate con- content of protein in RBL-5 as 19.5% in the whole bean and
tent of rice bean is reported to range between 58.15% and 17.5% in dhal.
71.99% (Malhotra et al. 1988; Kaur and Kapoor 1992; Proteins are usually classified on the basis of their solubil-
Buergelt et al. 2009; Sadana et al. 2006; Katoch 2013). ity as water-soluble albumins, salt-soluble globulins, alcohol-
Pulses are good sources of both soluble and insoluble die- soluble prolamins, and acid- or alkaline-soluble glutelins
tary fiber (Ramulu and Udayasekhara Rao 1997) which (Utsumi 1992). In rice bean, the composition of various

70

60

50 Protein (g)
40 Fat (g)
Carbohydrate (g)
30
Dietary fiber (g)
20

10

0
Soya bean Mung bean Lima bean Kidney bean Lentil (per Rice bean
(per 100g) (per 100g) (per 100g) (per 100g) 100g) (per 100g)

Fig. 2 Macro-nutrient composition of the most-consumed legumes (g/100 g). Source: Anonymous 2004
 Dhillon P.K., Tanwar B.

Table 2 Micro-nutrient content of rice bean in comparison with other pulses and legumes

Nutrients Soya bean Mung bean Lima bean Kidney bean Lentil Rice bean
(per 100 g) (per 100 g) (per 100 g) (per 100 g) (per 100 g) (per 100 g)

β-carotene (μg) 6.0 150 0.0 12 28 22

Vitamin- E (mg) 3.6 0.9 0.5 0.3 1.4 0.7
Vitamin- K (μg) 18 16 6.0 8.0 14 28
Vitamin- B1 (mg) 0.83 0.7 0.48 0.5 0.55 0.46
Vitamin-B2 (mg) 0.3 0.22 0.18 0.2 0.17 0.14
Vitamin- B3 (mg) 2.2 2.1 1.9 2.0 2.5 1.7
Vitamin- B6 (mg) 0.53 0.52 0.41 0.36 0.54 0.25
Folate (μg) 230 460 130 85 59 180
Calcium (mg) 240 100 75 130 58 290
Phosphorus (mg) 580 320 200 400 440 340
Iron (mg) 9.4 5.9 6.1 6 9.4 12.5
Zinc (mg) 3.2 4 5.5 2.5 5.1 3
Magnesium (mg) 220 150 170 150 100 230

Source: Anonymous 2004

protein fractions show the globulins (15.56% to 13.11%) to and chymotrypsin inhibitors. However, Katoch (2013) re-
have the highest concentration, followed by albumins (7.47% ported lower protein digestibility of rice bean genotypes
to 6.13%), glutelins (2.22% to 1.77%), and prolamins (1.97% in vitro ranging from 51.2% to 55.6%.
to 1.45%). Rice bean also contains essential amino acids, in-
cluding threonine, valine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine,
4.3 Fats
phenylalanine, lysine, histidine and tryptophan in appreciable
amounts when compared with other legumes of the family
Total fat content (1.92% to 3.42%) is considerably less in
such as mung bean, moth bean, black gram, cowpea and kid-
rice bean compared with many other legumes, but the
ney bean (Gopalan et al. 1976; Katoch 2013). Cystine, methi-
composition of fatty acids is excellent with low levels of
onine and tryptophan in rice bean were reported to be in the
saturated fatty acids and large amounts of unsaturated fat-
range of 30.1 to 89.4 mg/g N, 64.6 to 130.1 mg/g N and 53.0
ty acids (Dutta 2000; Sadana et al. 2006; Buergelt et al.
to 102.0 mg/g N, respectively (Singh et al. 1985: Hira et al.
2009; and Katoch 2013). Unsaturated fatty acids are high-
1988 and Sadana et al. 2006).
ly desirable for various metabolic functions and rice bean
Consumption of protein according to the recommended
is reported to be a good source of linolenic acid (39.89%
levels does not ensure the meeting of amino acid require-
to 44.36% of total fatty acids), linoleic acid (17.24% to
ments, as the protein quality depends on their amino acid
18.98%), oleic acid (15.62% to 17.91%), palmitic acid
composition and digestibility (National Research Council
(14.23% to 16.88%), and steric acid (4.36% to 5.87% of
(NRC) 1989). Digestibility of protein is affected by several
total fatty acids) (Pugalenthi et al. 2004; Katoch 2013).
factors such as fiber, polyphenols, tannins, phytates, oxa-
lates and trypsin inhibitors, which are negatively correlated
with digestibility and bioavailability (Admassu Shimelis 4.4 Minerals
and Kumar Rakshit 2005; Gilani et al. 2005; 2012).
Vegetable proteins have comparatively lower digestibility Rice bean contains minerals, including sodium, potassi-
than proteins of animal origin due to their higher content of um, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, zinc, copper, iron,
anti-nutrients. For example, beans, maize, soy flour, oat and manganese in appreciable quantities and has been
meal, rice and wheat have been reported with protein di- reported to have larger amounts than many other legumes
gestibility in the range of 78% to 86%, while eggs, milk, including Phaseolus bean, pea, lentil, cowpea and chick-
meat and fish proteins have shown digestibility ranging pea (Dutta 2000; Saharan et al. 2002 and Katoch 2013).
from 95% to 100% (WHO 1985). Rodriguez and Calcium, copper, zinc, manganese and iron were reported
Mendoza (1991) evaluated the nutritional quality of rice to be in the range of 179 to 340 mg/100 g, 0.58 to
bean and found 82–85% digestibility (in vitro), which 1.12 mg/100 g, 2.19 to 3.39 mg/100 g, 0.58 to 0.68 mg/
was higher than that of mung bean (80%) and cowpea 100 g and 3.79 to 5.80 mg/100 g, respectively (Parvathi
(74%), probably due to lower levels or absence of trypsin and Kumar 2006; Sadana et al. 2006).
Rice bean: A healthy and cost-effective alternative for crop and food diversity

5 Domestic processing of rice bean cultivars 6 Role in raising food and nutritional security
in crop systems
Legumes are among the most versatile and nutritious
foods, however, large amounts of anti-nutritional factors The economic and nutritional importance of legumes is glob-
(ANFs) pose limitations such as decreasing the protein ally recognized and they are thus considered to be a major
quality, and low starch digestibility (Negi et al. 2001), or source of dietary protein in developing countries (Sadana
poor mineral bioavailability (Kamchan et al. 2004). et al. 2006). Although India has a prime position in pulse
Hence, the removal or lowering of these components is production, there has been a continuous decline in per capita
essential for the improvement of the nutritional quality availability of pulses from 69.0 g/day in 1961 to 39.4 g/day in
and the effective utilization of their full potential as hu- 2011 (Sachdeva 2014). During the year 2011–12 in India, the
man food. Simple and inexpensive processing techniques production of pulses (17.09 million tonnes) was much less
are effective for achieving desirable changes in the com- than the requirement (21.3 million tonnes), showing a wide
position of seeds. Different authors have reported that gap between demand and supply (Swaminathan and Bhavani
soaking, cooking and germination improve the quality 2013). Several workers have reported that decreased legume
of legumes because of the removal of some anti- consumption due to low purchasing power among poor peo-
nutritional factors. Among all the domestic processing ple leads to several nutritional disorders (Malla 1999;
methods, soaking is the best to minimize anti- Gebrelibanos et al. 2013; Ricardo 1983; Maphosa and
nutritional factors such as phytic acid and tannins. Jideani 2017). Rice bean possesses great potential to fill this
Soaking also reduces cooking time and saves fuel need and maintain food and nutritional security if cultivated
(Manoj Kumar et al. 2014). Numerous studies have in- by farmers in marginal, non-irrigated and currently uncultivat-
vestigated the influence of processing on the nutritional ed areas as well as contributing to the conservation of biodi-
aspects of rice bean. Bajaj (2014) tested the effect of versity (Gautam et al. 2007).
soaking for 12 h and pressure cooking (for 15 min) on Rice bean has the potential to play a major role in intercrop
four rice bean varieties (RBL-1, RBL-2, RBL-35 and systems, and can also be grown on the edges of terraces or
RBL-50) and found that both methods significantly im- sloping hillsides, as well as on rice bunds and under shifting
proved the nutritional composition of the cultivars by cultivation on hillsides. At present, it is widely grown as an
reducing their phytic acid, trypsin inhibitor, polyphenol intercrop, particularly with maize, but in the past it was also
and saponin contents. In another study, Kaur and Kapoor widely grown on residual water after rice (LI-BIRD 2008). In
(1990) assessed various domestic processing methods addition to the ability of rice bean to utilize atmospheric nitro-
such as soaking, sprouting, ordinary cooking and gen through symbiotic nitrogen fixation (which plays a key
autoclaving for improving the nutritional quality of both role in maintaining soil fertility), it is also effective in mitigat-
soaked and un-soaked seeds of five high yielding varie- ing the problem of soil erosion by increasing the organic mat-
ties (RB-4, RB-32, RB-37, RB-40 and RB-53). The in- ter content of soils, which improves the water infiltration and
vestigators found that soaking and sprouting not only holding capacity of soil and leads to less runoff after rainfall
decreased the anti-nutritional factors but also led to a (Fageria et al. 2005). The crop is adaptable, growing where
progressive and significant increase in both in-vitro soil moisture stress is a limiting factor for the growth and
starch metabolism (from 29.3 mg to 36.5 mg maltose development of other crops, has high nodulating capacity
released/g of meal) and protein digestibility (from 57.2 and is resistant to foliar diseases and stored grain insect-
to 62.8%). Kaur and Kawatra (2000) concluded that pests (Joshi et al. 2006; Gruere et al. 2006; Buergelt et al.
dehulling results in a significant reduction in raffinose 2009; Gill and Kumar 2017). Furthermore, as indicated earli-
and stachyose content. Germination, followed by pres- er, this crop is also tolerant of drought and high temperatures
sure cooking with fermentation and frying of fermented (NAS 1979) and, to some degree, of waterlogging (de
batter causes maximum reduction in raffinose and Carvallho and Vieira 1996). All of these characteristics may
stachyose content. be useful for developing stress tolerant varieties of rice bean
In another study by the same authors, the bioavailability of for specific areas.
zinc in kidney, spleen and liver of rats was assessed by feeding The crop also contributes towards flourishing remote rural
the rats differently-processed rice bean diets, i.e. soaked and markets in developing countries such as India, as the highest
pressure cooked; sprouted; sprouted and pressure cooked and mean price (Indian Rupees (INR) 26.40/−) was noticed in
dehulled and pressure cooked. Among all the groups, the rats villages compared with urban markets of mid-sized towns
fed on sprouted and pressure cooked rice bean had higher and large city markets (INR 19.17/− and 21.97/−, respectively
body weights, femur zinc and retention of zinc in liver, kidney (Buergelt et al. 2008). Thus, the crop aids food security for the
and spleen (Kaur and Kawatra 2002a, b). masses by adding to their food baskets in times of food short-
age in areas with limited livelihood options. Although the crop
 Dhillon P.K., Tanwar B.

does not usually contribute directly to household income it characteristics as a means of generating food and sustain-
does help to decrease expenditure on other pulses, the pur- able income for local farmers. The crop also broadens the
chase of seeds for the next season and of animal feed and research options for less-fertile lands such as arid zones of
fodder, and other needs (Otim 2009). Also, it is neither developing countries. In Nepal, for instance, the area of
neglected on cultural grounds nor subject to food taboos. rice bean has been decreasing due to its poor yields (200–
Therefore, it holds great potential as a ‘high quality, low cost 300 kg/ha). The Indian varieties reported in this paper
food’ for vulnerable members of society. have higher yield potential (1500–1700 kg/ha), and these
can be introduced into Nepal. There are possibilities of
promoting this crop as a low pesticide or organic farming
7 Promotion and awareness option in developing nations owing to its adequate resis-
tance against viral, fungal and bacterial diseases, and this
The commercialization and consumption of rice bean has aspect requires further research.
received little attention and both farmers and consumers There is an urgent need to focus on rice bean as a food
are still largely unaware of its enormous potential to sup- item and various studies should be undertaken to find the
port food and nutritional security. The germplasm base of varieties that consumers prefer with better taste and
old varieties should be used to provide diversity in new cooking/processing qualities. Additionally, studies can be
varieties and flexibility in seed selection. Breeding and undertaken on enhancing the bio-availability of nutrients
on-farm trials should be conducted for the continued im- by reducing anti-nutritional factors in the crop. Also, val-
provement and deployment of the crop. Sources of seeds ue addition of rice bean can be initiated by incorporating
(in networks and markets) should be well located for con- it into traditional food items, which could pave the way
venient distribution and availability of seeds. Access can for the development of nutritional snack foods, which
be improved through informing wider groups about the might achieve both normal and therapeutic nutritional
crop, distributing seed kits at fairs and at block level by goals. Very little is known about the socio-economic fac-
farm science centers in countries such as India. tors of the crop which affect adoption by farmers and far
Furthermore, making farmers aware about local seed pro- more should be done in this area. A few studies have been
duction and quality (in terms of germination and disease carried out in India and Nepal under FOSRIN (Food
resistance) is essential. Additionally, timely dissemination Security through Rice Bean Research in India and
of knowledge on the adaptation, growing methods and Nepal) and recently a multi-disciplinary research ap-
utilization of rice bean is needed. Non-government orga- proach focusing on nutritional aspects and socio-
nizations can be involved in the marketing process. Value economics has been initiated with the aim of improving
addition and better packaging can also be used in im- the status of rice bean in several areas.
proved marketing strategies. Rice bean should be intro-
duced at popular food outlet chains (Sthapit 2010). For
further research, chemical, nutritional and sensory evalu- 9 Conclusion
ations along with market surveys should all be done for
various varieties at specified intervals. The most preferred Dietary diversification along with better associations
varieties in terms of their traits and processing should be among crop production, consumption and human nutrition
introduced and extended widely. This could lead to the is a cost effective and sustainable approach to tackle mal-
development of novel foods from rice bean, which may nutrition and strengthen local food systems. Rice bean is a
help to reduce malnutrition. good source of protein, vitamins and minerals, and is
suitable for degraded soils and adverse climatic condi-
tions. Its multipurpose uses as human food, fodder and
8 Future research manure represent it as a promising healthy and economic
addition to farms in under-developed communities.
Rice bean is a traditional but underutilized Borphan^ pulse However, there are many gaps in current research and
in India and Nepal. BOrphan^ crops are locally plentiful promotion of rice bean and much more work is warranted.
but globally rare; little scientific information about them Policies should be developed to facilitate research projects
is available and their current use is limited relative to their on local underutilized plant species such as rice bean and
potential (Buergelt et al. 2008). It is essential that the the participation of farmers in them should be encouraged.
existing germplasm is catalogued accurately and dissemi- To enhance its cultivation, researchers should develop va-
nated widely. Although some research has been done on rieties that farmers and consumers prefer and should plan
the genetic improvement of rice bean, this crop needs to dissemination activities to highlight their value to such
be further improved by breeding varieties with different people in developing countries that are facing the burden
Rice bean: A healthy and cost-effective alternative for crop and food diversity

of malnutrition, including Guatemala, Tanzania, Sierra and CAZS natural resources, College of Natural Sciences, Bangor
University, Wales, UK.
Leone, South Africa, and India.
Gebrelibanos, M., Tesfaye, D., Raghavendra, Y., & Sintayeyu, B. (2013).
Nutritional and health implications of legumes. International
Compliance with ethical standards Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, 4, 1269–1279.
Gilani, G. S., Cockell, K. A., & Sepehr, E. (2005). Effects of
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of antinutritional factors on protein digestibility and amino acid avail-
interest. ability in foods. Journal of AOAC International, 88(3), 968–987.
Gilani, G. S., Wu Xiao, A., & Cockell, K. A. (2012). Impact of
antinutritional factors in food proteins on the digestibility of protein
and the bioavailability of amino acids and on protein quality. British
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Rice bean: A healthy and cost-effective alternative for crop and food diversity

Dr. Beenu Tanwar is an Assistant

Zaman, Q., & Malik, M. A. (2000). Ricebean (Vigna umbellatta) produc-
Professor in the Department of
tivity under various maize-ricebean intercropping systems.
Dairy Technology. Previously,
International Journal of Agricultural and Biology, 2, 255–257.
she was an Assistant Professor at
Lovely Professional University,
Jalandhar, India. She is a re-
searcher and author, having pub-
lished numerous peer-reviewed
Piverjeet Kaur Dhillon complet- articles in the fields of Food
ed her Masters in Food and S c i e n c e & Te c h n o l o g y a n d
Nutrition in 2008 from Punjab Nutrition. Her Master of Science
Agricultural University, Ludhiana. in Food Technology was awarded
She has earned experience in clini- by Sri Sathya Sai Institute of
cal dietetics from S. P. S. Apollo Higher Learning, Anantapur,
Hospitals, Ludhiana and also de- India and her Doctorate in Food
veloped her knowledge and skills Science and Nutrition was obtained from CSK Himachal Pradesh
in the field of teaching, research Agricultural University, Palampur, India. She received a Junior
and extension while working as Research Fellowship Award from the University Grants Commission
a teaching assistant in the (UGC), New Delhi, India and has attended subject-specific skill-oriented
Department of Food and Nutrition courses, training sessions and several seminars, conferences, and work-
in Punjab Agricultural University, shops, receiving several best poster paper awards for her presentations.
Ludhiana. Ms. Dhillon has pub- She is a member of the Indian Association for Parenteral and Enteral
lished her original research and re- Nutrition (IAPEN), Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA),
view papers in reputed journals along with presenting her work in national Indian Dairy Association (IDA) and Association of Food Scientists and
and international conferences. Presently, she is a Ph. D student at Lovely Technologists India (AFSTI). Addionally, she is dynamically involved in
Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India. Her areas of interest are teaching (graduate and doctorate students) and has supervised about 15
public health nutrition, dietetics and food product development. students for their Masters’ and Doctorate research work in Food
Technology and Nutrition & Dietetics.