MODULE 3

Potentiometers
A. Crompton’s DC potentiometer
B. Drysdale AC potentiometer
Instrument Transformers
Current Transformer (CT) and Potential Transformers (PT)
 Theory
 Equivalent circuit and phasor diagram
 Characteristics
 Construction Dr. Tapas Kr. Maji
 POTENTIOMETER
Applications:
1. Measurement of unknown EMF, Resistance, Current,
Power
2. Comparison of two EMF cells
3. Internal resistance of a EMF cell
4. Calibration of Ammeter and Voltmeter
 Type of Potentiometers
A. DC Potentiometer
1. Crompton’s DC Potentiometer
2. Vernier DC Potentiometer
3. Constant resistance DC Potentiometer/ Brook’s
Deflection DC Potentiometer
B. AC Potentiometer
1. Drysdale Potentiometer
2. Gall-Tinsley Potentiometer
 Basic slide wire potentiometer
Construction
 7-8 m long CONSTANTAN/ MANGANIN wire*
[*Alloy, low (+ve) temp. coefficient]
Voltage across the potentiometer (V)=iR

Potential gradient (k)= volt/m

Voltage across the potentiometer (V)=iR

Potential gradient (k)= volt/m

Basic slide-wire Potentiometer
DC Potentiometer

Invented by Johann Christian Poggendorff in 1841

1900
1922 model
1940
1940
Crompton’s DC Potentiometer
Working

A. Standardization of the potentiometer its self

B. Finding the unknown emf cell
 10 Ω= 0.1 V

1.0186 V
 10 Ω= 0.1 V

200 division

1.0186 V
 10 Ω= 0.1 V

200 division

Voltage/division=
0.0005 V

1.0186 V
 10 Ω= 0.1 V

200 division

Voltage/division=
0.0005 V

Read up to 1/5 times of

1.0186 V each division

=0.0001 V
 10 Ω= 0.1 V
0.1×15= 1.5 V 10 Ω= 0.1 V

200 division

Voltage/division=
0.0005 V

Read up to 1/5 times of

1.0186 V each division

=0.0001 V
Steps
1. Switch ‘S’ is placed at calibrate.
2. Set the Dial corresponding to the value of standard
cell.
3. Vary the working current by varying the rheostat
until the galvanometer shows null deflection.
4. When the galvanometer shows null deflection at a
particular value of potentiometer, we can say the
voltage drop in the potentiometer is equal to the
standard cell.
5. Now connect the switch to ‘operate’. Vary the dial
and circular switch till the galvanometer reaches the
null deflection.
Description:
 Two set of resistance is available: 1) DIAL SWITCH and
2) CIRCULAR SLIDE WIRE
 The DIAL SWITCH has 15 steps of precision resistor.
The value of each step is 10 ohm. Hence, the total
resistance is 150 ohm.
 One single turn CIRCULAR SLIDE wire is used having
the total resistance is 10 ohm.
 The working current of the potentiometer is 10 mA.
Therefore, the voltage drop in each step is

(10  103 ) A  10  0.1 V

Description: (Continued..)
 Slide is provided with 200 divisions. So, for each
division, the voltage drop is (0.1/200)=0.005 V.
 The double throw switch ‘S’ can make the connection
with standard cell or unknown EMF but any one at a
time.
 The key and the protective resistor of 10kΩ is used for
protection purpose.
STEPS
1. The combination of dial resistance and slide wire is
set to be the standard cell voltage. For example, if
the voltage of the standard cell is 1.0186 V, the dial
resistor should be set into 1V (10steps) and the
slide wire should be set to 0.186mV.
2. Connect the switch ‘S’ to calibrate position and
adjust the rheostat till the null deflection in the
galvanometer can be achieved. This process called
as standardization of the potentiometer.
STEPS
3. After standardization of the potentiometer, connect
the switch ‘S’ to “operate”.
4. Vary the dial and circular slide till the galvanometer
shows the null deflection.
5. Note down the value of the DIAL and CIRCULAR
pointer.
6. That same value is considered to the value of
unknown EMF.
 AC Potentiometer
 An ac potentiometer is same as dc potentiometer by principle.

 The main difference between the ac and dc potentiometer is that, in case of dc

potentiometer, only the magnitude of the unknown emf is compared with the
standard cell emf, but in ac potentiometer, the magnitude as well as phase angle of
the unknown voltage is compared to achieve balance
 Types
1. Polar form (V θ)
As the name indicates, in these potentiometers, the unknown emf is
measured in polar form, i.e., in terms of its magnitude and relative
phase. The magnitude is indicated by one scale and the phase with
respect to some reference axis is indicated by another scale. There is
provision for reading phase angles up to 360°.
2. Coordinate form
Here, the unknown emf is measured in Cartesian form. Two components
along and perpendicular to some standard axis are measured and indicated
directly by two different scales known as in phase (V1 ) and quadrature

(V2 ) scales.
V  v12  v 22
v2
  ta n  1
v1
Drysdale Potentiometer

VG

Vibration type
galvanometer
Drysdale Potentiometer

VG

Vibration type
galvanometer
Construction
 The instrument consists of ordinary DC type potentiometer
 A phase shifting transformer consists of laminated silicon steel stator which includes two
phase winding, one variable resistor and a variable capacitor.
 The rotor is also a laminated structured having slot in which, a winding is provided.
 There is a small air gap between the rotor and the stator. When current flows in the stator
winding, a rotating field is produced, thereby inducing an emf in the rotor winding.
 The phase displacement of rotor emf being equal to the angle through which the rotor has
been moved from its zero position.
 A scale and pointer arc provided on top of the instrument to indicate the angle through
which rotor has been moved from its zero position, The scale is graduated, both in
degrees and cosines of the angles.
 The resistor and the capacitor is used as the phase shifting device to make the phase angle
between two currents is equal to 90 .
Working
V
I2

V Rotating magnetic field

I2
I1
Point to be noted:
1. The potentiometer supply is fed through the same unknown AC supply.
2. The ordinary DC potentiometer needs to be calibrate first using a DC source and
a D’arsonval galvanometer.
Crompton’s DC Potentiometer
Problem: A Crompton’s potentiometer consists of a resistance dial having 15 steps of 10 Ω each
and a series connected slide wire of 10 Ω which is divided into 100 divisions. If the working
current of the potentiometer is 10 mA and each division of slide wire can be read accurately up
𝟏
to 𝟓th of its span, calculate the resolution of the potentiometer in volts.

Hint.
1. Find total resistance
2. Total voltage range of the potentiometer
3. Voltage drop across the slide wire
4. Find voltage for each division
5. Find the resolution
 Instrument Transformers
 Necessity of measuring AC voltage, current, power, energy, etc in alternators,
motors, transmission lines, transformers, relays, etc which are operated at High
voltage (in the range of 100 kV) and High current (in the range of kA during
fault).
How to solve the problem?
 How to solve the problem?

Extend the range of the voltmeter, ammeters, etc

 Circuit Breaker

Instrument
Relay
Transformer
 Circuit Breaker

Instrument
Relay
Transformer
 Circuit Breaker

Instrument
Relay
Transformer
Challenges: If the measuring instruments are directly power lines directly.
It poses danger the person who operates
It requires high insulation for the safety of instruments
Due to high insulation, size and cost of the instruments becomes greater.

Objective
Safety of the operator from high voltage and current.
Safety of the instruments from direct connection with power lines
Reducing the insulation cost and the instruments’ size.
Solution
Before connecting the instruments to the power lines,

Step down the voltage through transformer

Step down the current through transformer

NOTE: The value of the stepped down voltage and current depend on the
allowable range of the measuring instruments.
Transformer that

step down the current is named as CURRENT TRANSFORMER (CT)

step down the voltage is as POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER (PT)

They are used for measuring purpose: “INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS”

 What is the difference between the power/ distribution
transformer with the CT and PT?
The basic operating principles are theoretically same

However, their design, construction, and usage/ applications are different.

Instrument transformers and made for measuring purpose. Therefore, there

accuracy should be very high compared to the power transformers.

Therefore designing of the CT and PT are different to reduce the losses and
errors.
• Basics of single-phase Transformer

Ip=10 A Is= ?

Vp
Vs
=200 V
=100 V
Sample of construction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=82PpCzM2CUg

Experimental demo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ID7gG6krecI
 Important terminology used in Instruments
transformers
A. Ratio of instrument transformers
1. Transformation ratio (R) 2. Nominal ratio ( 𝒏)

R= =

R= =
3. Turns ratio (n)
4. Ratio correction factor (RCF)
.
n= ( )
.
=
( )
.
n=
.
 Current Transformer (CT)

What we learnt from the introduction?

 It is a transformer that step down the current from primary to secondary.

 The primary coil is connected in series to the power line and load.

 The measuring instrument connected across the secondary of the CT.

 Across the secondary terminal of the CT, we can connect ammeter, current coil of
wattmeter and energy meter.
Dr. Tapas. Kr. Maji
V1  E1  I1 ( R1  jX 1 )
E2  V2  I 2 ( R2  jX 2 )
V2  E2  I 2 ( R2  jX 2 )
I1  I  I 0
'
2
C I V I L
𝐸

𝐸
 𝐸

𝐸
 𝐸

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
𝐼

𝐸
 𝐸

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
𝐼

𝐸
 𝐸 n𝐼

δ
𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
𝐼

k= n =
𝐼

𝐸
 𝐸 n𝐼

δ
𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
𝐼

𝐸
 𝐼

𝐸 n𝐼

δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
𝐼

𝐸
 𝐼

𝐸 n𝐼

δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
 𝐼

𝐸 n𝐼

δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
 𝐼

𝐸 n𝐼

δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
Two important parameter in both CT and PT which need to be
quantified
1. Transformation ratio (R)
**Discussed in the previous slide.

2. Phase angle (θ)

In CT, the angle by which the secondary current phasor, when reversed, defers
in phase from the primary current, is known as the phase angle of the CT.
 The secondary winding current should be displaced by from the primary
winding current.

 But due to the presence of parallel branches, the difference is not exactly . It
causes some error in the operation of the CT.

 The angle is treated as positive when the reversed secondary current ( ) leads
the primary current ( ).

 The angle is treated as negative when the reversed secondary current ( ) lags
the primary current ( ).
 b
c
90 𝐼

𝐸 a
n𝐼
δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
o 𝐼

1. Transformation ratio (R)

 b
c
90 𝐼

𝐸 a
n𝐼
δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
o 𝐼
 b
c
90 𝐼

𝐸 a
n𝐼
δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
o 𝐼
 b
c
90 𝐼

𝐸 a
n𝐼
δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
o 𝐼
 b
c
90 𝐼

𝐸 a
n𝐼
δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
o 𝐼
 b
c
90 𝐼

𝐸 a
n𝐼
δ θ

𝐼 𝐼

α
φ
o 𝐼
Construction of CT
 Characteristics of CT
1. Effect of power factor of
secondary winding burden
For inductive burden, lags behind the
secondary induced emf so that δ is
positive, and in such condition, the
transformation ratio (R) is higher than the
turns ratio (n) and vice-versa when, the
burden is capacitive.
𝐼
𝑅=𝑛+ sin(δ + α)
𝐼
2. Effect of phase angle
θ is positive for small values of δ (higher
secondary pf)and θ becomes negative as the
secondary burden becomes more inductive and
δ approaches .

( )
θ
3. Effect of change in primary winding current
If the primary winding current changes, secondary winding current also changes
proportionately.
For smaller values of , the and are greater proportion, therefore the error is also
greater. As increases, the ratio error and phase angle error decreases.
4. Effect of change in secondary circuit burden
 Increase in secondary circuit burden impedance means increase in volt-ampere rating.

 It further increases the φ

 So error increases.

5. Effect of change in frequency

 Increase in frequency, will decrease the flux density, and it gives less error in the
calculation of R and θ.
 Potential Transformer (PT)

What we learnt from the introduction?

 It is a transformer that step down the voltage from primary to secondary.

 The primary coil is connected in parallel with the power line or load.

 The measuring instruments are connected across the secondary of the PT.

 Across the secondary terminal of the PT, we can connect voltmeter, pressure coil
of wattmeter and energy meter.
Dr. Tapas. Kr. Maji
 Important terminology used in Instruments
transformers
A. Ratio of instrument transformers
1. Transformation ratio (R) 2. Nominal ratio ( 𝒏)

R= =

𝐏𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆

R= =
𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐏𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
3. Turns ratio (n)
4. Ratio correction factor (RCF)
.
n= ( )
.
=
( )
𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
n=
𝐍𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

B. Burden of an instrument transformer

The load at the secondary of the instrument transformers are expressed in
volt-ampere and the rated burden is the allowable volt-ampere loading
without exceeding the error limit.
B. Burden of an instrument transformer
The load at the secondary of the instrument transformers are expressed in
volt-ampere and the rated burden is the allowable volt-ampere loading
without exceeding the error limit.

( )
=

AND due to load

( )
=
 Difference between CT and PT
1. CT is used for measuring the current.
PT is used for measuring the voltage.

2. In CT, primary winding is connected in series with load.

In PT, primary winding is connected in parallel to the voltage
to be measured.

3. CT step down the current.

PT step down the voltage.
4. In CT, primary winding turn is less than the secondary winding turn.
In PT, primary winding turn is higher than the secondary winding turn.

5. In CT, sometimes, there is no primary winding.

In PT, primary winding must be there.

6. In CT, most cases output or secondary terminal cannot be kept open.

In PT, secondary can be kept short.

7. CT’s output is short circuit proof.

PT’s output is not short circuit proof.
8. In CT, high resistive burden is not safe. Low resistive burden is safe.
In PT, high resistive burden is safe. Low resistive burden is not safe.

9. The impedance of CT is not so significant.

The impedance of PT is highly significant.

10. In CT, it is difficult to maintain accuracy for input current variation .

In PT, it is easier to maintain accuracy for input voltage variation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4pTWi8jgqd0
 𝒔
𝒔
 𝑉 𝐼

θ Δ
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
𝐸

𝐸
𝐸

𝐼 𝐼

φ
𝐼

𝐸
 𝐸

𝐼 𝐼

φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
 𝐼

𝐼 𝐼

φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
 𝐼

Δ
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
 𝐼

Δ
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
 𝐼

Δ
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
 𝐼

Δ
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
 𝑉 𝐼

θ Δ
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
𝐼

𝐼 𝑉

𝐸
Two important parameter in both CT and PT which need to be
quantified
1. Transformation ratio (R)

𝒑
R=
𝒔

2. Phase angle (θ)

In PT, the angle by which the secondary terminal voltage phasor (n 𝒔 ), when
reversed, defers in phase from the primary supply voltage ( 𝒑) , is known as the
phase angle of the PT.
𝑉

𝐼 𝑟
𝐼
c
𝐸

θ
Δ e
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
o 𝐼
𝑉

𝐼 𝑟
𝐼
c
𝐸

θ
Δ e
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
o 𝐼
𝑉

𝐼 𝑟
𝐼
t c
𝐸

θ
Δ e
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
o 𝐼
𝑉 m
n a
β

𝐼 𝑟
𝐼
t c
𝐸

θ
Δ e
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
o 𝐼
𝑉 m
n a
β
j
β
𝐼 𝑟
β 𝐼
t c
𝐸

θ
Δ e
𝐼 𝐼
β

φ
o 𝐼
𝑉 m
n a
β
j
β
𝐼 𝑟
β p

t 90-β c
𝐸 Δ
i
g ≈β
Δ k
𝐼 ≈Δ
f
h
θ
Δ e
𝐼 𝐼 q
β

d
φ
o 𝐼
 Construction
Design and construction of PT basically same as power transformer but few major
differences are there.

Power transformers are designed keeping in view of efficiency, regulation and

cost. In order to reduce the cost, the core and conductor sizes are small.

In PT, cost is not a consideration and it should have low ratio and phase angle
error.

In order to do that, PT has larger core and conductor size.

The output of PT is always small in length and bigger size. Therefore temperature
rise is small and no thermal problems caused due to overload.

CORE
The core may core type or shell type.

Shell type is used for low voltage applications.

Proper precaution should be taken care while assembling the core in order to
minimize the air gap.
WINDING
In order to reduce the insulation problem, the low voltage winding is placed next
to the core.

INSULATION

Cotton type or varnished cambric for coil construction.

Hard fibre used between coils.

BUSHING
CT needs only one bushing as leads from the two leads.

For a single supply, PT needs two bushing.

Numerical