Chapter 1

Plato

THE RING OF GYGES

HEN I HAD said this I Lhougbt I had done There is certainly such a third kind, I said. but
W with the dfacussion, but evidently this
was only a prelude. Glaucon on tl1is occasion
why do you ask?
Under which of these headings do you put
100 showed 1ha1 boldness which Is charac1eris1ic justice? he asked.
of him, and refused to accept Thrasymachus' I would myself put it in the fine.~t class, I said.
abandoning the argument. He said: Do you, that which is to be welcomed both for itself and
Socrates, want to appear to have persuaded us. for its consequences by any man who is to be
or do you want truly to convince us that it is blessed with happiness.
be11er in every way co be just than unjust? That is not the opinion of the many, he said;
I would certainly wish co convince you truly, they would put it in the wearisome class, to be
I said, ifI could. pursued for the rewards and popularity which
Well, he said, you are certainly not attaining come from a good reputation, but to be avoided
your wish. Tell me, do you think there is a kind in itself as being difficult.
of good which we welcome not because we I know that is the general opinion, I said.
desire its consequences but for its own sake: joy, Justice has now for some time been objected to
for cxmtple, and all the harmless pleasures by Thrasymachus on this score while injustice
which have no further consequences beyond the was extolled, but it seems I am a slow le.arner.
joy which one finds in them? Come then, he said, listen to me also to see
Cerwn.ly. said I, I think there is such a good. whether you are still of the same opinion, for I
Funher, there is the good which we welcome think that Thrasymachus gave up before he had
for its own sake and also for its consequences, to, charmed by you as by a snake charmer. I am
bowledge for eumple and sight and health. Such not yet satisfied by the demonstration on either
dungs WI: somehow welcome on both counts. side. I am eager to hear the nature of each, of
justice and injustice, and what effect its presence
a third kind, he asked, has upon the soul. I want to leave out of account
being treated when ill, the rewards and consequences of each. So, if you
and other ways of agree, I will do the following: I will renew the
ay that these are argument of Thrasyrnachus; I will first state
m; we should not what people consider the nature and origin of
llaa because of the justice; secondly, that all who practise it do so
ftSult from unwillingly as being something necessary but
not good; thirdly, that they have good reason to
 g Plo10

Even tho se wh o pr•c tise just ice do

do so, for, .1ccordmg to" '1,at pc·ople s,y 1he life ,hei r will beeause the y lack the pow
so a&.lln.'it
ofth ~ unju st m.1n is muc h hell er than th~t of the er to do
wro n . This we cou ld re~ lze very clea
rly if""•
just. _g eel urselves gr>.nttng to bot h the
h is not that I thin k so, Socrates,_ but J am inug1n. o )ust •nd
I ed .nd my ears .ire dc.1fened hstc
. to the unJ ust t I1e frecdo1n to do wh uev er th
pcrp ex .nm g ty
Thr.1.s) •nuchus .1nd lnnu .me rable ot I1er spe.ikers: liked. We Coul d the n foll,ow bo1h of the n, •nd
I lu.ve ne\'cr he.ird from a.nyone
f obscr-ie whe re the ir des ires led
the sort . o the m, ~nd ~'t
defe nce of just ice that I wan t to he.t would catch tl1e just ma n red han ded
r. pro vmg travelling
tha.t It is beu cr t.hcl.n injustice. I wan the sam e ro.id i!S the un1ust. The reas
t to hea r ll on is th,
r.is ed for icsclf, md I think I am mo.st desire for und ue gal n wh ich eve ry
li~ely 10 organisn, by
~e>. r this from 1•ou. Therefo natu re pur sue s as a goo d. but the
re I am going '.o law forcibly
speak at length In praise of the unjust sidetracks him to hon our equaluy.
life and Lil T_he freedom
doi ng so I will sho w you the way 1 wan 1 just me ntl·one d wo uld mo st eastly oceur ,f
t ~o hea r thes e me n had the pow er wh ich
you den oun cing inju stke an d pra.• ing 1ustlce. they say th,
is
Sec whe ther 1·ou ww t to heu wha ancestor of the Lydian Gyg es pos
t I suggesL d sessed. Th,
J wan t it mor e tha.n any thin g else stor y is that he was a she phe rd in
, I sa1 • the service of
Indeed, what subject would a man _of the rule r of Lydia. The re wa s a vio len
sen se/a lk t rainstorm
a.nd hea r .ibo ut mor e ofte n wit h enJ and an ear thq uak e wh ich bro ke ope
oym cnl. n the ground
Splendid, he sa.id, then listen while and created a cha sm at !he pla ce wh
I deal ere he w,.
wit h the first subject I mentioned: ten din g she ep. See ing this and mar
the nature vell ing , ht
md origin of justice. wen t dow n into it. He saw, bes ide
s man y other
They Qy that to do wro ng is natu won der s of wh ich we a.re told , a hol
rally _good. low bronze
IO be wro nge d is bad. but the horse. The re wer e win dow -lik e ope
suffering of m1ury nin gs in it;
50 far exceeds in badness the goo d of infl icti ng he clim bed thro ugh the m and cau
ii that when men have don e wro
ght sigh t of•
ng to eac h cor pse wh ich see me d of mo re
oth er and suffered it, and have tha n human
had a taste of stat ure , wea ring not hin g but a rin
bot h. those wh o are unable to avo g of gold on
id the latter its finger. Thi s rin g the she phe rd
md practise the form er dec ide that put on and
it is pro fit- cam e out . He arri ved at the usu
able to com e to an agreement wit h al monthly
each oth er mee ting wh ich rep orte d to the kin
nei the r to inflict injury nor to suff g on the state
er it. As a of the flocks, wea ring the ring . As
resu lt they begin to make Jaws and he was sitting
covenants, am ong the oth ers he hap pen ed to
.u,d the Jaw's com man d they call law twi st the hoop
ful and just. of the rin g tow ard s him self . to the
Thi s, !he y say, is the orig in and insi de of his
essence of han d, and as he did this he bec am
Jus tice ; lr stm ds betw een the bes t and e invisible to
the wor st, tho se sitt ing nea r him and the y we
the bes t bei ng 10 do wro ng nt on ulii ng
wit hou t pay ing the
perulry md the wor st to be wro nge d as if he bad gon e. He ma rve lled
wit hou t at this and,
the pc, wer of revenge. The jUSI the fing erin g the rin g, he tur ned the
n Is a me an hoo p out wu d
bet wee n rwo ext rem es; it is agu n and bec am e visi ble . Per cei
-lc om ed and vin g this be
hoo our ed bec aus e ofme n's lack of the test ed wh eth er the rin g md this
pow er to pow er and so it
do wron& 11a e 111.tn wh o ms dw pow hap pen ed: if he tur ned the hoo
u, the p inw .rds be
mm , would nu ke a compaa with myone bec am e inv isib le, but wa s vis
DO t ible wh en ht
nor ro IDBkt JDjury or suffer IL For him tur ned it out wa rds . Wh en he rea
lize d lhis , he at
tha t
wuuid be ... ... .. 1hts cbm , Somres onc e arr ang ed to bec om e one of
the ,nessengcts
. la, IO the kin~ He we nt, com mi ued
~ • . . ... ... -.l be m an adulta')' wiih
wl the king', Wife, atla cke d the king wll
h her bdP-
kill ed him, and took ewer the kin
gdo m-
 The nng of Gyges 9

one wor n
Now lftht"rc wer e two such ring~, reputation for )us.Ice, •nd our perfectly
unjust
st, no one, . We
by ,he just nun , the mh er by the unju man must he granted pcrfcnio n In inju stice
•S ll><·Se people tlunk, would be so
Incorruptible must allow
must not 1>kc this from him, but we
ice or bring crimes. he
that he would stay on the path of just that, while com111i11ing the greatest
ple's prop- reputa•
himsdf10 kt't•p awJy from oth er peo has provided him sdf with the greatest
er!) ' and nm touc h ii, when he
could \\1th impu- tlon for jusllce; if he makes a ~lip
he must be
ihe market sufficiently
nil)' take "lw evc r he wanted from able 10 put it right; he must be a
tions will; of his is
go into houses •nd have sexual rela pt'rsuaslve speaker if some wrongdoing
all those he e, where
wro ne he wanted, kill anyone, free made pubhc; he must be able to use forc
01her 1hings courage, his
wished from prison, and do the force Is needed, whh 1he help of his
amon~ men. \\1th whi ch
which would make him like a god Mrcngth, and 1he friends and wealth
erent from
His aclions would be in no wa)' diff he has provided himself.
bo1h follow now in
,hose of the oth er and they would Having described such a ma.n, let us
is a grcai just man,
the sa.me J).llh. This, som e would say, our argumcn1 put beside him 1he
chylus put
pro of 1ha1 no one is jus1 willingl
y' bu1 und er simple as he is and noble, who, as Aes
to be so. We
compulsion. so 1ha1 jus1ke is no1
one 's privaie ii, 1 does nm wish to appear just but
a reputation
good. since wherever eith er though1 he cou
ld mus1 lake away his reputation, for
rewards,
do 1\7ong wi1h impuni1y he would
do so. Every for juslice would bring him hon our a.nd
ther he is
man believes 1ha1 injustice is mu ch
more profii- and ii would then not be clear whe
the sake of
able 10 him self than jus1ice, and any
exponent of wha1 he is for justice's sa.ke or for
p him of
this .ugu men t will say thai he is righ
t. The man rewards and honour. We must stri
e him the
who did no1 \\1sh to do wro ng
wit h tha1 everything excep1 juslice and mak
ugh he does
opportunity, and did not 1ouch 01h
er people's comple1e opposite of the other. Tho
repu1ation
se wh o knew no wrong, he must have the greaiest
property, wou ld be 1hougb1 by tho 1cs1ed for
They would for 1no ngd oin g so tha1 he may be
it 10 be very foolish and miserable. te and its
ano1her, justice by nol weakening und er ill repu
pr.lise him in pub lic, thu s deceiving one lible way
ch for my consequences. Lei him go his incorrup
for feu of being wro nge d. So mu for injuslice
unlil deaih ,vJth a repu1ation
second topic. so that our
arc 1hroughout his life, just tho ugh he is,
As for the cho ice betw een the lives we of justice,
recl 1wo men may reach the extremes, one
dilcusllllg, we shall be able to mak e a cor be judged as
1he 01her of injustice, and lei the m
Jadlmmt abo ut it onl y if we put 1he mos 1 jusl
; to whi ch of the two is the happier.
- md the mo st unj ust man face to face , wha t a
to face I Whew! My dea r Glaucon, I said
Glilflllwlse we can not do so. By face
mig hty scouring you have given thos
e two char-
ust the full est
11111: let us gra nt to the unj
acters, as if they wer e statues in a com
petition.
and to the just the full est
of mju sllc e two being
n pur suit . I do the best I can , he replied. The
bein g per fect in his ow
uld be no
er craf tsm en suc h as I have des crib ed, the re sho
mm wil l act as clev thro ugh as
difficulty in following the arg um ent
for exa mp le or physician h of them , but it
10 wha t kind of life awaits eac
his aaft can do and wh at it sou nds rather
mu st be said. And if wha t I say
he wil l und erta ke, the latt er I wh o
can boorish, Socrates, realize that it is not
hen he slip s he put er-
speak. but tho se wh o pr.lise injustice as pref
man's cor rec t attempts in
t; the one who
able to justice. The y will say that the just man
d
e drc Um sW lces wil l be whi ppe d. stre tche
poor performer, thes eyes bur nt out ,
on the rack, imp riso ned , have his
Is to 1Yve a
 10 Pkuo

a11d af1rr sufftring rv,·ry hnd ofn-J, he wUI be g umcnt.s oppo>ite 10 those he mcntioneq ·. ·
' and rrali,e that one ~liould not wan110.
,mJl,llcd ar
I • pulse 1·us1ice and ceruure
which . lnJUstic.'·
t 1ose •• c be Glaucon s lnte.ntlon Iliat
be JU~t but to appear so. Indeed, Aeschylus that what 1 ""e 10 h
words uc fa more correctly applied to the be dearer. WI,en fathers speak 10 t cir sons, th..,
so ·,
unju,t 1han to the JU<I,
• fior we 5haII be told 1ha1 5 Yone mu;t be. just-and so do ill
. . . who tare far
the unju,1 man pursues a cours·e whkh is based ~
them but t ey h do not praise . dItself,
1us11ce h on!
' tations it leads to, in or er l at,~
on truth and not on appcuanccs; he docs not the lltgh rcpu . ,L ~"
ght be just, shall en1oy pub);..
son thou
10 u,~
w;mt to appeu but to be unju\l: h h ...
offices• marria • ges • and the rest w Jc Glaur. "'Q

He h.tr,-esis in his heut a dttp furrow mennoncu,• • _, as they belong to the Just ""· ··""
from wluch good counsels grow. because o f his high repute; they lay. even grea,- -....
emp ass h I O n the results of reputauon. They a~,
""

t
He rules his city bc<..tu,e Or h•ts rr pumioa for popularity granted by the gods, and mentioQ
justice he nwries into any family he wants abundant blessings which. they say, the gads
h •• ' his cluldrcn in muriagc 10 anyone e grant to the pious. So too the noble Hesiod illd
e g11es he 1w comnctual and other assoda-
wishes _ Homer declare,' the one that for the just Ult
' d ire
uons with anyone he may cs • an • d beside ""
. f
11
ods mal:e "the oak trees bear acorns ac the lop
these advan1.1ges, he bcneIi IS in the purswt .o ~d bees in the middle and their II~ sheep ~c
gain
• un.ause
L-- h•, does not scruple 10 . pracuse. heavy with their bUiden of wool and millt
inJustlce. In any contest, public or private, he IS other blessings of like nature. The other lays
the winner, getting the belier of his enemies and similar things:
accumulating wealth; he benefits hls friends and
does harm to hls enemies. To the gods he offers (like the fame) of a goodly king who, in his
grand sacrifices and gifts which will satisfy piety,
them, he can serve the gods much belier than upholds justice; for him the black earth
lht ;1151 man, and also such men as he wants to, be.us wheat
widt die ~ult that be is likely to be deuer 10
and barley and the trees are heavy With frUit;
!ht gods. This is what they say, Socmes, that his
boch from gods and men the unjust man secures
I heller life man the just.
sheep bear lambs continually and the sea
provides its fish.
Alier Gliucon has thus spoken I again had it
ID lll1Dd 10 sq something in reply, but his
Musaeus• and his son grant from the gods more
llocber Adeimmcus intervened: You surely do
DOC tbial: dw enough has been said from this
robust pleasures to the just. Their words lead the
pmat ofYlew, Socuces? just to the underworld, and, seating them ll
Why DOC? said I. table, provide them With a banquet of the s.tinll,
11ie IDOlt imporunc thing, that should have crown them with wreaths, and mal(e them
liem llld, lw not been said, he replied. spend all their time drinking, as if they though!
_. lben, I s.tid, let brother sund by brother. that the finest reward of vinue was perpenw
. . . . hu omitted SOJDething, you come to drunkenness. Others stretch the rewards o{
Ila-. l!c what he bas 5iid Is sufficient to vinue from the gods funher, for they Slf
- - • • 111 male me iDapable of coming that the children md the children's children ind
the po&lerity of the pious man who keeps hil
Oiths Will Sllni,e into lhe future. Thus, wd iD
ocher such WiyS, do they praise justice. 'lbr
Impious and lllljust they bury in mud iD tht
 Tht nng of Gygn II

c.irry W•tcr In • gh. •nd .ie q,. '

underworld, tl1cy forte thrm to and • r•1h which is lonR, rou
dl\rtpute while s 1h,1 the gods
~1t·•·••• they bring 11,rm into others quote Horner .u a wuncs
to u,cm .JI the can be lnlluenct-d by rn~n. for he
too s.ld :'
sull l,v111g. •nd u,cy mribu1c
merated in tlie
pu111,hmcnts whkh Gl•ucon enu
rcput•toon for inJusrice, d by
c.i~ of Lhe just with • the gods themselves can be sw,yc
Tiils then Is the
but tl,ey h••·e nothing else to s.y. pr•ycr, for
their
w•Y people pui~e and bl1
me Justice 1nd supphant men can turn them from
1nju,1ke. purpose by
ther k;nd of hbmons rn<l
.Besides this, Socr11es, look 11 •no S.1crifices •nd gentle puyers, by
private, •nd •lso burnt offcrlngs
.rgumcnt wluch Is ipoken In ed ,nd
by tJ,e poets, ,onccming justice
1nd lnjustice. whenever anyone h.15 transgress
ce 1h11 justice sinned.
AJJ go on repelling wirlt one voi
cert•lnly diffi-
vid modcmion uc bc1uliful, but of wrnings by
cult 1nd burdcmome, while
incontinence •nd They offer In proof a om s
, 15 1h,·y say, of
inju,tKe are sweet •nd e1sy, •nd
~h•meful only MuS.1cus ;ind Orpheus, offspring
ance with the;c
by n·pute .nd by l.iw. They •dd
tlm unjust deeds Selene and 1he Muses. In accord
>u1de 1101 only
fi11ble 1h1n just they perform thd r ritual 1nd pcr
m for the most p•rt more pro , both for the
in private •nd in individuals but whole cities tlm
ones. They freely decfare, both arc ab,olu1lons
have we1hh 1nd living ;ind for the de,d, there
public, tll.lt the wicked who 1ns of S1mfices
py. They honour •nd purlfiC.11iom for sin by mc
other forms of power .ire hap The~ 11,cy call
nor attention 10 1nd plcuuuble, pl,yful rim,ls.
them but ~y neither honour ishment yonder,
h ll1ey •grcc Lim inltl;itlons whkh frt t from pun
Ilic we•k 1nd Ilic poor, thoug unlmtlated.
ers. wh ere , dre.1dful fate 1w.1iu tlie
these ue better men th•n the oth ' •11iludo:s of
s •nd virtue ls When all such S.1yings .1bou1 th<
Wh.lt men uy •bout the god ,nd vice ue so
ely 1h11 the gods men .nd gods towud vutuc
the most .1muing of ill, n1m dt.1r Socrates, do
• mLScr•ble hfe upon often rcpwed, wh.11 effect. my
IOO 111ak1 misfortunes 1nd minds of our
osite fate upon we Ll1lnk they h1ve upon the
mmy good men, 1nd the opp ntcd and ,11,lc,
s 1nd propheLS youth? On<' who is n;i1ur.1lly ule
their oppo!>itcs. Bl'gging priest flower guhcrlng
h 111d persuade like• bee Aiuing from aowt:r 10
fm i~n l the doors of Ilic ric s •nd 10 g•ther
-givrn power to honey, 10 fl11 o,-er these s.iy!ng
wm 1h11 they possess • god from them .in lmprt-s,10n of "'
lw kJnd c,f m.in
11ons ,u pleu.int
rmwdy by s.icriliccs .ind mrn111 he should be and of how bl'St
10 1m·el al,,ng 1hc
h m•n or one of
ftsdnls 1ny crime tlw the ric r~ d of hfe, would ~urely rcpc
:.11 10 him'><=lf the
ued. Moreover, If
lib me nto rs m•y have commi S.1> tog of Pmdar: should I
by 1us1ke or by
m>·· then .11 l111le
one WW !l'S 10 h.ir•ss some ene crooked dcccu sa le th1, hlgh
w•ll 1nd thus h,·e
m the j~ md the
n:p tns t he will he .1bt... 10 hu my life fenced off from ocher
men? TI1c 1dv.1n-
lls .uid eoclw11-
unjllSI lli k for Ii>· me•ns of spe ugcs ~d 10 be mmc 1fl am ju,1
arc<,( nn use, I
ds 10 - them. "'h ue the trou •
111m1s they (',ln pen&Wde the go un told, un los I .ibo •ppc.ir so;
1'eJ liriDc tbc poNS u wi ui mn 10llwllll thi
• dleuuness of ,ii.~.
s,
blcs md pw.utu:s = om,ous. The unju>t m. n,
:cured for him-.e?f
on lh<' other ~n d, "'h o has !><
they tell me, the
• rq>uWlOD for JU>UCc, L,·es,
eanncc. .is the
lik of • god. The~forT. sin le •pp
O\'trAhdms truth
wise men ad! me, f0t0bly
gttlitr the
md aiatrok IYppiness, this is .!to
ld uo un d l
way I ibolald liY"e. I ~u ld bui
 12 Plato

shall do well at 1he hands of gods •nd of

fa~•dc that gives the illusion of Jusilce to we shall Jive and die os we intend, for..,¾;
those who appr0.tch me and keep belund the many and 1hc eminent tell us._ Fron, •li~"li
this the greedy and crafty fox of 1he wise ha< l:,ccn said, Socrates, what pombility Is fr~l'i
th<
Archilochus.1 m.in of power, be It the pow., of lhtt,
I I,at ,lflY · ll\i t:111)
"But surely" someone ohjects, "it is not easy orof w••1111, ofbodyorofborth,wilJ•- ucwu1,
'1<!
lhCI
for vice 10 rem•in hidden ;,lways."Wc shall reply to honour justice •nd not laugh •loud w%i'~t tiCC
that nothing is easy which is of great Import. hears it praised? And surely any main Who h.
Nevertheless, this is the way we must go if we show that what we have said is untrue •nd "'1 •"'
GI•
are 10 be happy. and follow along the lines of all full knowledge 1ha1 justice ls best, Will be fuuh.. aco
we have been told. To protect our secret we shall ,,org••vcness• and not of anger, for the Uniu'-f rep
. • • and JXllltical we
form sworn conspira1onal soc1c11es lie !mows that only a man of godlike chit-at~
clubs. Besides, there are teachers of persuasion the
whom injustice disgusts, ~r. one \\ho Ji..
~ho make one clever In dealing with assemblies superior knowledge, avoids lnJUStice, •nd •Pf
be
and with tl1e courts. This will enable us to use no other man is willingly just, bur 1c. nrougb
, h re so that we can Th•
persuasion here and ,orce I c • cowardice or old age or some other ""•knt,. ad•
secure our own advantage wi1hou1 penalty. objects 10 injustice, because he cann01 pr, .
, . , gods nor have Olli
"Bue one cannot iorce uie ii. That this is so is obv_ious. for the first of 1: ad,
, .c .. Well if either they do not
secrets 1rom mem. , men 10 acquire power as the first to do wrong.,
. I r do not concern rhemselves with humm
aao • •~ much as he is able. the
affairs why should we worry about secrecy. The only reason for all this talk, Socritts am
they do exisr md do concern themselves, we
which led 10 Glaucon 's speech and mine, ls~ mJ
have heard abour them and know them from no ed1
say 10 you: Socrates, you strange man, no1oneor
other source Ihm our laws and our genealo- 1ivl
;,JJ of you who profess 10 praise justice, begin.
guing poets, and these are the very men_ who see
ning with the heroes of old, whose words 1ft
tell us that the gods can be persuaded md rnffu- w~
left to us, 10 the present day-not one has ever
cnad by gentle prayers and by offerings. We inj
blamed injustice or praised justice in any other
should belim! both or neither. Jf we believe tio
than by mentioning the reput.itions,
them, we should do wrong md then offer sacri- way
rewards which follow justice. No
.fim from the proceeds. If we a.re jusr, we shall honours, and
DOI be punished by the gods bur we shall Jose
one h.is ever adequ,uely described, either ill
priva.te conversation, what the very
the profits of injustice. If we are unjust we shall poetry or in
aet the benefit of sins and transgressions, and presence of justice or injustice in his soul does
afierwards persu.ide the gods by prayer and to a man even if it remiins hidden from gods
escape without punishment. "But in Hades we and men; one is the greatest evil rhe soul an
will pay the peiwty for the crimes commi11ed contain, while the other, justice, is the greatesr
Jiere, either ourseh-es or our children's chil- good. If you had treated the subjea in thil wiy
cha.• "My friend,• the young man wiU reply a.s and had persuaded us from youth, we should
he does his red:oning, "mystery rites have great then not be watching one another to see "" do
.p,q. and so lm-e the gods of absolution, as no wrong, but every man would be his own b01
. . . . . . . mies tell us, md the children of the guardim .and he would be afriid lest, by doing
W Jme b«ome poets and prophets teD wrong, he Ii~ with lhe greatest evil.
~ddsi ua.• ~ u s or anyone else might say whll
, _ . . ._ dim should we Slill cJiome
we lme said, md perhaps more in
. . die.,_ . bljak)el If we md fnjustice. I belie\-e they would bt
. . . . .! l a o - . . a . wJprfy disrm1ing die eft"ea of each. To be qd!
 Thcring of Gygcs I3

fr•uk witl> you, lt is bc,c•use J om e•gcr 10 he~ Sons of Ariston, godhke offspring of•
i)ie opposite from you th•1 I speak with •ll
the
famous man.
emph•sis J c•n muster. So do not me.rely give 115 •

theoretical proof that jusUce is beucr than injus-

Tiw see.ms well deserved, my friends; you
tice, bur rel! us how each, ln and by itself, a!Tects must be divinely Inspired If you are not
• man, the one for good, the other for evil. follow convinced tlm injustice is better than justice,
Gl;iucon 's advice and do nor take reputations lnto and yet c•n speak on Its behalf as you have done.
,ceount, for if you do 1101 deprive them of lrue And I do believe that you are really unconvinced
reputation and attach false repmations to them, by your own words. I base this belief on my
we shall say tliat you are not praislng justice but knowledge of the w;,y you live, for, if I had only
the reputation for it, or blaming injustice but the your words to go by, I would not trust you. The
appeannce of it, that you are encouraging one 10 more I trust you, however, the more I am at a
be Wljust in secret, and 1hat you agree with loss what to do. I do not see bow I can be of
Thrasymachus that tl1e just is another's good, the help; I feel myself incapable. I see a proof of this
advmtage of the stronger, while the unjust ts in the fact that I thoug ht what I said to
one's own advantage and profit, tl10ugh not tlie Thrasymachus showed that justice is better than
advan1•ge of the weaker. injustice. but you refuse to accept this as
Since you have agree d that justice is one of adequate. On the 01her hand I do not see how I
the greatest good s, those whic h are worth y of can refuse my help, for I fear it is even impio us
to be present when justice is being charged and
attainment for their conse quenc es, bm much
to fall to come to her help as long as there is
more for their own sake -sigh t, heari ng, knowl-
breath in one's body and one is still able to
edge, be;ilth, and all other good s whic h are crea-
speak. So the be.st cours e is to give her any assist-
ti~ by what they are and not by what they
•nce I can.
seem -do prais e justic e in this regar d: in what
way docs its very posse ssion benef it a man and
injustice harm him? Leave rewa rds and reput a-
Notes
tions for other s to praise.
For other s woul d satisfy me if they prais ed This of course directly conu•dicts tlie famous
Socratic paradox thit no one is willingly bad and
Justice and blam ed injus tice in this way, extol -
1ha1 people do wrong because they h;,ve not the
ling the rewa rds of the one and denig rating
knowledge to do right, which is vlrtue.-TRANS.
those of the other , but from you, unles s you tell
2 In S,rcnAjjoinstThtbcs, S92-94, It Is said ofArnphimus
me to, I will not accep t it, becau se you have th;it "he did not wish to •ppear but to be the best,"
spent your whol e life inves tigati ng this and and it continues with the words quoted below: "He
nothing else. Do not, there fore, give us• mere ly h•rbours in his heart a deep furrow, from which
theot ttial proo f that justic e is bette r than injus - good counsels grow.·-TaANS.
titt, but tell us what effec t each has in md by 3 The two quotations which immediately follow are
iadf. the one for good, the other for evil, from Hesiod's Works and Day,, 232-3 3, and Homer,
wbctberor not II be hidden from gods wd men. Odys,q, 19, 109.-TaANS.
admired the cJw,1cter ofGliucon 4 Musaeus wu • legendary poet closdy connected
ad OD Ibis oca,s ion I WiS ,.1th the mystery religion of Orphtsm.-TttANS.

diem as I listened wd I S Htsiod, Works ml Day,, 287-89.-TttANS.

wllla
6 Homer. IliM, 9, 497-501.-TttA,~S.
_ . of a grut m.m. wd
mentioned by Arcbilochus. The fable in
1111 elegy well when he 7 I.e. the fox
question ls DOI UWl l.-TU NS.
JOU guned it the
 Chapur 2
- pritna fade r
of1hclhCOl'1
Joel Feinberg 4 _ P"Yl l\( ,\o~in
r,1A oY
pr< ,p\c I
,he (o\\ow\ng
PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
•·
"\~Y<"fY
1no11Vt:
my ,no
f.1Lt 11
when
c, ,.t.lc of nothing dse, hurn,n
t I1c•y a re • 1 .. 11,.1 t
11
own
,Jt It Is, UnlvcrsJI sdf1Sl1ncss 1, n,.O •
The theory IJC I11g Wl h-. dc"ir
.. . I "11JtHC ~ivl'll to a an an::idcnt or a cc,i1,ddcuc~ on thh vtL-w; r,lh.r lO-
I. "~rcholo~ic.•.tl q:oi"m is I ,c d at one , unavoldahle ,onsequcnce of P,,yd1,• • tnY 5
theory widdy hdJ hy ordm.iry n1t'\ a11 l"tlcal Il IS"11 '")"t·
teal l,1ws. He•
lime .tlmosl unin•rS.t11y acet•pu.·d y po\ ...
econo111is1s, philosophers. and psychologists, The theory ts 10 be distinguished 1, tio
another doctrine, so-called "ethical egoi,;: de
rdin to which all human actions when
according lO which all men ought to pursue ~r m
aero I g 1dcrs1ood can be seen to be motivated
pro))"r )' w ..1 ,t
by selfish desires. More precisely, psycholog1ca own well-being. This docuine, being a prescrip.
b. 11
egoism ,s the doctrine that the only thing anyone lion of what ought to be the case, makes no ct,_;111
t
is cap,ible of desiring or pursuing uhimatcly (as 10 be a psychological theory of human motiv~-
m end in itself) is his own self-interest. No hence the word "ethical" appears in its name~
psrchologic.J egoist denies that men sometimes distinguish it from psychologicol egoism.
do desire things other than their own welfare-- 3. There are a number of types of motiv~
the h.ippiness of other people, for example; but and desires which might reasonably be called C.
ill psychologic.J egoists insist that men are "egoistic" or "selfish," and corresponding to
ca~bJe of desiring the happiness of otl1ers only each of them is a possible version of psycho-
when they we it to be a mrons co their own logical egoism. Perhaps the most common
happiness. In short, purely altruistic and benevo- version of the theory is that apparently held by
lent actions and desires do not exist; but people
Jeremy Bentham. 1 According to this version, all
sometimes .appear to be acting unselfishly and
persons have only one ultimate motive in all
disinreresredly when they take the interests of
their voluntary behavior and that motive is •
others ro be means to the promotion of their
selfish one; more specifically, it is one particu\.r
own self-inreresr.
kind of selfish motive-namely, a desire fOI
2. This theory is called psycholo9ical egoism to
one's own pleosure. According to this version of
indicate rh.ar ii is not a theory about what ought to
be the case, but rather about what, as a matter of the theory, "the only kind of ultimate desire is
act, Is the case. That is, the theory claims to be a the desire to get or to prolong pleasant experi-
dacripcion ofpsychological facts, not a prescrip- ences, and to avoid or to cut shon unple4Sal\t
daa of ethical ide.us. It asserts, however, not experiences for oneself." 2 This form of psycho-
DleftJy dw ill men do as a contingent matter of logical egoism is often given the cumbeMme
ffll ')at rhelr own interests first," but also that nam~iw tpistic babrlsm.
 Psycholog,col 1go1sm IS

priJn.i facic reasons in support mor,,1 t•duC.llion .od 1hc lrn..ukJ.tlOII of

oftbc theory manill'rs mualiy u1ili1c what llcntham calls
the "s;inuio11, of plN,urC and pam."
f'>)thologi<al ••~01\111 ha, ,,·cmccl plau\lhlc 1o
Cl11ldrcn uc made to •cqu,re the cl\11mng
uiJnY people for a ,·uol'ly of rc><on~. of wltith
v1rt11<'S only by the method of cnuting
,he folio" mg arc l)'[l>tal:
reward\ and painful puni\hmcnts. Much
1hc i.amc I\ true of the hi,tory of the race.
"b·cry action of 1111ne is prompted by
People m general have been inclined to
motives or desires or impulses which are lx·havc wdi only when It is made pl.1.111 to
my motives and not somebody else',. Tim them that there is '\omelhing in it for
fatt might he e~prcsscd by s.iying that them." Is it not then hlghly probable that
whenever I act I am alwa)'S pursuing my jtm suth a mechanism of human motiva-
own ends or Lr) Ing to satisfy my own 11011 as Bentham describes must be presup-
desires. And from 1hls we might pass on JlO',ed by our methods of moral education?
1o-'I w1 always pursuing ,omctl11ng for
myself or seeking my own satisfaction.'
Here is what seems like a proper descrip- Critique of psychological egoism:
tion of a man acting selfishly, and if the confusions in the arguments
description applies to all anions of all S. Non-Em pineal Cluirocter of thtArgummts. If the argu-
men, then it follows that all men in all ments of the psychological egoist consisted for
their actions are selfish."• the most part of carefully acquired empiria.l
b. It is a truism that when a person gets what evidence (well-docum~nted reportS ofcontrolled
he wants he characteristically feels experiments, surveys, interviews, laboratory
pleasure. This has suggested to many data, and so on). then the critical philosopher
people that what we really want in every would have no business carping at them. After
case is our own pleasure, and that we all, since psychological egoism purports to be a
pursue other things only as a means. scientific theory of human motives, it is the
C. Sdf-Da:q,tion. Often we deceive ourselves concern of the experimental psychologist, not
imo thinking that we desire something fine the philosopher, to accept or reject it. But as a
or noble when what we really want is to be mauer of fact, empirical evidence of the required
!bought well of by others or to be able to sort is seldom presented in support of psycho-
CXlllpltUllte ourselves, or to be able to logia.l egoism. Psychologists, on the whole, !>hy
m;,y the pleliures of a good conscience. It away from generalizations about human motives
It a Mil-known fact that people tend to which are so sweeping and so vaguely formu-
their trUC motives from themselves lated that they are virtually incapable of scientific
Ing them with words like testing. It is usually the "armchair scientist" who
•c1uty; etc. Since we are so often holds the theory of universal selfishness. and his
g both, our own real usual arguments are either based simply on his
die Jal motives of ochers, is it "impressions" or else are largely of a nonem-
to suspect tlut we might pirical sort. The latter are often shot full of a very
wbm - think moth-es subtle kind of logia.I confusion, and this makes
allruisdc? ... their criticism a matter of special interest to the
good IIWlllCIS, analytic philosopher.
must be teJCh- 6. The ps)-chologial egoist's first argument
Clim 110Cke thit (see -u) is a good enmple oflogical confusion. It
r 16 )od ,,,....

bc-~lm 'Mt1th • uuiMn-rwndy. 1h.i1 .ill .,( 1t1)'

ntuth·n ,md lhM Mt' my mou~ .,id dr,llfl
one .,,du\itt t0t1. Tbe f'IOl'-1'• .l.r¥Ulnnlt ~ ,
Lltl"I .&J1 voh11u•ry Kt.on mro tht WM ""I
,te:tlol'I, i,,, ~u.,-tng, in dTttt, 1h&t &11 """'-v:: u1.i..eJWllyt
1
And IM ... IOfl"l('!"lO~ clw'i. (Who 'M'..llild deny (h1, ) srt ... h
frum thl, Vmple w,nok,g}' nt.Ch1n1 wb.it~r
con«mlng tht nMure of n1)' fflOl.1"'1 (Ill tht
.. .
,cdun t,.- onf' whk.h b not "'"'lty moov.a1~ <II lil.
n Ml

tlw,l,...tu,c.h
7 !kit if .i,xurncnt 4._ falk '° ltt.
00,,W-woe of my drs&m c.-.in pcw>'lblr 11w potn<, .lJ'1Unlffll +b don no ~la. Fmni ' fu)61inxllll

f..lJt.cy o/ dt1J urumma con!ob(J in 111 riol.,uOn of U(, th.at .iU our ~ u l 1e.uom (tho.t Ila -~"'
..,.b,tf.-•
tM rmn.iJ 1op-.t ruk thM .uut,-uc .ur,rrnrPI, ..,. hk.h Yt'I.': v.·h.it ""' v.fl'e u"lcr)

..,.-
(uutologin)" C&MOI r:nu.il 1YJlth,tuc (6cto,II) iStoUllU
ntf'd M folJowtd by ~t::UUtt lt don O<M ~ . I&
onn t Th.tr t"flY votunury ,ct Is prou1pted by
lhc ~cnc's ~11 modYrl i• • uutolofY. }wnA'. II
the tg0iu cliims, du1 dw ot,eru,,c: of ~tty aa.o.. (hkii' LM•
i• 10 get pkuure for ~ f To ~ln W\\h, tt._.
CiJlOOC bf: NjW\'llffl( I() •A pmot1 is ,1)"'.1)'$
ancrtu.d
5ttklna Klllltthing b h1mw:lr or "AU of a
ptnon •, motlvn .arc Klfi!J1," whieb att S)'Dd~.1c.
r,tmisc of lM .1.rgumcnt is not, st.rktly 'f"i.l1na,.
("1'1':ft LrUC. Fulfillment of dcsirt (wtlply
•-
r,ltlll 4h
""'
wh.at one w.u .1f11:r) is no gu~u.11tce of w.tu.f~. ~uppa,,lU
WJut 1M f'jOist mu~ J)l'O'\" as not 10('n-.ly:
uon (pkliMlt fcclmgsof gr.uifiatioo in lht "l1nd 1obtM.6
of tilt .-gcnt) Somttime:s whm ¥t't' &ct wh.\t by tbef.a
(1) f\ff)' vuluntuy ,ct1on is pron1p1cd by •
wutt we f f gd. u ,1. lmd of o:tn da,idtnd. l ,, ou•"'
mociw- ofthr ~ni's own
wurn. glowing fttbng of conte:ntmmt, b.c. .i,,,pro
of1t:n, far 100 often, YtT no dn1dmd .1.1 lll, C.. ugu1~
buc utbtr·
f"t't:R Yli'OFW, the bitttt Wlt: of &.\ha lndttd_ il Nil loi,ul
(ti) E,wy YOfunu.ry .1cdon b promp1fd bf bt<n wd t!u, lhc ch.lnattunc p,ycholop,.J 11,e pn
°"'

-
• motl¥t of• quitt puucul.lr kind, vlz.. .a prob1<m d Jim< is lhc4-... llut Olltlld, by-pro<
Klfi,h ont. ,h< folfillm<m o( our wery m<l!it J>O"fflul cit,;,-. 'o\'~ -

Evtn if W'C gr,lnt, bc,,.,.'t'Vtt, for lht $.lkt of r~tl~

SIM:m1rnt (i) is OM'IOllsly lfllt', but it WlOOI ..U ,ugumcnt, thJ.t gculng wh,u one Wi.rUS u.n,,
by ltxlff''t Mt)' logk.tl suppoo to A.1tcmen1 (U). get pt~
yields s.1tisfaction. the cgoist'i conclusion doa
Tbt sourer ofch( conftJ.st()(I in Iha •rgWlk'.nt is
DOI follow. Wt c.a.n concede tha.1 Wt: nornul.ly i'l
-a~
tudaft' ~ . fl is noc the gmc:sis of .m ~1ion awn~
pie.a.sure (in 1M svise: of s,uisfacnoo) when ow
« tbr . . . 01 lu: modvcs which m.ilcs ii .a ... "I
"tdfi,b" - • bul rad>cr lh< "purpoie" of Jh< XI
dnircs ire 5,Hislied, DO motta "iiot our daucs tn: '-: Th
but II docs nOl follow from tlus roughly .a.ccuutt
,. . ...,..,.diu-"";"""""'"" '"""'amo lflUI
. . (• ..,..,.,,, ""'"" ii ill<>)• com,s from
gtnmhutlon lh.,1 the only thing wt t'Vtt dnt1t uk,~
•.-J lu • k... • dtt<nnin<s wholhcr or Is our ""n .._,isfactlon. Pk>swt m.y ....11 bt tht (pert
am k II tdfim. Thm, is surdy • .-.lid distinction usuJ.I iccomp.a..niment of Ill «lions in whkh the:
•gent gcu wh,1 he w,ms; but to tnfcr from this &ndj
""- bt!vvior. In which tho ,g,ni's
..., I I ~ by pwpo,,s dhis own, and thir whit the ilgcrtl Ways wrots is h11 OYti'n
.,........,IDwhklilht...,.·,moo.., U<of pleuwt Is like uguing, in Willi1111 J•me1·,
u1111plt.' tlw b,aus, ,n oa,,n hntr coruuntly
J
n

.........
-
.,.......... ..
--.-...
' . _ . . . . . ,_ _ boa,w,010
.. _ _ _ _ .,._dlbt.....,.
_, .._
_,._.._
consumes cool on Its tnm-Adannc p,s,.g, that
thmfon, the ,..,. o( i1s 'fOJII' is to cooswnt
cool. n..
<Oll>Ual ><mnpaniffim 10purpoo,, (or 111011")
is,Jwiys,. . . .
from ""'

li!daapl.._111-d" Ulitf.aca<lll"
(dtaiie , . . _ , ada dia ll II CIINillly . .
 Psychological tgoi>m I7

t \allsfacuon whcn<"\·t'·r to d1mb the lull,

unt,·rr~lly tru e 1h,1t we ge As the old coach bcg•n
Bui 5.lU,facoon 10 thLS n\'er, can'1 you ,to p
,,t get whAt we WAnt Mr. un co ln u.lk-d ou1. "D
mi ng mt o exi\lrnce of mo nu :nt ?" Th en Mr. I.in
c.oln Jum ped
Sl·n,c is l,1mply the "co JU\ l
nce, to say that desire lmle pigs out of
Lll.lt wl ulh Is de .ir rd. " He out, ran b.. d and lifted the
"sausfaction" 10 tlus ced 1hcm on the
fulfillment al\\'a)S )lelds lhe mud and w•ter and pla
n that we alwa) s get his wm p•n lon
sen ~ is 10 say no more tha bank When he returned.
ge t whc1;t we \\a nt, which docs ><'lfi,hness
,\hAI we wa.nt wh en we remarh-d: "Now Abe, "h ere
• rose is• rose." It tin sode?" "Wh), blcs,
is to utter a tautology lik e" come 111 on this lutle epi
p,ycholo ,·cry essence of
110 more
en wl a S)1llhctic truth in your soul F.d, tlm was the
• ) tllJJI a ro. c IS • rosgy
" e" e had no peace of
(like th e egO ISllC tllCS IS selfishness. I should hav
. on and left that
can entail significant inform
ation in botany mind all day had I gone
m argu- over those pigs. I
s. Dmntcro1td Bm,wlmc,. The fallacy suffermg old sow worrymg
. don't you see?"'
ment 4b then consJSts, as
Gan1n puts it, "m the did it to get peace of mind
rentlr unselfish desire
suppasioon tlm the appa on e whu for the welfare of
lO benefit others is
tran,formed im o a selfish If Lincoln had cared noc a
ffering" mother. but
pleasure from ca.rrying the lmle pigs and tl1eir "su
by the fact that \\'C derive of mind," it would be
ug um cn t fallacious; u only for his own "peace
it out."' Not on ly is tl1is he could have derived
gestion of a counter- d1flicult 10 explain how
also pro,idcs us wi th a sug m. The very fact that
co nd us ion (p srt ho - pleasure from helping tl1e
argument to ,ho w tl1a1 its • result of helping the
is false. Not only is he did feel satisfaction as
logical egoistic he do nis m) had a precxisung desire
re (satisfaction) as a pigs presupposes that he
the presence of pleasu n his own happiness.
pr oo f that the aa ion for something other tl1a
br-product of an action no s sauslied, Lincoln of
cial cases it provides Then wh en that desire wa
was selfish; in so me spe The objtCC of Lincoln's
tlm the action was course derived pleasure.
wlier condush·e pr oo f rather pleasure was the
es the fact that we desire was no1 pleasure;
unselfish. For in those special cas <Ofill'<jUtnct of his preex
isting desire for something
ula.r action presuppos,s that
get pleasure fro m a p.irlic wholly indifferent 10
ou r else. If Lincoln had been
Mt dcsuol SOOltdting ds
t-- so me thi ng oth er than s as he da im cd , ho w
y tl1e plight of the li1tle pig
0\\11 ple asu re- -as m
en d in its elf an d noc merel derived any pleasure
scace of mi nd . could he possibly ha,·e
as i mans co ou r ow n pleasant from helping them? He
could no! have achieved
eg ois tic hedonist's
This way of tur nin g the peace of mi nd from res
cuing the pigs, had he
ca n be illustrated by wh ich his peace of
up m em back on him no t a pri or co nc er n- on
rib ute d
ta lll t• IJllial eg ois t MgUment, on e au
mi nd de pe nd ed -fo r the
welfa.re of !he pigs for
,poc:ryplwly) co Abraham Lincoln.
its ow n sake.
m m in ln g it closely: chological he do nis t
In general, the psy
lence int o a desire for
- analyzes apparent benevo
rem ark ed to a fellow do ub t 1he benevolent
c all "benevolent pleasure." No
old -ti me mu d-c oa ch lha fro m his bene,·olence,
ma n do cs ge1 pleasure
ed by seliishness in do ing is on ly because he ha s
izi ng buc in mo st as es , !hi s
-pa sse ng er was mr ag on od of so me pe rso n. or
o,·er a pm io us ly desired !he go
wJam the y were passing animal, or ma nk ind a1
large. W he re th~re is no
rhal spumed a slough. As su ch desire, bene,·olenc
co nd uc t is nm generally
idgc the y espied m old
lir fou nd to gh·e pleasure to
!h e agent.
OD the bink muing a 9. MtbJlmcc. Difficult cases
for the p,) ch o-
ber pigs had go t int o on ly instances of
logical cgoi.sl include no t
ill danger of dro wn ing .
 I~ h:I Fm q
tt,ur ,u1-h A'""""",.l""il grn<"r.l.h..rAl
w.1y. ion ~'ll li
' ,.i,.,,c
, '-"'" "' ,,f _, rmp lri< .&I rv1,lc-nc:e, ~d
d1'11 HMY '"'>t" "1 hc-t H."' ''knl f', hu 1
1<kr.11 "~
..,1hu 1tll f"H ,I .. lo lt""'""l rn• 1 i,"C' .a11d "'"' ,c. prt".-,ently a.v.ul.lhl<!. '\If~
nuh ~"l• km'C '
' • l · h .. th.1 0 tiC"O "C i~ Ol
Nt" ""i •"' ~t·nru.lt1 ,._, mu tt ~• ,. nd
n,, .,,........ of tfolom<m • lu C.....qut
-v h, .an 11 nc,, lot
t~ n<~,..&1 n1..1" l\o,.ot ,,T, l,\r l, ,.,_ 'A" •'"-.... Th<" P"'y d1(1 l<,g ll..1.l f"V,0
.h "'"' .,.,,. rhf' t.-~ lJ"'-
1\HC llt-t l,1," "
• ""'" 1nl r~..t'l n-n thu n) h,H the ~un pln t nr"
JN"""'Y ....
•t-~ 111 " ' '-ll,T l•h"f ' ht• Ul I p.un Ut
I tu hc-!r .,nW ""°" cl"" · (4'" g • ( r- \1 ,...
N°o<""'"'~H.1l-l~. 1h(" (•fY O 1\ll m.& n n,o uv.& uon Al~ orci ,n~ lt> run1,.,
in pf,14 r t.,r '*' h.H1 11h,
~..,n.-tY o ( i,::,,,.,~ uc ch<'f>ry• .ill hum.&n mo,,w....
,n t},r 1l
t.&~ ,...t ~uk--,,-,,kn,~ ,11 ._,., ,,,1 Hrr nnl f: no< th
l1 d •
1'1 h n..an ,, v. 1 thn ul ,.,...._t:·tlttc >ll c...an he ro:1u<..e to hfl4:! ..,
_...1
-.·r" "-o( ' f':otK' l~n rus
1'(' "- • ',.,, n ,1t1,,urr. h.11'1'1 .
dt',1r,r fur on( t s ow n pl~ \Ur t. - ,ru d,
L'' ..,_,.,, ,, '-"J \ • h h" 1 11 ,1mc ·I)', t I I~
.,.
ht° t,c:r ,4,,,k 11l Ill 0 ,, ,.fu n
P,
nc""" - pf i",;,.,-r h
,h1\ thM 1ry. d"'l utc- us a.tlU ltlV e ~lmphcny, ,,..
A1t uu...,
• I OC""" ' ,t.f oth er..
.._.,, a:_', ,11.. ."krr ,~1• "''lh ,t,, ••l'I '' rh,1,l""\1 l,c-<..&H~ of u. inv olv e,
c,ne lmm ~cL
ld10 <:)
J a1K -.thc -f., ..tt) )
""
It tht tn.a\.i"'-\ .. \4'1 ' " " ' ' ' · tt'K- ltl.,.- Ull<
pr
n I p.ar.li dOX ••tu tr ohs<-rnr. of hum,.n •"
,n ur
• J ') f,c- r.ur- -lK"C:f 1
g1u n
, .:,,.0 ,n .-11J 1n u..,~t-
...,n rn ' , ,r of th<' •nu<'nt Grc,eks h.o,., <,f,
froltl l 1>f' l1ll
114l f)

h n•' th,..,,,:•,r t\lf' hi, '""""n 1ntt>r -

...._,, mJ.11<
nou ced th• t pie .sur e, h•pp111e_.,
"',t•- ,.c't ,t·c. .., i.
,., thin k ,h,t m~ n
1i..,-~ u •nd Si\lJ!i(•ctk,.. no<hJ
<-" i, ""... '" •"' sl.itCS of nun d wlu ch sta.nd m •
.-J,h -ri1 u1T otla llOC :hc.rs •ery (lcc ul~ Supp
\~re ~=~ '"-
..ctn ~t(, 1n1
h rel•uon 10 des ,~. An exdu,ive, desire
,~, <lK ""- - u J v.it h .u muc..
' for h•Pp,. bn d
t,,c- .., '" ,. ~' 111 U)f' oth rr Th~ """ is tht surest w•y 10 prevent h•p
•' 1'
- ~ :-tv• ,. t.n dw- pfM' pin es, fr<An tha t I
'-A
-t<f coming ,n10 bemg. H•p pin ess hos
... ... ... r..,rurc ul - .1--
•
ukmc- w1.s first nOl lL a w•y o£ '1/1
• Jw r ,nd mor.J plulosop >tr I "snc•lung up" on per son s wh
"- .,.. ' ~,.u n "' en they dcsu
~-...-,~ 11o,;,,, (fb 9!- 17S 2). "ho regn th preo<.-cupied with oth er thin gs;
-ttcd •t but w~ an
r:x-,.' .a.:T °'' r.1,"'1:' ~dh ,h Lh.in lh~ persons del ibe ute ly md single-mi pre<l
· ~re.' ndedly set o!T
IO w J Eu. Ion r.,, Um><r.U Sclf-Dr<t in pursuit of h•p pin ess , it vanishes exd
p<ion TI'.e utterly from
,.~.,...,' r..ul ,ort of Jl>) cholog1c.J ,-goi>t sight a.nd can not be cap tur ed. Thi s Uttl•
"ho is is the famous
""'" """ ~ t., the ,..,drspre•d phenom "paradox of hed oni sm ": the sing one
enon of le-mindt<i
..,;<Y<.<;-<~>n (,tt -k) unn ot
he so quickly pursuit of happiness is nec ess aril y wh •
self-defeating,
d.'t' > ,...i c,{. for h~ hu com for tM wuy to gtt happiness is to forgrt ii; hap
mim,d no tog,cal the n per ~ps
" " ~ \\.,: <.m only argue that the it will com e 10 you . If you aim peo
.clmow- exclusively n
1« !~ tn-q""ocy of>clf-decepuon is insu pleasure itself, wit h no con cer n thll
fficient for the things
..,1dc,nu (or ta. uru,·crsal gener.tli:u exp
tion. His that bri ng pleasure, the n ple asu
.&.,xurr=t ,. no< f.ladous, but inconclu re wil l never
sh·e. come. To der ive s.ti sfa ctio n, on e mu co'
!'-o c,nc ~,ut the agent himself an eve st ordinarily no,
r be first des ire som eth ing oth er tha
ctrUm .. <on..:ious motives re.illy pro n s.tisfaction,
mpted and the n find the me ans to get wh
hu aa,,,n, uid .. ht:re moti,·es .ue disr u one desires.
eputable, To feel the full for ce of the
t'>'CD tM •g,,nt may noc adm
lt to himself the true paradox of
Diture c.,f bu d~ r~ Thus, for "'e ry hed oni sm the rea der sho uld con
apparent duc t an experi-
c.,( iltrumic belu,·,or, the psycholog me m in his ima gin atio n. Im agi ne
ical a per son (let's
ts""' un argue, with some plausibility call him "Jo nes ") wh o is, first of
, that the all, devoid of
true mrJCintion m,pi1 be sc:lfish, intellectual curiosity. He hil no des
appe.uance 10 ire to acqum
the UJotruy. l'limnthropic acts .ire real any kind of kno wle dge for its ow
ly mo ti- n sake, and thus

:r-~.
nle d by the dtwre to n:celve gratitu
de; acts of
wbm truly und er" ood , are seen to
__,.rnot1v11.ed by tbf desire to fee:) self
-esteem·
is ut1erly ind iffe ren t to _questi
ma the ma tics , md philosophy.
tha t the bea utie s of nat ure lea ve
ons of science,
Im agi ne further
10 Jon es col d; be iS
- on. We mu a conced e
1pp1Rnt Wu lun to the egoist th1t all• uni mp res sed by the aut um n fol
iag e, the snow·
might be decepave In Ibis cipped mo unt mi s, md the rol lin g
oce ans . IJ>llg
wa lks in the country on spr ing
mo rnings and
 P,ycholoaicol cgobm 19

him <'qu,lly •
,kung forays in 1he winier are 10 o,,·n hJpplntss-<'gm~tlc hcdon\\
m w Lhc
lrt '" sup po, c 1ha1 Jon es can find
fMJrl'• Mor<.~,·cr, con1rary.
""" Ir .
NI 10 arl. Novels arc dull • , ·- Y • pain radox of
110 ,pp
c. Sup pos~ The l111plicailons of 1he "'pa
nob
p,inungs non><•mc and mu ,lc JLL<I hedo111\111'" for education.i.l theory
should be
has neit her the pm idp ani 's ms c • happy
furtlirr 1hat Jon~s obvious. TI,e parcms least likely to
base ball , fooi ball besi in1en-
nvr ,he Sp<'ClJIOrs p.i,;sion for cluld arc those who. even with the
ing 10 lum ls; ss directly.
iennis, or any oth er spor1. Swimm lions, 1r.i.in their child 10 seek happine
nics , the Mill only a
cruel ,qua1lc form of calis1he How often have we heard parcn1,
say:
n. Dan cing is coc duc aiio nal
cause of sunbur
e, the Olhcr sex ome m
idiocy. co11v~rsa1io11 a wa,1e of tim I don"1 care if my child does not bec
fraud, reli- great artlJil.
an unappealing mystery. Politics is a i111dlectual, or a f001bo1JI st.u, or a
gion mere superstition; and the
mb cry of
I Ju,1 w.un 111111 to be a plai
n aveugc son of
an beings is ire great
millions of und erp rhil ege d hwn person. H•ppiness docs not requ
excitL-d abou1. ; it"s not
nothing to be con cern ed wit h or ambitions .u1d gre•t frusirations
rotic for
suppose finally that Jones has no
talent for any worth ii 10 suffer •nd become neu
dism. I jmt
kind of handicraft, industry, or com
merce, and the sake of science. m, or do-goo
t1,a1 he docs not regret that fac1. want my child to be happy.
He mu st
What then is Jones interested in?
, for it is the
desire something. To be sure , he
does. Jon es has TI1is can be a dangerous mistake
ter) without
w overwhelming passion for, a
complete cltild (and the o1dul1 for that mat
the most likely
preoccup,uion wit h, his ow n hap
piness. The one "'outer-directed" interests wh o is
exclusive desire of his life is 10 be
hoppy. It takes 10 be unhappy. The pure egoist would be the
see that Jones's most wretched of persons.
little imagination at this poi nt 10 are of "life
trated. People TI1e educator might well bew
one desire is bou nd 10 be frus l of the educa-
sue thei r ow n adjustment"' as the conscious goa
wh o-l ike Jon es- mo st hotly pur . "Life adjust-
ii. Happy tional process for simil.u reasons
happiness a.re the least likely 10 find by-product of
pur sue suc h men t" can be achieved only as a
people ue those wh o successfully lum of "life
erience, self- oth er pursuits. A whole currict1
things .u .iesthetic or reli gio us exp d by courses
victory in adjustment courses'' unsupplemente
cxpression, service 10 otliers, in things oth er than
tion s, kno wle dge , pow er, and so on. If designed to incite an interest
competi -defeating.
sely es and for tlieir Life adjustment would be tragically self
non e of thes e thin gs in them
bably true
As for mo ral education, it is pro
own sues m511 any thin g 10 a per son , if they
are
n that pun ishm ent and reward are
indispensable
u me ans to one 's ow
yaJued II all then onl y ii
chi ld com es to
t plea sure can means of inculcation. But if the
aw es of mi nd- the n tlia
bein g mo ral are
ieve hap pin ess is to believe that the sole reasons for
The w;iy to ;ach of pun ishm ent
that he will escape the pain
• g else. the pleasure of
ther eby and / or that he will gain
all peo ple at one tim e or ano the r in to prevent him
• goo d rep uta tion , the n wha t is
ilel pie.sure. Some peo ple (tho ugh whe nev er he is
arc from doi ng the imm oul thin g
) really do live lh-e s wh ich
nd out ? Wh ile
liap pi- sur e tha t he will not be fou
Bui if plu sur e md
are imp orta nt
eth ing oth er pun ishm ent and rew ard the n
dellres for som obv iou sly have
too ls for the mo r~ edu cato r, they
men the existence n wh o doe s
their limitations. Beware of the ma
In the experience of or lov e
ple 1iav e the mo r~ thing onl y out of fear of pai n
• da e peo olly
ocber Ihm the ir
of p l~ . He is not likely to be v.h
 20
Jod Ftiobcrg
,hat II Is 1he desire for Pl,.;
trustwonhy. Moral cduca1ion is 1ruly succes <fiil be uy1ng en,au on) winch is •he so)• uJ11'
when it produces persons who •re willing 10 do (plcasanl :, <>pie and 1he sole desir• laJJ>t"'- t.nntr •rY ltt
th e rigl11 thing simply b<caust ii is tlyh1. , nd nol de,ire of• pc rive fur acunn. Now J ha,t ll,,l 1., cncc. In i.u
,tdlng • 1110 I d
pro, . I ( r mosl ) peop e <sir• rh•tr,, • lolY '°Jlll. h >
merely bec•use ii is popular or safe. b1 1hat al
O
Ii J argum/ficn1 ·e dou somcum •
• es Bui even this famu ,., k'"'1
'1 riS ,.., p;itcf
12. Pltvsure as Stnsa11M. One na ure, . ihink, rather rarely. When I._ wen ·
. hould su c pleas• occurs. 1 I
ag.tins1 psychological hedonL<JTI s de,ir e 10 ea1, or, more sn •. .''
thill
1bt
• i psycl1 ology
. )aims
10 de,ir e O
~"I hedo1
to pu1 tha1 form of 1he egoisl c hung r,,
v I oi1en
. lcce ofs1eak and the se~ sa.ti~f .il.liOf
• le hcdon 1s1 c ingle 10 11 115
res1 once and for all. The cgm 5
~ "'- on the oth
cally. edl /i pdo I desire 10 eat certain ..
l
d ccd 10 ,t.he 1,e , so icn ,0 '"ii
all desire s can be re u word h I appar ent r
lltat
, 1 sur<. Now e ),and. II Muc Jy esfor t IJC sake of 1he pleasan1 gu,~")
desire for ones own P,. • d,-su-e for
.. b'guo us On ,he on s1mp I y migh i cause. I have, on 1he "'~- ....q
.. I 1 •. Ii ble bur very .sa1ions L 1e ofbh. torl1
p easure is am sen iivaie d in the la1ter way "htn1
can stand for .1 l'ert.iin mdc na . ' r more 1 d been mo expens,'t)
Lion out
Ii k' d of sensanon. o ,an • 0 especially exo1jc (and b ;11c:r<.-<lihl•
familiar and spca c JO f lions· and ii ls have gone I 1..
l inese res1a uram s; ut norin.1
perry O scnsa •aied• wilh 1he French or C 1 •r, ardently
accuraiely. • pro ly. assoa anom ic scnsa 1ions are sin,ply n,arc hcd
·f ·lusive leasanl gas r t I
generally. , nol excie cerw n iaste sensations rodu ct of my e.bn Russian
P y cons equence or by-p g,
senses. For examP • aJ
1.hcrm scnsa
iions of 1he son happ
ed objec tive of "" when ti
cede ntly des.ir ..,
such as swee1.11ess, 1h feel of the August 001 u1e ante
erotic se, other s. who l.lkt ignit ed
derh•ed from a ho1 barb or e L-· h
eating. TIiere arc ' of cour
• on a sandy UC4C • th, wrch rs
sun while one l,es . ) of 1he gusta1ory sensat ions far more seriously:
sensa1ions. olfac1ory sensa11ons (say I d r the textu.res "va., sln
rs or perfu me, and 1acma an gourm et w ho e•ts only to savo .
ce of flowe scn"'alic
s o f fine food s • and the wme fanae r who
,
,ragran ood massage, are flavor I 3.
tincslherlc sensations from • g f
sense "coll ects" the exqu isitel y subll e and ,·ery
in this sense. Lei us call this 0
the 0
pleas ant tastes of rare old wine s. Such men ~,
ical
~/,..us11tt,,'. which is !he converse of "phys sema uons when
thesi s,
truly abso rbed in their taste
p,Jn." pleas11tt1• .. own I
is tJiey and drink , and there may even be some
On die ocher hand, ihe word "pleas1.1.re eat plcas u
ns who se desir e for such sensa tions
olien used simply as a synonym for "satis fac- (rich ) perso ultim l
icatio n, not mere is the sole moti ve for eatin g and drink ing
llon" (In ihe sense of gra1il one n
sense , 1he existe nce take linle argu men t, howe ver, to
deslrt fullillmenr). In this It shou ld plaus i
s 1he prior existe nce re.td er that such perso ns an
of pleasure presuppose conv ince the the 11
of desire. Know ledge , religi ous expe rienc e, extre mely rare. esis,
aesdielic expre ssion , and other so-c.i l.led "spir - e pleas ure from the fl
Similarly, I usua lly deriv
llual aalYitia" olien gi~ pleas UR in this sense . gh not
takin g a ho1 bath, and on occa sion (thou how t
1116a, • we hM smi. we tend to get pleas ure
very often ) I even deci de to bath e simp ly for tht coml
_ what we desir e,
sake of such sensa tions . Even if this is eqmlly
ID .,. _.. .._ get
s.,,
11ae maso chist even des
true of every one, howe ver, it hard ly pro,i atte~
o{ "atis uctio n ")
grounds for infer ring dut no ont nn bathe s for at aJ
lellsa dons .Let
1111T other IDOtivc. It shou ld be emp irial lf leci
·wlddamems
obvi ous dut sometimes bath e simp ly in
order to get dwi , or 10 please others, or 5,UDplr
fiom hibit.
Th e~ then tha t~ ue never after m>ihinK
in OUr i<.tions but our own d
to men ue complete "IOUnneu" of one son ct
iDCl thcr- -ts D0t only ID0rally c:yniQI; it is .
,
 P,y1hologl(al cgoum 2I

•y l'XJl<'ri-
contrary 10 common st·nse •nd <'Vtryd "Their <l,·1irc,."
;anr M·n sarions
r11cc. In fact, tl,e view th•t plc• "For wh,1?"
pl•Y such •n cnonnous role In
hum•n •ff•irs "for sa11srmion."-ttC., oJ mfin11um.
le evidence
is so p,itrntly false, on the availab
chologic~ in1crprc1ed
that we must conclude rim 1he psy In short, f"YChologic•I hcdoni1m
ca; ure "- tl,eir sole
1,edoni,1 has the other sense of "pl in this w•y ,urihutcs 10 •II people as
his thesis. If, nitely selr-
sat1>faction-in mind when he sr•tes rnouve • wholly ••cuous and infi
•bsurdi1y ls
on tJ,e otl1er hJ.J1d, he really does try
10 reduce the defc,ung desire. The source of tins
10 spe•k.
,pp,irent multitude of human morivcs
to ihe one In the notion that wi,faction nn , so
mir,cle of
dc; ~ for pleasant scn-.ations, then the
•bundance fec-d on itself, •nd perform 1he
absence of
of historical countcr-ex•mples justifie
s our rejec- perpe1u,I sclr-regenemion in the
tion out of hand of his thesis. It sure
ly St.-cms desires for anything other th•n itself.
I I and
incredible that the Christian mar
tyrs were To summari,e Ll,e argument orsections
. Pleasure,
,rdently pursuing their own pleasure
when tJ,ey 12: The word "ple•sure" is ,mbiguous
tic of phys-
ed off 10 face the lions, or that wha
t the means a ccn•in indefinable char•cteris
111,rch feeling of
Russian soldiers at Stalingrad "rea
lly" wanted ical sensation. Pleasure, refers 10 the
gets what
h gasoline, satisfaction that often comes when one
when they doused themselves wit that which
the fl•ming one desires wh•tever be the nature of
ignited themselves, and then threw ns pleasure,
ir own bodies on German t•nks, one desires. Now, if the hedonist mea
10,ches of the when he says that one's own pleasure
is the ulti-
sant physical
was simply the experience of plea r, then his
mate objective of •ll of one's beha1io
sensations. Ll,e other
r now view is not supported by the facts. On
J3. J>taisurr as Satisfaction. Let us conside ltis theory
hedonist's hand, if he me.ins pleasure,, then
the olher in1erpre1alion of the e ii leads to
ii is one's cannot even be clearly fonnulated, sinc
thesis, that according to which only satis-
not merely the following infinite regress: "I desire
own pleasure1 (satisfaction) and of my desire
is the sole faction of my desire for satisfaction
pJrasure, (pleasant sensation) which for satisfaction...etc., od infinitum.· I con
clude then
behavior. In
uJrumte objective of ill voluntary st common
is even less that psychological hedortism (the mo
one respect, the "satisfaction thesis" form of psychological egoism), how
ever inter-
for
pllusible Ihm the "physical sensation thesis"; preted, is untenable.
oth-
die laaer II lw t is ii genuine empirical hyp
ln experience, though contrary co
experience discloses. The former,
Notes
10 cxmfustd that it cannot even be Stt his fntroducrioo 10 rh< Priocipl<1 ol Morals
ml 1.tfwalUIII
lllted wl1hou1 pu.adox. II is, so 10 ( f 789), Chap. I, first p.mgraph: "N•
ture bas pl•ced
In its own formulation. Any mankind under 1be govern•ne<e or two
sovereign
of the theory th.it ill men ma sim , l"ia and plmsu1t. It is
for them alone 10 pomt
detcrrrune
oaly their own Sillisfaction out wlw we ought 10 do, as well as to
ill we do, in
llp lll In the following w.ay: wbal we shall do....They govern us in
can nule
ill we say, in ill we think: tvery effort we
e but to
10 throw off our subjection will sav
dcmoostratt md confirm it."
(New York:
C n Broad. Emia mi mt Hi5tay ,i
oism as
'!be ffumaDillcs Ptess. 1952), Essay 10-"Eg
This essay is
a lbeory o( Human Mouv,s." p. 2 I 8.
hiplt I rama :lrd
 Thomas Hobbes

MORA LITY AND SELF-I NTERE ST

ofthe n~runl condition ofm;mkind illtm.~lves, ind .Ir~ Ol~n. "'horn by fiirM,or
is concerning their felicity >.nd for roncurriug vmh thenu.ch·es, lhey lppfO\'t..

ioiserr For W<:.h Is tht ni.tu~ or mtD, th•1 hov.""\OC'\er

dlq nuy •cblCM ltd~ mwy 01.hcn 10 ht mart

N
,uuu HATH MADE men so equ~. m the
winy, or mort ek,qucnt, Of mort kuntd, )ct
fa<."uhu~s of the body. ,md mind; .u th,u
tl\t.-y \I.Ill h.udly btli~·t there bt ffilll)' sow,~ as
though the~ b( found one ma.n sometimes themseh·ts; for they Stt lhc1r CM"n wit •t hmd,
n,.a.ruf6tly ~tronger m body. or or qwd.t"r mind 01hcr men's •t l d1s.t.mce. But this prO\"'t'th
tJun inother; rn whim .all is reckoned t~thtr, r1thtr th.it mtn Me LD llu,t point C'qUll, wn
lht d1JTtrenct ~tWt.>en nm\, lnd man. is not so unequll. For the~ is fl()( ordinu1ly l gre•ltr
considerable, iS 1ha1 one man c1n 1hcreupon sign of 1he eqiul d1stnhution of lllY thing. t~
cblm 10 himself ~y benefit, 10 which another ili•t ~·e.ry nun ii con1cn1td \I.1th lus YWt.
~y not ptttend, u "-"Cll 1S he. for a.s to the From th.is eq_u.i..lity of .1,bJity. u~th eqw.hty
11.rtng1h of body, the "-'Ciik~1 las strength of hope in the .Jltiimng of our en<h.And the~~
rnough to kill the strongest, either by secret fore if ,my two men <ks11t the ~me thmg, which
mKlun.uion, or by confederiacy with othcn, ntvenhtJtss Ibey CillDOI both tniO)', Ibey
11,,, .,, in lht samt d,nga wilh himstlf btcomc tnemin; md m tht. w1,y to tht.ir e.nd,
And u to the r.cuhics of lht mind, selling which is prioo~ty their own conscrv.iuon. lOO
[llidt tbe 1111 pounded upon words, wd tSpt· somennws thw delecu.uon only, endci.vour to
diau•II ciproc:adlng upon gtnml, wd desl!O)~ or subdue one u10ther. And from hen«
ailed ldenee; which very ftw it comes to p.iss. tlw. whcrt lD invader hith no
1hdllngs; u bting nOI • n•1h-. more to feu. thJJl 1n01ht.r mi.J\'s smglc p<M'CI', tf
,a; nor atu.lned, 1s prudence, one pli.nt, sow, build, or possess l convcmcnt
IQID<Whal <lsc,, I 6nd yei • ~.1,t, others mi)' prohlbly be expected to corot:
men, Ihm WI of pn,pmd with forttS un11cd, 10 dliposs,ss, and
,11 but optrient<: which dtpn,. lwn. DOI only of lht fnut of bis I,bour,
,<11 all mm. in ,hose but •lso of his Ufe. or Ubtny. And lht in,-.dcr
dlemld-.es unto. Th•• again Is in ,he Uk< ~gcr of ano<bu.
,. . , equality incttd- And from this diffidtnct of one ano<htr.
,r1-·, own ..-isdom. Ihm Is no W'f for wy man 10 S<CUJ< lumsdf. so
:Iller l,a,e in. gttattt ttU()IWlle, u anticipation; wt is, by fore<, or
;11,dw,allmenbul wiles, to nww the ptrsons of ill mtn ht c,n,
 24 Thomas Hobbes

so long, till he St'\' no mhrr rower great enough bJII IC 01 ,.

,lv or the a,1 offigl11fng; but In a
,
1llq
llllll', ,1,,·rcin 1hc will to comcnd hy 1, '•
to mdangt·r him: Jnd this is no more 1lw1 his II , ••Ille
suflidcntly lnown: and 1hcrcforc 1hc nooo,, I,
own conservation rcquireth, and is gcncrJlly . 11 10 t,c comldtn~I in the na1ure of.,. '•
allowed.Also bccJuse there be some, thJt IJklng .UJll(, _
i 1 ihc ,u1urc of wNtl,cr. For as 1he nit.. •11
It
It 11
pleasure in co111emplJ1ing 1heir own pawcr In ,
wcaiher, 1i,•1h 1101 m a shower or 1,.. (
\jrtr
fcllll I
the ms of conquest, which th<'Y pursue fan her , .
. htit In an indmauon 1hcrc10 of many rl,
Q <,
. . f h
than their sccuruy requires: 1 01 c.,, 1ha1 01hcr- wgcihcr: so 11,c na111rc of wu, con1is1eth "<Jt
ral~ ,

wise would be glad 10 be al t•a<e " 1'thin mod<'> 1 ,cwal fighting: but In_ the known dispo~iu~1
. . 11, icrease ihclr
bounds. should 1101 by m,as,on
1I,rrrlo•
durinu ,11 the tune there Is no assur
power, they ,muld nOl be' a11>c, long 11111c, " . , •ll(t
. ,he conir.i.ry. All other umc 1s PEACE.
- d fi· sulis1sl. 10
by sta.nding only on II,cir c ' 1 • . of
ICC 10
Wl iatsocver 1hcrcforc is• consequent to 111,11it
And by consequence. such augmcnlJIIOn , of war,
where every man 1s enemy 10 every llljj]
dominion owr men being neCTssary 10 a mans
ihe same is consequent to the lime, whert,~
conservation. ii ough1 10 be allowed him.
men lire without otl1er security, than what their
Again, men hJre no pleasure,• bu1 on .1he
own strength, and their own invention sh•U
comury a g"-,1 deal of grief. in keeping furnish tJ,em 11~1hal. In such condition, there u
·he- 1hcre is no power able Lo ovcr-
compan); " " no place for industry; bcause the frui1 thereofu
.iwe them .w._11 c..r erery mm looketh that his
rv
uncertain: and consequently no culture of the
compwion should value him. at ihe mne race
be sets upon himself: and upon all signs of earth; no navigation, nor use of the commod,.
contemp«, or undervaluing, naturally endeav- ties that may be imported by sea; no commo.
ours, as far as he dares, (which amongst 1.hem dious building: no instruments of moving, ~d
that ha,-e no common power LO ktep tl,em in removing. such things as require much force; no
quiet, is far mough 10 male them destroy each knowledge of the face of the eanh; no accowu
other), to uton a grea1er value from his oftime; no ans; no le11ers; no society; md which
contemners, by damage: and from others, by tl,e is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of
wmple. violent deatJ,; and the life of man, solitary, poor,
So that in ihe mturc of man, we /ind three nasty, brutish, and short.
prindpil causes of quarrel. First, competition; It may seem strange 10 some man, that h~
lfflJIICIJ)I dllliden«; thirdly. glory. not well weighed these things; 1ha1 narur,
1ht lint, mdrth men invade for gain; the should thus dissod.ue, ,md render men apt 10
ICCIOlld. for safety; wd the lhird, for reputation. invade, ;ind destroy one another: ;ind he m.JY
1ht lint use violence, 10 make themselves therefore, 1101 trusting to this inference, rmde
- o {Olba men's persons, wives, children, from the passions, desire perhaps 10 ha,-e the
alaale;d1uecond, to defend them; the third, same confirmed by experience. I.et him there-
bat8et,aa wmd, umile, ;i different opinion, fore consider with himself. when taking 1
ad a, odier lip o{ undervalue, either direct journey, he arms himself, md seeks 10 go well

.......
lldielr,..., arbymlea looin thm kindred, accompanied; when going to sleep, he loch
his
dielr &latlr, dlelr llldcla, !heir profession, or doors; when even in his house he loch
his
chests; and this when he knows there be llws.
Jfamr Jlil---. dw during the lime md public officers, armed, to meogc .all
- . . . . . . . I Cllmmoo to keep injuries slwl be done him; wlw opinion he b,s
•---,• ID dw candilioa which of bis fellow-subjects, when he rides armed; of
•••wa;a tsof-rm an. bis fellow citizens, when be locb his cloon; aod
-.ror..., ........ . 111 of bis cbildrm.
and senws. when be locb )Iii
 Moraluy and Stl/-1n1trcst 25

cheSI~ [)o(·s he not 1hcre as much •ccuse two cardinaJ vinues. Justice, •nd injusuce arc
ni•nkind by his aC1ions, as I do by my words? none of 1he faculties neichcr of 1l1e body, nor
Bui neither of us •ccuse m•n's n•turc In It. The mind. If they were, 1hey mlghl be in a m•n char
desi~. and 01her p.tssions of man, arc in them- were aJone iu the world, as well as his ~n!>es,
st'h-CS no sin. No more •re the •ctious,
tlm •nd p,mlons. They arc quaJiues, 1ha1 rd.cc 10
rocecd from tl10sc passi ons, ti II tl1ey lnow a men In sociecy, nor In solicude. II ls con.St.'<jUent
~w th•t forbids 1hem: which 1ill laws be made also IO 1hc mnc conclilion, char 1hcre be no
they c,lJlllOt know: nor c.in any l•w be made, ult propriecy, no dominion, no mux and chin,
the)' h.-·e .agreed upon tl1r person th•t shall dJsunc1; bur only th•t 10 be every man's, 1ha1 he
ni.le it. can get: •nd for so long, as he can keep ic. And
It m•r pcradven1urc be 1hough1, tl1cre was thus much for 1he ill condilion, which man by
oe-·er such • 1ime, nor condi1ion of war as this; mere nacure is actu.Jly placed in; 1hough wich a
•nd I bcJie,•e ii was nC\·cr generally so, over •II possibilicy IO come out ofil, consiscing partly in
the world: but there are m.iny places, where tl1ey the passions, parcly in his reason.
b,-e s0now. For 1he savage people in many places The passions 1ha1 iodine men to peace, ,re
of America, excepl the government of small fear of death; desire of such 1hings as are neces-
fvni)itS, the concord whereof dependeth on sary to commodious living; and a hope by their
narural lust, have no government al all; and tive industry 10 olxain them. And reason suggesccth
>.I this day in that brutish m.inner, as I said convenient arcicles of peace, upon which men
before. Howsoever, it may be perceived whac may be drawn to agreement. These articles, are
manner oflife tl1ere would be, where 1herc were tl1ey, which othcrn1se are called the Llws of
p0 common power to fear, by 1he m•nner of Nacure: whereof I shall speak more particularly,
life, which men chat have formerly lil'ed under• in the 1wo following cbapte~
pucdul government, use to degenerate in10, in
acml wii: Of the first .uid second mtural laws,
Bui though there had never been any time, .uid of contracts
wlimia puticular men were in a condition of
RE, whicb wrilcrs commonly
agmsi another; yet in all times, lings, THE RIGHT Of NATU
liberty e,ch man hath, to
of someign authority. beause of call jus nalumlt, is the
r, as be will himself, for the
dency, uc in continual jalousies, use his own powe
n of his own nature; th,c is to say, of
die swe and poscurc ofgLtdiators; having preservatio
consequently, of doing any
pointing, and their eyes fixed on his own life; and
his own judgment, and reason,
, dw ls, their forts, garrisons, and thing, which in
conceive to be the aptest means
the liontiers of their kingdoms; and be shall
IF'a upon thtlr neighbours; which is thereunto.
al war. Bui beause they uphold By UBEUY, is understood, according to the
on of 1he word, the absence of
illduatry o(th tJr subjects; there does pro)l'r significati
diments: which impediments,
6om It, dw misery. which accom- txternal imJl'
alpanicuLtr men. may oft w:e aw.ay part of a man's power to do
ot hinder bim from
#J I-, 111111, against every man, wb.tt he would; but cann
r left him, according as his judg-
-•IU EJII . dw nothing can be using the powe
ic 10 hjm
ol rlpl and wrong, justice men1, and reason sb.tll dia.
aopla(z. Wbe ruba cis A u.w W,NAIUIE, lalllllWllis, is a ~o •.~ •.j
II DO law: wbac DO gcnenl fuund out by reason, by wbicll, a
which is desu-uctivc
ilud ., n ia wu the DWI ls forWden to do that,
JS3JG
 26 Thomas Hobbts

of his life ,_ . man is bound 10, r~th~r th~n to dh

• or ta-.t't1l away the me.ins of prc:servmg
'.he same: •nd to omit th,t, by which he tlunkeli• 10 pe•cc. This Is th•t l•w of the C<>,,P<>,,,,_ h"1i.

...........
11 you r<qulrc that others should do to )'Ou, ,1io;"~· '-"\
may be best preserved. For though they th•t And t],al J,w of •ll men, quod hbi litn It,_~ rcoounce. ot' lUn~(
•pe•k of tl1is subject, use to confound jus, wd lo. t.ra.nsferred
fcc<fis. ·"'-, lhC S,lJ'
ri9h1 •nd low: yet they ought to be cUstinguished; \ ,'od these 5\gl'\s ,u•1
To lay down • man's right to •ny thin
bec.iuse ~lGHT, consisteth In liberty 10 do, or to himself of the lib<ny, of hindering • .,;~"'"'- only: or. L"- \t h.ipp
forbeu: whereas uw, dctermincth, ,nd bi nd cth benefit of his own right lO the same. T-or Of\
iod a,ct\ons. And
to one of them: so th•t i,w. ,nd right, differ as v,,h.ich n,cn -ue b
renounce.th, or passetb aw•y his right.g1,~,ho 11..
.... h~-.c the1r sue.ni
much, u oblig,lion, ,nd liberty; which in one
10 any other man • right which he i;;~ foe nothing is n
and the same mane.r are inconsistent. before; because there is nothing to Which llt., word, but fro1l'
And bee.use the condition of man, as hath man had not right by nature: but only u-pon the ruptu
been declared in the precedent chapter. iS out of his way, that he may enjoy his 0 ~ whensoeve1
condition of war of every one •ga.inst every one, inal right, without hindrance from hirn~- renouncc:l\1 \\·
. ned by his own some r\~ht tE
lo which c•se every one ,s gover ( without hindrance from another. So th,~~
. he can make use o , or for s01ne ,
re•son; and there is no tlung . . effect which redoundeth to one man, by •noi.¾
that may not be a hdp unto him. in preserving for \l \s a vo\1
man's defect of right, is but so much diminu~ of every ma
his life aga.inst his enemies; it followeth. that m of impediments to the use of his own ti: And thercfo
such a condition, every man bas a right to every
•L • bodv And therefore,
original . man can be
thing; even to one mowers ,. signs, to ha
Right is. laid aside, ei~er . by silllply
as long as this natural right of every man to
renouncing tt; or by transferring it 10 Ulotht,_ a man can
every thing endureth. there can be no security to
By simply RENOUNCING; when he cares n01 lo them,thu
or wise soever he .be, .of
any man, how strong whom the benefit thereof redoundeth. iy life: beca,
living out the time, which nature ordinarily thereby, a1
TRANSFERRING; when he intendeth the ben~
al.loweth men to live. And consequently it is a said ofw
pr«q>I, or general rule of reason, that tt-ery_ man,
thereof to some certain person, or persons.And
both bee
,,.,. ro m,1m,our paict, as far as bt bas bopt of obta11ll1lg tt; when a man h.1.th in either manner abandoned,
such~
al wflm lit COIIIIOI obtaill it, that ht may s«k, and ust, oil or granted away his right; then he is Said 10 ht
sulTerin
W,..• 11Mlll¥5 oh111r. The first branch of which OBLIGED, or BOUND, not to hinder those, lo
oned:ai
ruJe, conwneth the first, and fundamental law whom such right is granted, or abandoned,
of nature; which is, to s«k ptact, and follow it. The
second, the sum ofthe right of mrure; which is,
from the benefit of it: and that he ought, and it is
his DUTY, not to make void that voluntary act o( ::~"Ithem
., ,II - wt can, to ddaid owsdm. his own: and that such hindrance is INJusr1cr, and J
From this fundmtenw law of nature, by and INJURY, as being sine jure; the right bein1, noth~
which men are commanded to endeavour peace, before renounced, or transferred. So that injury, inhi1
a derived this second law; 11111 a111111 lie willing, when or injustice, in the controversies of the world, is as n1
Gm Gr lD too, IS iu-bu, IS far pmct, lllfl dcfmct of somewhat like to that, which in the disputations by~
--'I It sW tW I t ~ IO lay a this right 10 thelt
of scholars is ailed absurdity. For as it is oft!
,1m11p;e1w--..wldi•aalibatyGf!imtodxr ailed an absurdity, to contradict what one main-
- . I S • ...W ••-.-11.ims,Jf. For u tained in the beginning: so in the world, it is
Jana • - , ats right. of doing ailed injustice, and injury, voluntarily to undo
mr al men in the that. which from the beginning he had volun-
1rill DOt lay tarily done. The way by which a man eithe!
simply reoounceth. or tnnsferreth his right, is a
dedaration. or slgn16cation, by some volunurl
DO
and mftidat litD, or signs, that be dolh so
 Morali1y and sd/-in1rrcs1 27

r,nounct, or tunsfcr; or huh so renounced, or 1lw is delivery of 1lte 1hing itscl( For 1he 1hing
,un,fcrred tl1e s,me, to him that ,cccptclh ii. may be delivered 10gc1her with the 1ran,l.iion
And these signs ,re either words only, or •clions of 1he right; as In buying and selling witl, rcady-
only; or. u ii happcneih most often, both words, money; or exch•nge of goods, or lands: •nd 11
and al1 ions. And 1he s,mc •re 1he BONDS, by may be deli,·crcd some 1ime after.
which men ,re hound, •nd obliged: bonds, 1lw Ag•in, one of the co111ractors, m•y deliver the
have ihelr s1reng1h, nol from !heir own nalure, 1hlng con1r•~1ed for on !tis pan. and leave the
for nodling is more easily broken 1han a man •5 miter 10 perform his pm ai some determin•te
word, bul from fear of some evil consrqueuce lime af1er, •nd In the mun lime be uus1cd: and
upan 1he rupture. lhen the contract on his part, is called PACT, or
Whensoever • m•n mnsfcrreth his rlgb1, or COVENANT: or both parts may contract now, 10
renouncem ii; ii is eitl,er in consideration of perform hereafter: in wltich cases, he 1hat is to
some righ1 reciprocally 1ransferrcd 10 himself; perform in Lime 10 come, being 1rus1ed, his
or for some omcr good he hopelh for lhcreby. performance is called kttping of promist, or faith;
for ii is a \'Olunlary acl: •nd of me voluniuy acis •nd the failing of performance, iflt be volun1uy,
of '"'ry man, lhe object ls some good 10 himsdf. ,·iola1ion of foi1h.
And tJ,ercfore there be some righ1s, which no
man can be underslood by any words, or other Ifa co"cnant be m,de, wherein neitl,er of the
signs, 10 have abandoned, or transferred. As firs1 parries perform presently, but trust one another;
a man cannot lay down 1he righ1 of resis1ing in the condition of mere nalure, which is a
tJ,em, m•t ,ss,uh him by force, 10 take away his condition of war of every man against every
life; because he cannot be understood 10 aim m,n, upon any re,son,ble suspicion, it is void:
th,ttby, •t ,ny good 10 himsel(The same may be but if there be a common power set over tl,ern
said of wounds, and chains, •nd imprisonmeni; both, with right and force sufficient 10 compel
boUJ because lhere is no benefi1 consequent 10 performance, it is not void. For he lhat
such pilience; as 1here is lo lhe p•tience of performeth firs1, has no assurance lhe otl,er will
sulfering another to be wounded, or impris- perform after; because the bonds of words are
ontd: u also beause a m•n cannot tell, when he too weak 10 bridle men's unbition, avarice,
seem men proceed ag•inst him by violence, anger, and other passions, wilhout the fear of
whether they intend his death or not. And lastly some coercive power; which in lhe condition
the motive, and end for which this renouncing, of mere na1ure, where all men are equal, and
and transferring of right is introduced, is judges of lhe justness of their own fears, cannot
nothing tlse but the sccurity of a man's pmon, possibly be supposed. And lherefore he which
In his life, and in lhe IIIWIS ofso preserving life, performeth lirsl, does but betray himself to his
• 1101 IO be of it. And therefore if a IIWI enemy; contrary to tl,e right, he can ne,-er
by wards.or ocher signs, seem to despoil himself abandon, of defending his hfe, and means of
aldie-.iirwhich thore signs were intended; living.
• ademood ill if he meant it, or But in a civil esute, where lhere is• power set
i. dlaa be was Ignorant of up to amstnin lhose lhat would otherwise
ICIIOns wae to be violate their failh, that fear is no more reason-
alie; and for that cause, he which by lhe
oovenant ls to perfonn lirsl, is obliged so to do.
'1hr cause of fear, which mal:eth such .a
CXJRDaDt lanlld. must be uw.ays something
uisiag after the - made; as some new
I
28 Thomas Hobbes

• o f l 1'le
fact, .or other sign . not to perfo rm:
w1U But becau se covena.ms of mutu ~ tru
there is a feu of ~ol _pe.rform~ce on ~:;; ~ eoiu,ls \C\.h tu propo ruc
ehe ll c.a.nnot nu.ke the CO\·en ant void. f.or tha.t forme r chapt tt~. sA'f proPo ruon gcom c
as hath bet"ll satd m
whic h could not hinde r a nli.O from prom bing. invalid; thoug h the. ongm al of ju~tice \tot \,1ttcr r:c. ,hey p\,\(..C \n lhC
ough t not to be admitted as a hindr.ince of makin g of coven ants; yet Injust ice actuaU)' i1wre s conu. ictcd foe a
LhC thing of cqu.U hen
performing.
c.1n be none, till the c.i.use of such fe.u ht- ~ t (UslJ1 bUU~~ \l were ,n1ust
. ~vMc.:b ""hHe men ue in the nun ....,
a\Y.y,..
• ·- . - . . ~ 01~r\t . ~so: 10 g\vc ,norc lt
A coven•nt not to defend myself from force. tion of war, cannot be done. Thcrcfo~ bt.ri • ,..-e b~~u e of thln&~ c
by force, is always void. For, ,s I hav,, showed the. names of just, and ~ju.s t a.n have 1'hCd by the appeu te c
befor e, no man c.a.n transfer, or l,1,y down his there must be some coera ve power, to CotnPd ure efore lhe )uSt v1..\uc
right to Yvc himse lf from de.uh, wounds, .uid rncn equally to the pcrfo rm~c e of l~l.f thel' d to give. And'
ir11prisonmem, the avoiding whcre ofis the only ant wher e
enants, by the terror of some pun b~ contc nte
i by co,-en '
end of b)'ing down any right; ,1nd 1he.n!forc the greater 1han the benefit they expc a by <ht s rt 1neri tcth the: f>4!
prom ise of not res1sllng fortt. in no covenant breach of their covcn•n•: and 10 malr.c &OOd tho,, pa ,', ,.nd falls unde r
tnnsf erreth ..ny right; nor is obliging. For propriety, which by mutual comraa """1 par buuv e) is nol du
d1str• And ti
thoug h • mm may covenant thus, unJcss I do so. or acquire, in recompense of the unive n,J ngbt of gr•c• only. . .
SC\ kill mt; he ca.nnot roven wt thus, unless: l do SO. or they abandon: and such power there is llODt nse where 1n l1
the se . a.k
so. I will llO( r<SJlt 1...,, Mhat yoa comt to kill mt. For ma.n before the erection of • commonwealth. And not right .To spe P'
by nature cbooseth 1he lesser evil, which Is this is also to be gathered out of the or<hn.ry is the ;u~tic e. of a c
danger of dc,th in resi>1ing; raiher than the ddini lion of justice in the Schools: for th'Y ,.,, a.nee of coven.t.1lt, \!
gre..,ter, which is ccrt.1.in .tnd pttSe nt death in not that justice is 1ht constant will ol givmg to n-.ry mu bn ond lettin g to hll
resisting. And this is gra.nted 10 be true by all exch ongin g. barte1
own. And therefore wher e theie is no """· ~th
men, in th,1 they le.td criminals to execution, no propriety, there is no injustice; and wh,,.
And disui buti,
u,d pruon. with urne d men. notw ithsu nding is to l
there is no coercive powe r erected, that is, whert tr~lOf ~ \hill
d>M such criminals have consented to the l•w. by just. Whe rein. b<
there is no comm onwe alth, there is no propriety;
which they .re condemned. him ubiu ator, ii
a.JJ men having right to all things: therefort
wher e there is no comm onwe alth, there nothing 10 distr ibute to
Inde ed just di
Ofother Jaws oflW lltt is unjust. So that the nautr e of justice, consisteth
thou gh impr c
in keeping of valid covenants: but the validity ol
Ima dlMJawo(AUlf t. by which WI! Me obliged more prope rl1
ID IDOlher. such rtghis, .u being covenants begin s not but with the constitution
mu1r e, as shal
lhe peace of nww nd, there of ;i. civil power, suffic ient to comp el men to
As justi ce c
• dllrd; wbich Is lhls, r.lall mm pcri,rm keep them: ;i.nd then it is also tlut propriety
so does GP.All
. . without which, CXMJWIIS Me begins.
Wt is lO Si
IIUI empt y words; md the right of foun hlaw o
.... ... lmlliDlng, we u-e still in Wlwsoever is done to ;i. man, confo rmab le to
this form , tb
bis own will signi fied to the doer , is no injury to
a( mm •~
him. For if he tlut doet h it, ha.th not p.use d aw;i.y
his origi n~ right to do wha.t he pleu e, by some
~cal
DWI givel
antec eden t cove nant, there is no bruc b of 00'·
enan t; and there fo~ no injur y done him. And if
he ha.ve; then his will to hive it done being
OW n~
sigDi fied, Is a mea se of dw cova wil: md
so
agaiD time ii DO Injury done him.
Jamct K1kms. ii by wril al diYicled iDIO
wl .... ... wl die bm cr dity
 Moral11y and sclf-in1m:st 29

,~,n,i>ICth in proportion rn1hmc1ical; 1hc another; of ~ur; which Is con1u.ry 10 the fim and
say . . I C
J,uer In proporuon gco111c1nca . o,nmutauvc fundamcni.l law of n.iture, which commandcth
- th,-y pbrc in the equality of value of men to s«k p<u<<. The breach of thl, bw, ls called
1h<rt:r,0 •·• . . .
the tilings contracted for; and chs111bu11vc, in the mgm1ilud,; and huh the same relation to grace,
d,,mbuuon of equal lx·ncfit, 10 men of equal that injustice huh 10 obligation by covcn;int.
,cril. As if it were mju,1ice 10 sell dearer than A fifth law of nature, 1> COMP~ ISANC£ ; th.a is
11
",e buy; or 10 give more 10 a man than he mrrits. 10 say, 1h01 ,.-cry man ,111.-, 10 accammocla1t himself 10th<
The value of all things contracted for, Is meas- rat. For the undcm•nding whereof, we may
ured by 1he ~ppctite of the contrallors: and consider, tlm 1here Is in men's aptness 10 society,
therefore 1he JUSI v~ue, is 1ha1 which they be a dlvcrsily of nature, ri;ing from their diversity
conienied 10 give.And merit (besides tlm which of affections; not unlike to that we see in stones
is by covcnrnt, where the performance on one brough1 together for building of an edifice. For
part, mrrileth the performance on the other as that stone which by the .isperity, and irregu-
part, and falls under justice commuta1ive, not larl1y of figure, takes more room from 01hers,
distributh·e) is 001 due 10 justice; but is rewarded than iiself fills; .ind for the h.irdness, ann01 be
of grace only. And therefore this distinction, in easily made plain, .ind thereby hinderetl, the
the sense "herein it uscth 10 be expounded, Is building, Is by the builders ast .iw.iy as unprof-
not right. To speal: properly, commu1a1ive juslice, itable. wd troublesome: so also, a man that by
is the justice, of a contractor; th.a is, ;i perform- .isperity of nature, will strive 10 ret.iio those
Wl't of CO\'tnililt, in buying, and selling; hiring, things which 10 himself are superfluous, and to
and Jetting 10 hire; lending, and borrowing; others necessary; and for the s1ubbornness of his
ucJwiging, bartering, wd 01her ms ofcontract passions, cannot be corrected, is 10 be left, or
And distributive justice, the justice ofan arbi- cast out of society, as cumbersome thereunto.
ll'lllr. dill is to say, 1he act of defining whai is For seeing every man, not only by right, but also
jllLWbcmn. being trus1ed by them 1ha1 make by necessily of nature, is supposed to ende.ivour
. .adilnlor. ifhe perform his trust, he is said ~I he can, to obtain tl1a1 which is necessary for
•dlllribule to every man his own: wd 1his is his conservaiion; he that sh.ill oppose himself
111111' just distribution, wd may be called, agilinst ii, for tilings superfluous, Is guilty of the
W Improperly, distributive jus1ice; but w.ir that thereupon is to follow; and therefore

• poperly equity; which ilio is • law of doth that, which is contrary 10 the fundamental
as shall be shown in due place. law of nature, which commande1h 1a s«k p,ace.
• dependeth on antecedent covenant; The observers of this law, may be a.lied SOCIABLE,
GIATmlDE depend on antecedent grace; the Latins call them commodi; the contrary, s1ubbom,
la)\ antecedent fm: gift: and is the iasociablt, fumurd, ia1111c1ablt.
oilWUl'e; which may be conceived in A sixth law of nature, is this, 1ha1 upon cau1ion of
... _ Midi ntcilfth bmdit from another tbt furuR lilnt, a man ought la pardoo tilt ollmccs past of
...., 1M be which 9iwnh it. hM no thcm I.baa ripcnliaQ. dcsi!l ii. For PARDON, is nothing
• . , . llim al bis pd will. For no but granting of pc.ice; which though gr.inted to
' - Wilh intention of good to them wt perSC'o-el'e in their hostility, be not
&Ii Is ~unw y; md of all pc.ice, but fear; yet not granted to them that give
• olljea Is 10 e,uy DWI his aution of the funue time, is sign of an .iversioo
Jf mm see they shall be 10 peace; and therefore contrary 10 the law of
liepming of bmev- IWll1e.
ol lllllllW Asevmth Is, 1M ID mqa, wt is, mribution
ol em b ewil. - W 111t • thc pmm crl the cri1
 30 Thomas Hobbes
v, ,v and rhc condition of,
past, but thr grrotnru o( thi good to follow. Whereby we con tro 1 r ~re
'"onrr.ry to the )Jw of nmtrc. Ill.,~
arc forbidden to inflict puni1h11wnt with any
And in a controversy .
of foct th,. .
' < Jud
other design, than for correction of the offender, ·vc no more cnxlu to one, th,n t &t Ii,,
or direction of others. For this J.iw is consequciit rog l 01h, ,
·f., ere l,e no other arguments, 1111111 . •11,_1
l UI . &l>t •.,
to tl1c next before it, that commandctl1 pardon, ·rd· or 10 a third and fourth·
roa tlll ' ,Orlfln-.
upon security of the future time. &•sides, else the question is undecldc'<l, and left '•· r,
1
rc\"cngc without respect 10 the exa.mple, and conrrary ro the law of nature. or,,._
profit to come, is a triumph. or glor)'lng 111 rhese arc the laws of nature, dictat·
. tng Pt
the hurt of another, tending 10 no end; for th e c , means oft.he conservauon of"'"n . -,
,or. . , tnn,. •
(•nd LS always somewhat to come; and glorrmg
ruelcs., and which only concern . the d~ . ,i,.
-~1,,llt
to no end, is vain-glorr, and contWY 10 reason, . •1 society• There be orhcr thrngstcncf,•ng l(Ju'(
CIVl .
and to hurt wi1ho1ll reason, tcudei h to th r intro• destruction of parucular men; as drunken •
duction of war; wluc . I1 1s
. agat·n·t the law of
s and all other parts of intemperance; which:·
.a by the name of
nature; and is conunollIy st)'Ieu therefore also be reckoned amongst thOSe tltin 1
cru,hy. ·ch the Jaw of nature hath forbidden• h
w lu '·-

:.n; not necessary to be mentioned, nor •re Ptrt;.

~,use, though men be never so willing nent enough ro this place.
to observe these laws. there may nevertheless And though tllis may seem too subii,
arise questions concerning • man's action; firs_tf deduction of the laws of nature, to be , "11
11
whether it were done, or not done; secondly, t
notice of by all men; whereof the most Part.,,
done, whetJier against the law, or not again_st t11e
too busy in getting food, and the rest too neglt.
law; the former whereof. is called a quesuon of
gent to understand; yet to leave all men inexcu,.
£,ct; the J.11er • question of right, therefore unless
able they have been contracted into one ,.,1
the parties to tJ1e question, covenant mutually to
sund to the sentence of anotlier. they are as far sum, intelligible even to the meanest capacity;
Jiom ~ace., evtr. This other to whose sentence and that is. Do 001 that to another, which thou i,ooidot
dity submit is ailed an ARBITRATOR. And there- not bent Jam to thystlf; which sbcweth him, that h,
frue it ls of the law of nature, that rhq that au at had no more to do in learning the laws of nature,
alllmlaST, submit tlitir right to tb, judgmall of CIJl but, when weighing the actions of other men
dilllll«. with his own, they seem too heavy, to put them
And seeing every mm is presumed 10 do aU into the other pan of the balance, and his own
things in order 10 his own benefit, no llWl is a into 1heir place, that his own passions, and self-
lit arbiuaror in his own cause; md if he were love, may add nothing to the weight; and then
DeYtr so Jir; yet equity allowing 10 each pany there is none of these laws of nature that will not
equal beoelir, ifone be admitted to be judge, the appe.tr unto him very reasonable.
other ls 10 be admitted ilso; me! so the contro- The laws of nature oblige in faro intano; tha1 is
fflS)', that ls, die cause o( nmalns, against to say, they bind 10 a desire they should we
dielawo(11111n, place: but iD foro ataDO; this is, 10 the putting
Far die them in act, nOI always. For he that should bf

.-
ought ID modest, and uacuble, and perform all he prom·
ises, in such time, and place, where no mm else
should do so, should but make himself a prey to
ochers, and procure his own ceruln ruin.
CIODIRr)' lo the ground of all laws of ~ .
which tend to mrure's presem.tion. And ~aill.
 Moroluy and s,lf-inrcro1 j I

k, mode1y.
Oidrnl ,eruruy, 1h•t 01hcrs •~ I have slu·wccl before, are l"""t,910111U<
h•""g Ill .., 111r l,1ws ww,rds him, of natu re, arc
i,, 1h11 tqully, mrrcy, •nd the res, of ihe bws
1 r contr,ry
.~,11 •'
b.~l"r,'t" 11c
,~ himsdf. seckNh 1101 pN rc, good; llw h lo say; moral""""'; •nd lhto
·.-s th<lll n iurntl)' 1hc demurilon ofl1ls nca, CVJI. Now ihc science of v,nue and
vice, ts
.,,,_,r, . ,1.nd ct>11~r< 1he true
t,ut ,,;.r. m,ml plulo,ophy; and therefore
moral
h)' rlok nct -
n•'"rt ll'h, t,ot.\Cr 1,ws hind m k•ro in1rr
no, nuy doctrine of the J.ws of n,1ure, Is the true
oso phy,
Al'
J
ly by, fatt ron1nry 10 1hc 1.,w, philo,ophy. But 1hc writers of mor,I phil
cs •nd
J. ·n nOI on
bt l>r< ' ' f. 1,crordmg to ii • in cJ<e
a nm , though they acknowledge the s,me vmu
d ll1cir
·'·" by• " , For ,hough his ,ulo n in 1hls
bl:1...,., vices; yc1 no1 seeing wherein consiste
<-d, as
l1 ,, t'OlltlJr),
1hu t..- J<'('(lrd Ing 10 ,he t.w; rct his pur
pose goodness; nor 1lw 1hcy come 10 be prais
comfort-
,he law; whorh, "he re 1he obliga- 1he means of peace,ble, so<i,ble, ,nd
tJ,t , iocrity of
11 able living, place 1hem in a med
"'' •t,inl,,oUJICIIIO, i,a brNl h• degree of
11•
111 d·
» J.iws of n~turc ,re JJnmu1a e in etcr~t ,
I· passions: as ,f not 1he cause, bu, lhe
Thr se, but lh.e
ct ingra1i1udc, arrogance, prid
e, daring, made fortitude; or not the cau
for IDJU>U ,
·on of persons, and 1he re>! , can quantity of a g,fi, m•de liberality.
call by
inlqUJtY, •et't'pu These dictates of reason, men used 10
..._ n,,dc lawful. f-or ii can never be that they are
nt'C f UC destroy It. 1he n•mcs of laws, bu1 improperly: for
",r ,J,.U r=r ve ufe, and peace ing wha1
to • but conclusions, or ll1eorems concern
Tbe same l,ws, because they oblige only nce of
ed and conduce1h IO the conservation and defe
dCSUC, and endeavour, I mean an unfeign word of
For ll1emsclves; whereas law, properly, is lh.e
con!Wl' endw·our, are easy 10 be obsen·ed. others. But
eavour, he him, tlm by right ham command over
ill th,i ibey require nothing bm end as deliv-
illeth yet if we consider the same tl1eorems,
that endeavoure1h their performance, fulf comman-
. ered in tlie word of God, that by right
diem: and he lh.,t fulfilleth the law, is just co1lled laws.
and only deth al.I things; then are they properly
And lhe science of them, is the true
_. i philosophy. For moro1l phil
osophy is
nodung else but the science of what is good,
and
Of the causes, generation, and
Iii, ,n the C01M1S1tion, and society of man
kind.
definition of a commonwealth
appe-
c;., and cril, m names that signify our men, who
pers, The fin,!] c•use, end, or design of
dlls. and avmloas; which in different tem r others,
t: nuuro1lly love libeny, and dominion ove
-.m , md doarines of men, are differen t upon
g- in the introduction of U1't restrain
dMrs men, dilTer not only in their jud live in
themselves, in which we see them
oa die senses of what ls pl= nt, md their own
commonweo1lths, is the foresight of
ro die taste, smell, hemng, touch, tented life
, or preservation, and of a more con
111k: 11111 llso of wlw ls conformable selves out
n thereby; that ls to say, of getting them
IDnuon, ID the 1ctions ofcommo , which is
from that miserable condition of war
de la t 111111, ID dims times, differs n shown
, ad one time praism, that is, necessarily consequent, a.s hath bee
), to the
W mocher time he disprliseth, (chapter 13) [see origino1l reading
is no visible
hm arise disputes, natunl passions of men, when there
by fear_
• last wai: And therefore so power to keep them in awe, and tie them
their cove-
of mere mture, of punishment 10 the performance of
nature set
appetilels nants, md observa.lion of those Ltws of
s.
down ID the foumenth and fifteenth chapter
modcsly,
and For the laws of nature, as jllStict, equity.
alq , Uld, in sum, aillf ID COID,IS lit
-W llr •
 31 Thomas II&
rt,1.uid, c-nvy ilnrl h.1.rttcl. ~,.
on 1h• 1g ,r th<'
lo, of lhcmselves, without lhc lerror of some arhel I1 .1nHJng r ""' so
II ,.,r; but ~ong<r 1hese uutu r"
power. to cause them lO be obserred, ,re fin•5cCO Y 1•• ,,.. , • ti.
t1dly, t' d,ffcrcth nut ,rom tl1c P•"•~
contrary lo our natural passions, that c,rry us t:
cornn1011 8,,od . 11 ,rur
c inclined 10 their Pn0n. •
I e J,kc. An t,cln& by ·,
PartiaUty, pride, rrwnge, and t I rd ,nd tJ,crc
·b ,he common benefit k. •
Y
covenants, \\1thout the sword, arc but wo ,JI.s, ,her pro<-ure cons1>tctl1 In comparing h1"'1< -.._
4
md of no strength to secure
• rno1n ,.,
,11,n, whoSC 1°Y relish nothing but whit
f """" ' rncn , can b
Therefore notwnhstanding the 1,ws o•n he hi> with other
1 ' kepi, w1IC nen<, cre•rurcs. having not
(wl1ich every one hath t ,en d 1, ,.rely) cHII 1I1al these • ii.
the will to keep them, wIien h<«great no I Thirdly. f rca,on do not see. nor th,"'
•
,11011& , •n th< u,e 0 . ·•e admtntst . . ·111:
iftlterebenopowcrcrected' or not will, ,nd " 11 y 111• • £,ult , "' w
mion of 1,.
''<It
for our ,ccuruy; C\"tIY ni,n th and art, for ,hey sec any business.'
. vhcrca< amongst men, thett
lawfully rely on his own sire:~d In all places, conunon hat think thcmsel• ves WJSC .
r,
1
are very many, • public, t,eucr than the r,y_
ciuti on ag.1.inst 1 Uother men- rob 111
ablrr to govcrn c r.orm and Innovate, one thu
u.ll (J111ibeS, 10
whrrc men ba\·e h<ed by Silbt:cn i1 tfJdc, and SO •ve 10 rc1•
md spo•"I one ,not11er, has I Jaw of nature, and tJ1csc strt y· and 1J1ercby bring it Into
- ed .ainst tu~ , ano1hcr rhal wa •
r , 1 '·•iJlg reput •8
,ariron U< I tJ,ey gained, the greater w•)• . and civil war.
that the greater spa• s observed no other distrac0on I1J tJ,al I II ese creatures, though th"'
_.,...,,. 1.nd men ·
was tl,,ir ho• -. . of honour; th" "• 10 Four< y, f o,·ce in making !mown lo on,
.,

J,ws tJ,eteiD, bul the 1,,., 10 men their Jives, have sont use o v. e •
I their desir es, d othe r a!Tecuons; )'tt
abstain from cruelty, k"':! dry. And as small ,not an
um,nts of bus.,.,, • ,er t of word s, by which some men
and Ul5lJ" 1· they want th•t ar . .
. so now do cities ,nd mg·
o others that whic h 1s good, In
f,milJes did then, n,,ier families, for their cvi represent t
doms which are but !. dominiOOS, upon ,11 the likeness o f e •
own s,<Urity. e,J.u-ge ·-c~r fear of invasion, or ood· ,nd augm
vii· and
•

ent, or diminish the appuent

.
evil, ln the likeness of

_..,, ,.. of dvtg,,; """ d g • f ood wd evil· discontenting men,

r·-··· ·•· greatness o g •
...., m,y be gi,-en to invaders, '"
d troubling their ~ac e at their plus ure.
s,c1ea,our ,s mucb -.•.• ...,
u,., • cvi to subdue,
_.., . dttir neighbours. by open force, '"Fifthly. irrational aeatures cmn ot distinguish
:. i- .uu, for w,nt ofother caution, justly; bclWffil injwy. wd Jamllflt; and therefore as long
11111 m remtmbe.red for ii in .t"ter agts with ., they be at ease, they arc n01 offended with
...,_ their fellows: whe ttas nun Is then most trouble-
some, when he is most at ase: for then it is tlut
II .Is uut. r.lw ceruill IM111 aaiu ra, u bees, be loves to shew his wisdom,
wd control the
ad - lift sodJbly oae with illOlher. whlch Klions of them that govern the
commonwe.i.Jth.
- "-' n by Alillode IIWllbeRd illlOllgsl Lastly. the agreement of these creatures is
pal illc al-. ; ad Je1 liM DO oilier diffl:• natur
al; that of men, is by COVCIWlt only
...._ .._ dilirpllllallar,-.,....U Uld appe- , which
._ _ _. , aea llbe m an is anilici.i.J: wd there fore it is no won der if there
be somewhat dse required, besides CO¥eJWII, IO
llpldlemlor mm their apc mm t CODSWll md llldng;
common power. 10 keep them in awe.
which is I
111d IO dimt tbdr aaions to the COlllll10II
beaefiL
Dir Clllly common
•- r be able IO defend them from the UMpowlioll
er,
IO elff l such I

fll beignen, and the Injuries ol oae uorher,