HUMANA

Topic 5
The Skeletal System

• Blood Cell Formation

Introduction - Also known as

• Human skeleton initially hematopoiesis

cartilages and fibrous - Occurs in the red bone

membranes marrow

• Hyaline cartilage is the most • Inorganic Salt Storage

abundant cartilage - Calcium

• By age 25 the skeleton is - Phosphate

completely hardened - Magnesium

• 206 bones make up the adult - Sodium

skeleton (20% of body mass) - Potassium

• 80 bones of the axial skeleton

• 126 bones of the appendicular Classifications of Bone on the
skeleton Basis of Shape

• Long Bones
Functions of Bone • Short Bones
• Sesamoid (round) Bones
• Support, Movement &
• Flat Bones
Protection
• Irregular Bones
- Gives shape to head, etc.
• Wormian (sutural) Bones
- Supports body’s weight
- Protects lungs, etc.
- Bones and muscles
interact
- When limbs or body parts
move

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Structures of Long Bone

Gross Anatomy of Long Bone • Periosteum
• Diaphysis - Outside covering of the
- Shaft diaphysis
- Composed of compact - Fibrous connective tissue
bone membrane
• Epiphysis • Sharpey’s fibers
- Ends of the bone - Secure periosteum to
- Composed mostly of underlying bone
spongy bone • Arteries
- Supply bone cells with
nutrients

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• Sites of attachments for

muscles, tendons, and
ligaments
• Passages for nerves and blood
vessels
• Categories of bone markings
- Projections and
processes – grow out
from the bone surface
- Depressions or cavities –
indentations
• Articular cartilage
- Covers the external
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
surface of the epiphyses
• Osteon (Haversian System)
- Made of hyaline cartilage
- A unit of bone
- Decreases friction at joint
• Central (Haversian) canal
surfaces
- Opening in the center of
• Medullary cavity
an osteon
- Cavity of the shaft
- Carries blood vessels and
- Contains yellow marrow
nerves
(mostly fat) in adults
• Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
- Contains red marrow (for
- Canal perpendicular to
blood cell formation) in
the central canal
infants
- Carries blood vessels and
nerves
Bone Markings

• Surface features of bones

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The Skeletal System

Microscopic Structure

• Bone cells are called

osteocytes
• Osteocytes transport nutrients
and wastes
• The extracellular matrix of
bone is largely collagen and
inorganic salts
• Lacunae - Collagen gives bone
- Cavities containing bone resilience
cells (osteocytes) - Inorganic salts make
- Arranged in concentric bone hard
rings
• Lamellae
Compact Bone
- Rings around the central
canal • Osteon a.k.a. Haversian System

- Sites of lacunae • Central canal

• Canaliculi • Perforating canal a.k.a.

- Tiny canals Volkmann’s canal

- Radiate from the central • Osteocytes

canal to lacunae • Lamellae

- Form a transport system • Lacunae

• Bone matrix
• Canaliculi

• Spongy bone is a.k.a.

cancellous bone

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The Skeletal System

• Osteoblasts - Bone-forming
cells
• Osteoclasts - Bone-destroying
cells
- Break down bone matrix
for remodeling and
release of calcium

• Bone remodeling is a process

by both osteoblasts
Types of Bone Cells and osteoclasts
Osteocytes - mature bone cells
Osteoblasts - Bone-forming Bone Development
cells and Growth
Osteoclasts - Bone-destroying • Parts of the skeletal system
cells begin to develop during the first
- Break down bone matrix few weeks of prenatal
for remodeling and development
release of calcium • Bones replace existing
connective tissue in one
● Bone remodeling is a of two ways:
process by both • As intramembranous bones
osteoblasts and • These bones originate within
osteoclasts sheetlike layers of connective
tissues
Types of Bone Cells • They are the broad, flat bones

• Osteocytes - Mature bone cells

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The Skeletal System

- Skull bones (except

mandible) are known as
intramembranous bones

• As endochondral bones
• Bones begin as hyaline
cartilage
- Form models for future
bones Factors Affecting Bone
• These are most bones of the Development, Growth and
skeleton Repair
• Are known as endochondral • Deficiency of Vitamin A
bones – retards bone development
• Deficiency of Vitamin C

Homeostasis of Bone Tissue – results in fragile bones

• Deficiency of Vitamin D
• Bone Resorption – action of
– rickets, osteomalacia
osteoclasts and parathyroid
• Insufficient Growth Hormone
hormone a.k.a. parathormone
– dwarfism
aka PTH
• Excessive Growth Hormone
• Bone Deposition – action of
– gigantism, acromegaly
osteoblasts and calcitonin
• Insufficient Thyroid Hormone
- Occurs by direction of the
– delays bone growth
thyroid and parathyroid
• Sex Hormones
glands
– promote bone formation
; stimulate ossification of
epiphyseal plates

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• Physical Stress – stimulates

bone growth

Skeletal Organization

The actual number of bones in

the human skeleton varies from
person to person.

Typically there are about 206

bones

For convenience the skeleton is

divided into the: Cranium

Axial skeleton • Frontal Bone (1)

Appendicular Skeleton - Forehead
- Roof of nasal cavity
- Roofs of orbits
Divisions of the Skeleton
- Frontal sinuses
• Axial Skeleton
- Supraorbital foramen
- Skull
- Coronal suture
- Spine
- Rib cage
• Appendicular Skeleton
- Upper limbs
- Lower limbs
- Shoulder Girdle
- Pelvic Girdle

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• Parietal Bones (2) • Temporal Bones (2)

- Side walls of cranium - Side walls of cranium
- Roof of cranium - Floor of cranium
- Sagittal suture - Floors and sides of orbits
- Squamous suture
- External acoustic meatus
- Mandibular fossa
- Mastoid process
- Styloid process
- Zygomatic process
• Sphenoid Bone (1)
- Base of cranium
- Sides of skull
• Occipital Bone (1)
- Floors and sides of orbits
- Back of skull
- Sella turcica
- Base of cranium
- Sphenoid sinuses
- Foramen magnum
- Occipital condyles
- Lambdoidal suture

• Ethmoid Bone (1)

- Roof and walls of nasal
cavity

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- Floor of cranium
- Wall of orbits
- Cribriform plates
- Perpendicular plate
- Superior and middle
nasal conchae
- Ethmoid sinuses
- Crista galli
• Palatine Bones (2)
- ‘L’ shaped bones located
behind the maxillae
- Posterior section of hard
palate
- Floor of nasal cavity
- Lateral walls of nasal
cavity
Facial Skeleton

• Maxillary Bones (2)

- Upper jaw
- Anterior roof of mouth
- Floors of orbits
- Sides of nasal cavity
- Floors of nasal cavity • Zygomatic Bones (2)
- Alveolar processes - Prominences of cheeks
- Maxillary sinuses - Lateral walls of orbits
- Palatine process - Floors of orbits
- Temporal process

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The Skeletal System

• Lacrimal Bones (2) - Mental foramen

- Medial walls of orbits
- Groove from orbit to
nasal cavity
• Nasal Bones (2)
- Bridge of nose
• Vomer Bone (1)
- Inferior portion of nasal
septum

Paranasal Sinuses
• Inferior Nasal Conchae (2) • Hollow portions of bones
- Extend from lateral walls surrounding the nasal cavity
of nasal cavity
• Mandible Bone (1)
- Lower jaw
- Body
- Ramus
- Mandibular condyle
- Coronoid process • Functions of paranasal sinuses
- Alveolar process - Lighten the skull
- Mandibular foramen

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- Give resonance and • Allow the brain to grow

amplification to voice • Convert to bone within 24
months after birth

Hyoid Bone

• The only bone that does not

articulate with another bone
• Serves as a moveable base for
the tongue

• Fontanels – fibrous
membranes

Fetal Skull

• The fetal skull is large

compared to the infants total
body length.
• Fontanelles – fibrous
membranes connecting the
cranial bones

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The Skeletal System

• Coccygeal (3-4 fused

Auditory Ossicles in the
Middle Ear segments)
- Coccyx is fused bone
•The incoming sound waves
• Cervical curvature
make the eardrum vibrate, and
• Thoracic curvature
the vibrations travel to three tiny
• Lumbar curvature
bones in the middle ear called
• Sacral curvature
the malleus, incus, and
• Rib facets
stapes—the Latin names for
• Vertebral prominens
hammer, anvil, and stirrup.
• Intervertebral discs (IVD)
• Intervertebral foramina (IVF)

Vertebral Column

•The vertebral column, or spinal

column, consists of many
vertebrae separated by
cartilaginous intervertebral
discs
• Cervical vertebrae (7)
• Thoracic vertebrae (12)
• Lumbar vertebrae (5)
Typical Vertebrae
• Sacral (4-5 fused segments)
• Includes the following parts:
- Sacrum is fused bone

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The Skeletal System

-Vertebral Body (A)

-Pedicles (B)
-Lamina (C)
-Spinous process (D)
-Transverse processes (E)
-Vertebral foramen (F)
-Facets (G)

Thoracic Vertebrae

Cervical Vertebrae
Lumbar Vertebrae
• Atlas – 1st; supports head
• Large bodies
• Axis – 2nd; dens pivots to turn
• Thick, short (almost square)
head
spinous processes
• Transverse foramina
• Bifid spinous processes
• Vertebral prominens –
useful landmark

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Thoracic Cage

• The thoracic cage includes the

ribs, the thoracic vertebrae, the
sternum, and the costal
cartilages that attach the ribs to
the sternum.

• Ribs (12)
Sacrum & Coccyx
• Sternum
• 4-5 fused segments • Thoracic vertebrae (12)
• Median sacral crest • Costal cartilages
• Posterior sacral foramina • Supports shoulder girdle and
• Posterior wall of pelvic cavity upper limbs
• Sacral promontory aka base • Protects viscera
• Area toward coccyx is the apex • Role in breathing
• Coccyx aka tailbone
• 3-4 fused segments
Ribs

Humans have 12 pairs of ribs:

• True ribs (7)
• False ribs (5), of which:
• Floating (2)

Rib Structure

• Shaft
• Head – posterior end;
articulates with vertebrae
• Tubercle – articulates with

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vertebrae
Pectoral Girdle
• Costal cartilage – hyaline
• Also known as the shoulder
cartilage
girdle
• Clavicles (collarbone) - 2
• Scapulae (shoulder blade) – 2
• Supports upper limbs
• True shoulder joint is simply the
articulation of the humerus and
scapula

Sternum

• Three (3) parts of the sternum:

• Manubrium
Clavicles
• Body
• Collarbone
• Xiphoid process
• Articulate with manubrium
• Articulate with scapulae
(acromion process)

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• First bone to begin ossification • Surgical neck

in the fetus • Deltoid tuberosity
• Last to complete ossification • Capitulum (lateral)

Scapulae

• Scapular Spine
• Supraspinous fossa
• Infraspinous fossa

• Acromion process
• Coracoid process (crow’s
beak)
• Glenoid fossa or cavity • Radius - 2
• Lateral forearm bone
• Head – rotates against the
humerus and ulna
• Radial tuberosity–biceps
brachii attaches
• Styloid process – lateral side of
the distal end of the radius

Upper Limb

• Humerus - 2
• Head
• Greater tubercle
• Lesser tubercle
• Anatomical neck

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The Skeletal System

• Lunate (moonshape)
• Triquetral (three-cornered)
• Pisiform (pea-shaped)
• Hamate (hook)
• Capitate (os magnum)
• Trapezoid (lesser multangular)
• Trapezium (greater
multangular)

• Metacarpals - 10

• Phalanges - 28
• Ulna – 2
• Proximal phalanx
• Medial forearm bone
• Middle phalanx
• Trochlear notch – semilunar
• Distal phalanx
notch
• Olecranon process – extension
of the ulna
• Coronoid process – helps
complete the “grip” of the ulna
on the distal end of the
humerus
• Styloid process – medial side
of distal end of ulna; articulates
with bones of the wrist

WRIST AND HAND

• Carpals - 16
• Scaphoid (boatlike)

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- Greater sciatic notch

Pelvic Girdle
2. Ischium (inferior & posterior)
• Coxal Bones (2)
- Ischial spines
- Supports trunk of body
- Lesser sciatic notch
- Protects viscera
- Ischial tuberosity
- Forms pelvic cavity
3. Pubis (inferior & anterior)
- Obturator foramen
- Symphysis pubis
- Pubic arch

Greater and Lesser Pelvis

• Greater Pelvis
- Lumbar vertebrae
posteriorly
Hip Bones
- Iliac bones laterally
• Also known as the coxae: - Abdominal wall anteriorly
• Acetabulum (vinegar cup)
• There are three (3) bones: • Lesser Pelvis
1. Ilium (most superior) - Sacrum and coccyx
- Iliac crest posteriorly
- Iliac spines

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The Skeletal System

- Lower ilium, ischium, and

Lower Limb
pubic bones laterally and
anteriorly

• Femur (2)
• Female pelvis
• Longest/strongest
• Iliac bones more flared
bone of body
• Broader hips
• Head
• Pubic arch angle greater
• Fovea capitis
• More distance between ischial
• Neck
spines and ischial tuberosities
• Greater trochanter (“runners”)
• Sacral curvature shorter and
• Lesser trochanter
flatter
• Linea aspera - posterior
• Lighter bones
• Condyles
• Why these differences?
• Epicondyles – medial and
lateral

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The Skeletal System

to the condyles; point of the leg

ligament attachment • Medial to fibula
• Condyles
• Tibial tuberosity – anterior
surface
• Anterior crest
• Makes the medial malleolus

• Patella (2)
• A.k.a. kneecap
• Anterior surface
of the knee joint
• Flat sesamoid bone located in
the quadriceps tendon

• Tibia (2)
• A.k.a. shin bone
• Major weight bearing bone of

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• Fibula (2)
•Resembling a clasp or buckle
• Lateral to tibia
• Long, slender
• Head
• Makes the lateral malleolus
• Non-weight bearing

• Tarsals (14)
• Calcaneus (heel bone)
• Talus (ankle bone)
• Navicular (boat-shaped)
• Cuboid
• Lateral (3rd) cuneiform
(*wedge-shaped)
• Intermediate (2nd) cuneiform
• Medial (1st) cuneiform

• Metatarsals (10)

• Phalanges (28)
• Proximal Joints
• Middle
• Articulations of bones
• Distal
• Functions of joints
- Hold bones together
- Allow for mobility
• Ways joints are classified
- Functionally

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The Skeletal System

- Structurally

Functional Classification of
Joints

• Synarthroses – immovable
joints
• Amphiarthroses – slightly
moveable joints
• Diarthroses – freely moveable
joints

Cartilaginous Joints
Structural Classification of
• Bones connected by cartilage
Joints
• Examples
• Fibrous joints
- Pubic symphysis
- Generally immovable
- Intervertebral joints
• Cartilaginous joints
- Immovable or slightly
moveable
• Synovial joints
- Freely moveable

Fibrous Joint

• Bones united by fibrous tissue

– synarthrosis or largely
immovable.

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The Skeletal System

Synovial Joints

• Articulating bones are

separated by a joint cavity
• Synovial fluid is found in the
joint cavity

• Articular cartilage (hyaline

cartilage) covers the ends of
bones
• Joint surfaces are enclosed by
a fibrous articular capsule
• Have a joint cavity filled with
synovial fluid
• Ligaments reinforce the joint

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The Skeletal System

Lifespan Changes

• Decrease in height beginning

at about age 30
• Calcium levels fall
• Bones become brittle
• Osteoclasts outnumber
osteoblasts
• Spongy bone weakens before
compact bone
• Bone loss rapid in menopausal
women
• Hip fractures common
• Vertebral compression
fractures common

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