An Introduction to the Skeletal System

• Learning Outcomes
• 1 Describe the primary functions of the skeletal
system.
• 2 Classify bones according to shape and internal
organization, giving examples of each type,
• 3 Identify the cell types in bone, and list their major
functions.
• 4 Compare the structures and functions of compact
bone and spongy bone.
• 5 Compare the mechanisms of endochondral
ossification and intramembranous
ossification.
An Introduction to the Skeletal System

• Learning Outcomes
• 6 Describe the remodeling and homeostatic
mechanisms of the skeletal system.
• 7 Discuss the effects of exercise, hormones, and
nutrition on bone development and on the
skeletal system.
• 8 Describe the types of fractures, and explain how
fractures heal.
Functions of the Skeletal System

• Five Primary Functions of the Skeletal System

1. Support
2. Storage
3. Blood Cell Production
4. Protection
5. Leverage
An Introduction to the Skeletal System

• The Skeletal System

• Includes:

• Bones and associated Cartilages

• Ligaments and other connective tissues

Bone (Osseous) Tissue

• Bone (Osseous) Tissue

• Dense, supportive connective tissue

• Contains specialized cells

• Produces solid matrix of calcium salt deposits

• Around collagen fibers

Composition of the Bone Matrix
• Organic components of bone (about one-third of bone
mass):
• Cells
• Collagen fibers
• Ground substance
• Inorganic components of matrix:
• Primarily hydroxyapatite
• Calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide
• Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
Cells of Bone
• Osteoprogenitor cells
• Mesenchymal stem cells in endosteum and periosteum

• Osteoblasts
• secrete osteoid

• Osteocytes
• maintain matrix and detect mechanical stress on a bone

• Osteoclasts
• Large, multinuclear cells
• Secrete hydrochloric acid and enzymes that dissolve matrix
Types of Cells in Bone

Figure 6.6
Comparison of Compact and Spongy Bone
• Compact bone
• Solid and relatively dense
• External surfaces of long and flat bones

• Spongy bone
• trabeculae
• Internal surface of bones
Compact Bone
Osteon is the basic unit
• Osteocytes are arranged in concentric lamellae
• Around a central canal containing blood vessels
• Perforating canals - perpendicular
The Histology of Compact Bone

Canaliculi

Concentric
lamellae
Central canal

Osteon
Lacunae

Osteon LM  343
A thin section through compact
bone. By this procedure the
intact matrix making up the
lamellae appear white, and the
central canal, lacunae, and
canaliculi appear black due to
the presence of bone dust.
Compact Bone and Spongy Bone
• The Structure of Compact Bone
• Circumferential Lamellae
• around long bone
• bind osteons together
• Periosteum on the outside
• except joint capsules
• fibrous and cellular layer
• Perforating fibers - collagen
• bone
• periosteum
• joint capsule
• tendon/ligament
Compact Bone and Spongy Bone

Endosteum - incomplete cellular layer

• Lines medullary cavity and central canal
• Covers trabeculae of spongy bone
• Osteoblasts
• Osteoprogenitor cells
• Osteoclasts
Classification of Bones

• Bones
• Typical adult has 206 bones (>270 to <200)

• Are classified by:

• Shape

• Internal tissue organization

• Bone markings (surface features; marks)

Classification of Bones

• Six Bone Shapes

1. Sutural bones
2. Irregular bones
3. Short bones
4. Flat bones
5. Long bones
6. Sesamoid bones
Classification of Bone by Shape

Figure 6.3
 Anatomy of Long Bones
• Structure of a Long Bone
• Diaphysis
• compact bone
• medullary cavity
• Epiphysis
• Mostly spongy bone
• Surrounded by compact bone
• Metaphysis
• Where diaphysis and epiphysis meet
Anatomy of Long Bones

Spongy Bone
• No osteons
• open network of trabeculae
• red bone marrow
• Medullary Cavity
• yellow marrow
The Distribution of Forces on a Long Bone

Body weight
(applied force)

Tension
on lateral
side of
shaft

Compression
on medial side
of shaft
Bone Formation and Growth

• Human bones grow until about age 25

• Osteogenesis

• Bone formation

• Calcification
• The process of depositing calcium salts

• Occurs during bone ossification and in other tissues

Bone Formation and Growth

• Ossification

• The process of replacing other tissues with bone

• Two main forms of ossification

1. Endochondral ossification

2. Intramembranous ossification
Bone Formation and Growth

• Endochondral Ossification
• Ossifies bones that originates as cartilage

• Most bones

• There are six main steps in endochondral ossification

Endochondral Ossification

Figure 6.11
Figure 6-10 Endochondral Ossification

Growth in length at epiphyseal plate:

Epiphyseal to Diaphyseal:

1. Zone of resting cartilage

2. Zone of proliferation
3. Zone of hypertrophy
4. Zone of calcification Epiphyseal
Cartilage cells undergoing
division and secreting

5. Ossified bone cartilage matrix additional cartilage matrix

LM  250

Medullary cavity Osteoblasts Osteoid

Bone Formation and Growth

• Summary of bone development

1. Cartilage model forms

2. Bone collar forms

3. 1° ossification center

4. Medullary cavity

5. 2° ossification center

6. Growth continues
Bone Formation and Growth

• Appositional Growth
• thickens and strengthens long bone
• Additional circumferential lamellae
6-5 Bone Formation and Growth

• Bones stop growing around your early 20’s

• Epiphyseal Lines
• When long bone stops growing, after puberty:
• Epiphyseal cartilage ossifies
• visible on X-ray as epiphyseal line
Figure 6-11a Bone Growth at an Epiphyseal Cartilage

An x-ray of growing epiphyseal

cartilages (arrows)
Figure 6-11b Bone Growth at an Epiphyseal Cartilage

Epiphyseal lines in an
adult (arrows)
Bone Formation and Growth

Intramembranous Ossification
• Also called dermal ossification
• Flat bones of the skull
• Mesenchymal tissue model

• Three main steps

• Mesenchymal cells differentiate to osteoblasts
• Osteoblasts begin ossification
• Spongy bone formation – remodeled
Figure 6-12 Intramembranous Ossification

Mesenchymal cells aggregate, differentiate into

osteoblasts, and begin the ossification process.
The bone expands as a series of spicules that
spread into surrounding tissues.
Osteocyte in lacuna Bone matrix
Osteoblast
Osteoid
Embryonic connective tissue Blood
Mesenchymal cell vessel

LM  22

Blood vessel Osteoblasts Spicules

Figure 6-12 Intramembranous Ossification
Figure 6-12 Intramembranous Ossification

Over time, the bone

assumes the
structure of spongy
bone. Areas of
spongy bone may
later be removed,
creating medullary
cavities. Through
remodeling, spongy
bone formed in this
way can be converted
to compact bone.

Blood vessel
Bone Formation and Growth

• Blood Supply of Mature Bones

1. Nutrient Artery and Vein
• Supply the epiphyseal cartilage
• A single pair of large blood vessels
• Enter the diaphysis through the nutrient foramen
• Femur has more than one pair
2. Metaphyseal Vessels
• Where bone growth occurs
3. Periosteal Vessels
• Blood to superficial osteons
• Secondary ossification centers during development
The Blood Supply to a Mature Bone
Articular cartilage

Branches of Epiphyseal artery

nutrient artery and vein
and vein
Metaphyseal
Periosteum artery and
vein

Periosteum
Compact
bone
Periosteal Connections
arteries and to superficial Medullary
veins osteons cavity

Nutrient artery
and vein
Nutrient foramen

Metaphyseal Metaphysis
artery and vein

Epiphyseal
line
Bone Remodeling
• Process of Remodeling
• The adult skeleton:
• Maintains itself
• Replaces mineral reserves
• Continually recycles and renews
bone matrix
• Involves osteocytes, osteoblasts,
and osteoclasts
Exercise, Hormones, and Nutrition

• Effects of Exercise on Bone

• Remodeling allows bones to acclimate

• Stressed bones become stronger/denser

• Broken bones, osteoporosis, bedridden

• Bone Degeneration
• Up to one third of bone mass
Exercise, Hormones, and Nutrition
• Normal Bone Growth and Maintenance
• Nutrition
• Dietary source of Calcium and Phosphate
• Drink Milk, Eat Bones!

• Hormones – Calcitriol
• Synthesized in kidneys

• Requires Vitamin D3
• Remember where you get that?
Exercise, Hormones, and Nutrition

• Other vitamins that are important:

• Vitamin C - collagen synthesis/stimulation of
osteoblast differentiation

• Vitamin A stimulates osteoblast activity

• Vitamins K and B12 help synthesize bone proteins

Exercise, Hormones, and Nutrition

• Other Hormones:
• Growth hormone and thyroxine

• Estrogens and androgens

• sex differences in height

• Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone

• Calcium homeostasis

Sultan Kosen (8’1”) and Jyoti

Amge (2’1”)
Calcium Homeostasis

• Bones store calcium and other minerals

• Calcium ions are vital to:
• Membranes
• Neurons
• Muscle cells, especially heart cells
Figure 6-15 A Chemical Analysis of Bone

Composition of Bone Bone Contains …

Calcium 39% 99% of the body’s Calcium

Potassium 0.2% 4% of the body’s Potassium
Sodium 0.7% 35% of the body’s Sodium
Magnesium 0.5% 50% of the body’s Magnesium
Organic
compounds Carbonate 9.8% 80% of the body’s Carbonate
(mostly collagen)
Phosphate 17% 99% of the body’s Phosphate
33%
Total inorganic
components 67%
Fractures

• Fractures
• Cracks or breaks in bones

• Fractures are repaired in four steps

1. Formation of clot
2. Formation of callus
3. Ossification of callus
4. Remodeling
Fractures

1. Clot formation
• Fibrous network
• Bone cells in the area die

2. Calluses stabilize the break

• Cells of the endosteum and periosteum
• Fibrocartilage callus (soft)
Fractures

• 3. Ossification of cartilage callus

• 4. Remodeled to original look

• osteoblasts and osteoclasts
• up to a year
• little to no evidence
Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System
• Age-Related Changes
• Reduction in collagen and calcium

• Osteopenia begins between ages 30 and 40

• Bones become thinner and weaker with age
• Women lose 8% of bone mass per decade, men 3%

• The epiphyses, vertebrae, and jaws are most affected

• fragile limbs
• Reduction in height
• Tooth loss
Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System

• Osteoporosis
• Severe bone loss
• Over age 45, occurs in:
• 29% of women
• 18% of men

• menopause