Advanced Electrical Circuit Analysis

Practice Problems Methods and

Solutions Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili
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Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili

Advanced Electrical Circuit Analysis

Practice Problems, Methods, and Solutions
1st ed. 2022
Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili
Engineering Technology, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-78539-0 e-ISBN 978-3-030-78540-6

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78540-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer

Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham,
Switzerland
Preface
Electrical circuit analysis is one of the most fundamental subjects of
electrical engineering major. This textbook includes the advanced
subjects of electrical circuit analysis that have not been covered in the
previously published textbooks, that is, DC Electrical Circuit Analysis
and AC Electrical Circuit Analysis. The subjects include state equations
of electrical circuits, Laplace transform and network function, natural
frequencies of electrical circuits, network theorems (Tellegen’s and
linear time-invariant network theorems), and two-port networks.
Like the previously published textbooks, this textbook includes very
detailed and multiple methods of problem solutions. It can be used as a
practicing textbook by students and as a supplementary teaching
source by instructors.
To help students study the textbook in the most efficient way, the
exercises have been categorized in nine different levels. In this regard,
for each problem of the textbook, a difficulty level (easy, normal, or
hard) and a calculation amount (small, normal, or large) have been
assigned. Moreover, in each chapter, problems have been ordered from
the easiest problem with the smallest calculations to the most difficult
problem with the largest calculations. Therefore, students are advised
to study the textbook from the easiest problems and continue
practicing till they reach the normal and then the hardest ones. On the
other hand, this classification can help instructors choose their
desirable problems to conduct a quiz or a test. Moreover, the
classification of computation amount can help students manage their
time during future exams and instructors give the appropriate
problems based on the exam duration.
Since the problems have very detailed solutions and some of them
include multiple methods of solution, the textbook can be useful for the
under-prepared students. In addition, the textbook is beneficial for
knowledgeable students because it includes advanced exercises.
In the preparation of problem solutions, an attempt has been made
to use typical methods of electrical circuit analysis to present the
textbook as an instructor-recommended one. In other words, the
heuristic methods of problem solution have never been used as the first
method of problem solution. By considering this key point, the textbook
will be in the direction of instructors’ lectures, and the instructors will
not see any untaught problem solutions in their students’ answer
sheets.
The Iranian University Entrance Exam for the master’s and PhD
degrees of electrical engineering major is the main reference of the
textbook; however, all the problem solutions have been provided by me.
The Iranian University Entrance Exam is one of the most competitive
university entrance exams in the world that allows only 10% of the
applicants to get into prestigious and tuition-free Iranian universities.
Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili
Buffalo, NY, USA
Contents
1 Problems:​State Equations of Electrical Circuits
2 Solutions of Problems:​State Equations of Electrical Circuits
3 Problems:​Laplace Transform and Network Function
4 Solutions of Problems:​Laplace Transform and Network Function
5 Problems:​Natural Frequencies of Electrical Circuits
6 Solutions of Problems:​Natural Frequencies of Electrical Circuits
7 Problems:​Network Theorems (Tellegen’s and Linear Time-
Invariant Network Theorems)
8 Solutions of Problems:​Network Theorems (Tellegen’s and
Linear Time-Invariant Network Theorems)
9 Problems:​Two-Port Networks
10 Solutions of Problems:​Two-Port Networks
Index
About the Author
Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili
is an assistant professor in the Department of Engineering Technology
at State University of New York, Buffalo State. He received his first M.Sc.
and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering (power system) from
Tarbiat Modares University and Clemson University in 2011 and 2016,
respectively, and his second M.Sc. degree in physics and astronomy
from the University of Alabama in Huntsville in 2019. Moreover, he was
a postdoctoral fellow at Sharif University of Technology during 2016–
2017. As a professor, he has taught many courses such as Essentials of
Electrical Engineering Technology, Electrical Circuits Analysis I,
Electrical Circuits Analysis II, Electrical Circuits and Devices, Industrial
Electronics, and Renewable Distributed Generation and Storage. Dr.
Rahmani-Andebili has more than hundred single-author publications
including textbooks, books, book chapters, journal papers, and
conference papers. His research areas include smart grid, power system
operation and planning, integration of renewables and energy storages
into power system, energy scheduling and demand-side management,
plug-in electric vehicles, distributed generation, and advanced
optimization techniques in power system studies.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
M. Rahmani-Andebili, Advanced Electrical Circuit Analysis
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78540-6_1

1. Problems: State Equations of

Electrical Circuits
Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili1
(1) Engineering Technology, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY,
USA

Abstract
In this chapter, state equations are applied to solve the basic and
advanced problems of electrical circuit analysis. In this chapter, the
problems are categorized in different levels based on their difficulty
levels (easy, normal, and hard) and calculation amounts (small, normal,
and large). Additionally, the problems are ordered from the easiest
problem with the smallest computations to the most difficult problems
with the largest calculations.

Keywords State variables – State equations – System matrix of state

equations – State vector – Current-voltage relation of inductor –
Voltage-current relation of capacitor – Input vector – Capacitor –
Inductor – Resistor

1.1. In the circuit of Figure 1.1, vC(t) and iL(t) are the state variables
[1–2]. Write the output voltage (vo(t)) based on the state
variables.

Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large
 Figure 1.1 The circuit of problem 1.1
1.

2. 6iL(t) − vC(t) − vs(t)

3.

4.

1.2. In the circuit of Figure 1.2, if is assigned as the state

vector, determine matrices A and B in the relation of

.

Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large
Figure 1.2 The circuit of problem 1.2
1.

2.

3.

4.
1.3. In the circuit of Figure 1.3, the state equations are in the form of
. Determine matrix A, for the state vector of
.

Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large

Figure 1.3 The circuit of problem 1.3

1.

2.

3.
 4.

1.4. Determine matrix A of the state equations ( ) for

the circuit of Figure 1.4 if .

Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large

Figure 1.4 The circuit of problem 1.4

1.
 2.

3.

4.

1.5. Determine the state equations of the circuit of Figure 1.5 based on
the given voltage of the capacitor and current of the inductor.

Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large

Figure 1.5 The circuit of problem 1.5

1.
 2.

3.

4.

1.6. In the circuit of Figure 1.6, determine matrix A if the state

equations are in the form of .

Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ● Normal ○ Large

Figure 1.6 The circuit of problem 1.6

1.
 2.

3.

4.

1.7. If the state equations of the circuit of Figure 1.7 are presented in
the form of , determine vector B, where

Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ○ Normal ● Large
Figure 1.7 The circuit of problem 1.7
1.

2.

3.

4.
1.8. In the circuit of Figure 1.8, by choosing as the state

vector, what is matrix A in the state equations of ?

Difficulty level ○ Easy ● Normal ○ Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ○ Normal ● Large

Figure 1.8 The circuit of problem 1.8

1.

2.
 3.

4.

1.9. A network includes some resistors, an inductor of 1 H, and a

capacitor of 1 F. By choosing the state vector of , the

system matrix of the state equations is as follows:

Determine the updated system matrix of the state equations if

the place of the inductor and the capacitor is changed and
is chosen as the new state vector.

Difficulty level ○ Easy ○ Normal ● Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ○ Normal ● Large

1. It is impossible to determine Anew.

2. .

3. .
 4. .

1.10. In the circuit of Figure 1.9, the state vector and the input vector
are and , respectively. If the state

equations of the circuit are written in the form of

, determine matrix B, while we have:

Difficulty level ○ Easy ○ Normal ● Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ○ Normal ● Large

Figure 1.9 The circuit of problem 1.10

 1.

2.

3.

4.

1.11. In the circuit of Figure 1.10, is the state vector.

Determine matrix A if the state equations are written in the form

of .

Difficulty level ○ Easy ○ Normal ● Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ○ Normal ● Large
 Figure 1.10 The circuit of problem 1.11
1.

2.

3.

4.

1.12. Determine the state equations of the circuit of Figure 1.11.

Difficulty level ○ Easy ○ Normal ● Hard

Calculation amount ○ Small ○ Normal ● Large

Figure 1.11 The circuit of problem 1.12

1.

2.

3.

4.
References
1. Rahmani-Andebili, M. (2020). DC Electrical circuit analysis: Practice problems,
methods, and solutions, Springer Nature.
[Crossref]
2.
Rahmani-Andebili, M. (2020). AC Electrical circuit analysis: Practice problems,
methods, and solutions, Springer Nature.
[Crossref]
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
M. Rahmani-Andebili, Advanced Electrical Circuit Analysis
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78540-6_2

2. Solutions of Problems: State

Equations of Electrical Circuits
Mehdi Rahmani-Andebili1
(1) Engineering Technology, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY,
USA

Abstract
In this chapter, the problems of the first chapter are fully solved, in
detail, step-by-step, and with different methods.

Keywords State variables – State equations – System matrix of state

equations – State vector – Current-voltage relation of inductor –
Voltage-current relation of capacitor – Input vector – Capacitor –
Inductor – Resistor

2.1. Applying KVL in the right-side mesh [1–2]:

(1)
Applying KVL in the left-side mesh:

Choice (4) is the answer.

2.2. Applying KCL in node 1 in the circuit of Figure 2.2.2:
(1)
Applying KCL in node 2 in the circuit of Figure 2.2.2:

(2)

As we know, the current-voltage relation of inductor and the

voltage-current relation of capacitor are as follows:

(3)

(4)

Solving (2) and (3):

(5)

Applying KVL in the top mesh:

(6)

Applying KVL in the lower-right mesh:

(7)

The equations of (6) and (7) can be written in the matrices

form as follows:
 Choice (3) is the answer.

Figure 2.1 The circuit of solution of problem 2.1

 Figure 2.2 The circuit of solution of problem 2.2
2.3. Recall that the current-voltage relation of inductor and voltage-
current relation of capacitor are as follows:

(1)

(2)

We need to write the state equations of the circuit based on

the state vector given in the problem:

Applying KCL in the indicated node of the circuit of Figure

2.3.2:

(3)

Applying KVL in the indicated loop of the circuit of Figure

2.3.2:

(4)

Solving (2) and (3) and considering iC(t) = i(t), which is clear
in Figure 2.3.2:

(5)

By writing (4) and (5) in the form of matrices, we have:

Choice (1) is the answer.
 Figure 2.3 The circuit of solution of problem 2.3
2.4. In this problem, only matrix A needs to be determined; therefore,
the source can be turned off, as is illustrated in Figure 2.4.2.
 Recall that the current-voltage relation of inductor and
voltage-current relation of capacitor are as follows:

(1)

(2)

We need to write the state equations of the circuit based on

the state vector given in the problem:

Applying KVL in the left-side mesh of the circuit of Figure

2.4.2:
(3)
Solving (2) and (3):

(4)

Applying KVL in the right-side mesh of the circuit of Figure

2.4.2:

(5)

Solving (3) and (5):

(6)

Writing (4) and (6) in the form of matrices:

Choice (3) is the answer.

 Figure 2.4 The circuit of solution of problem 2.4

2.5. Recall that the current-voltage relation of inductor and voltage-

current relation of capacitor are as follows:

(1)
 (2)

We need to write the state equations of the circuit based on

the state vector given in the problem:

Applying KVL in the indicated loop of the circuit of Figure

2.5.2:

(3)

Applying KCL in the indicated supernode of the circuit of

Figure 2.5.2:

(4)

Writing (3) and (4) in the form of matrices:

Choice (3) is the answer.

 Figure 2.5 The circuit of solution of problem 2.5
2.6. First, we should simplify the series connection of the inductors as
well as the parallel connection of the capacitors, as can be seen in
the circuit of Figure 2.6.2.
Recall that the current-voltage relation of inductor and
voltage-current relation of capacitor are as follows:
 (1)

(2)

We need to write the state equations of the circuit based on

the state vector given in the problem:

Applying KCL in the indicated node of the circuit of Figure

2.6.2:
(3)

(4)

Applying KVL in the indicated mesh of the circuit of Figure

2.6.2:

(5)

Writing (4) and (5) in the form of matrices:

Choice (1) is the answer.

 Figure 2.6 The circuit of solution of problem 2.6
2.7. Recall that the current-voltage relation of inductor and voltage-
current relation of capacitor are as follows:
 We need to write the state equations of the circuit based on
the state vector given in the problem:

Applying KCL in the indicated supernode of the circuit of

Figure 2.7.2:

(1)

Applying KVL in the indicated upper mesh of the circuit of

Figure 2.7.2:

(2)

Applying KCL in the indicated node of the circuit of Figure

2.7.2:
(3)
Applying KVL in the indicated lower mesh of the circuit of
Figure 2.7.2:
(4)
Solving (3) and (4):

(5)

Solving (4) and (5):

(6)

Solving (1) and (5):

 (7)

Solving (2) and (6):

(8)

By writing (7) and (8) in the form of matrices, we have:

Choice (3) is the answer.

 Figure 2.7 The circuit of solution of problem 2.7
2.8. In this problem, only matrix A needs to be determined; therefore,
the sources should be turned off, as is illustrated in Figure 2.8.2.
As can be seen, the voltage source is replaced by a short circuit
branch and the current source is replaced by an open circuit
branch.
Recall that the current-voltage relation of inductor and
voltage-current relation of capacitor are as follows:

(1)

(2)

We need to write the state equations of the circuit based on

the state vector given in the problem:

Applying KVL in the right-side mesh of the circuit of Figure

2.8.2:

(3)

Applying KVL in the left-side mesh of the circuit of Figure

2.8.2:
 (4)

Solving (3) and (4):

(5)

Solving (5) and (4):

(6)

Writing (5) and (6) in the form of matrices:

Choice (3) is the answer.

Figure 2.8 The circuit of solution of problem 2.8
2.9. Since the network includes some resistors, an inductor of 1 H, and
a capacitor of 1 F, it can be modeled like the one shown in Figure
2.9. Based on the information given in the problem, we have:

(1)

(2)

Therefore, the state equations are as follows:

(3)

As we know, the current-voltage relation of inductor and

voltage-current relation of capacitor are as follows:

(4)

(5)

Solving (3)–(5):

(6)

Determining the inverse of the matrix:

(7)

As can be seen in Figure 2.9.2, by changing the place of the

inductor and the capacitor, we have:
(8)
 (9)
Solving (7)–(9):

(10)

Solving (4), (5), and (10):

(11)

Equation (11) shows the state equations of a circuit with the

state vector of . Therefore:

Choice (2) is the answer.

Figure 2.9 The circuit of solution of problem 2.9

2.10. The current-voltage relation of inductor and voltage-current
relation of capacitor are as follows:
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The value of the farm may be greatly modified by the
improvements upon it. It is well to ask, Is the house well located?
May it not have to be virtually rebuilt before it is at all satisfactory?
Will it be necessary to move and repair barns before they are at all
suited to their purposes? The improvements may be too extended
for the needs of the purchaser. Some farms are overloaded with
buildings (Fig. 4); some have badly arranged, unsightly buildings, too
good to destroy and too ugly and unhandy for either economy or
pleasure. Farm buildings are not a direct source of income and are
expensive to keep in repair; therefore, there would better be a slight
deficiency of them than an ill arranged surplus. All other permanent
improvements, such as orchards, plantations, fences, and the like,
should be carefully considered. A good bearing orchard of only a few
acres may serve to furnish enough profit each year to liquidate taxes
and interest charges. The orchard may be cheaper at $500 per acre
than the balance of the farm is at $75 per acre, or it may be only an
incumbrance of good land. Is the farm naturally or artificially
drained? If not, will $35 per acre have to be spent in thorough
draining before the land is really satisfactory? If not drained, will it
bring constant disappointment? Fences, lanes and the necessity for
them, the amount and location of inferior land as pasture land, the
kind of weeds about the farm, as well as the amount, kind and
location of timber, should be considered.
 Fig. 4. Too many buildings for eighty acres of land.

Land devoted to market-gardening should be near the market

town where the perishable products are to be sold. Vegetables
should reach the market early in their season in a fresh and
presentable condition and cheaply, if satisfactory profits are desired.
Then land which can be tilled early (warm or sandy land), though it
may contain a comparatively small amount of natural plant-food, will
be more satisfactory than rich, cold land situated farther from the
market. An acre of poor, sandy land near the market may be worth,
to the gardener, three or four times as much as an acre of the more
distant fertile upland.
Near the town, manures, which are so necessary to force many
market-garden products, can be procured cheaply and in
abundance. The added distance of even one or two miles from the
switch or shipping station may have an important effect on profits.
Land situated far from market may well be devoted to stock-raising
and such other products as may be marketed infrequently or at
leisure. As yet, agricultural methods in America are so new that they
have not adjusted themselves to the growing cities, nor have
specialized crops found their appropriate localities. Too often are
seen truck farms located half a score of miles from the city, and the
meat-producing farms within sight of it. As the country becomes
older, the varied activities in agriculture will fit themselves into their
appropriate localities, as they have already done in many parts of
Europe. The dairyman of the Channel islands has long since learned
that the piebald cattle of the poulders are not suited to his wants, and
the boer of the lowland knows that the meek-eyed, thin-skinned
Jersey is not best adapted to his cold, windy country and wet
pastures.
Cost of tillage should be considered when valuing land. When
produced on friable land, crops may be secured at much less cost
than on tenacious clay. On the other hand, while sandy soils are the
most easily cultivated, they are ever demanding more plant-food,
and hence are not well adapted to grass or general agriculture, as
the expense of keeping them productive is usually so great as to
preclude profits.
Except in special cases, as in truck farming, it is cheaper to
purchase natural plant-food in the soil than artificial fertility. One acre
of land may have potential plant-food sufficient under superior tillage
for one hundred crops, while another unaided will yield but half as
many, and yet the two pieces of land are often priced at the same
figure. In other words, land of high productive power is usually
cheaper than land of low productive power. A good farm may be
cheaper at $50 per acre than a poor one as a gift.
Last, but not least, is the road to the farm. Every free-born
American demands a public highway in front of his house; if farms
are small there must then be a highway about every mile, or, at
most, every two miles. This leads to cutting up the country into
enlarged checkerboards, to a multiplication of highways so great that
none of them can be kept passably good without overtaxing the land
which adjoins them. On account of the contour of the land over
which they pass, some roads are extremely difficult and are well
described by the man who, when asked how far it was from a certain
town to another one, answered: “Thirty miles, and it’s up hill both
ways.” As I write this I look out upon a washed clay road which
stretches up and on towards the horizon for six weary miles, so
steep that the team must maintain a walk for the whole distance in
ascending or descending. What is land worth at the other end of this
road, as compared with that which lies six miles away in the other
direction, along a smooth, level pike? Every grown farm boy should
have a good horse and a good road upon which to drive, if he be
worthy of such a noble animal as the horse. When he starts for
himself let him locate on a good road. There are always enough
persons who are not thankful for advice, especially if it be in a book,
who are looking for cheap land at the end of the hilly road.
Many farms are purchased by young men just starting out in life
before judgment has been developed by experience, while men of
mature years take in the whole problem, or rather series of
problems, easily and at once. The novice would do well to make a
list of the topics enumerated above, and add to them such others as
appeal to his tastes or conditions and then study them, one at a time;
in fact, there is nothing left for the young man to do but to make out a
score-card upon which he records his judgment in numbers as he
investigates each phase of the difficult problem of selecting a farm.
 CHAPTER V
T H E R E L AT I O N O F T H E FA R M E R TO T H E L AW Y E R

Doubtless more than one reader will be astonished, perhaps even

horrified, to think that the writer should seriously suggest that there
ought to be any relation whatever between the farmer and the
lawyer.
It has come to be generally believed by many farmers that lawyers
are at best a necessary evil, which it is well to avoid if possible; but,
strange as it may appear, this very feeling is responsible for much of
the litigation, with its attendant loss and sometimes ruin, in which too
many farmers have been engaged. It is not the purpose of this short
chapter to treat of the subject of law, or to try to lay down any rules to
be blindly followed in legal matters. An old and learned lawyer, who
had all his life been engaged in a country practice, once told me that
the most prolific sources of litigation were alleged text-books of law,
bearing such alluring and seductive titles as “Every Man his own
Lawyer,” or “The Farmer’s own Law Book.”
Several years ago, a wealthy manufacturer of the state of New
York sent a bright son to a law school, to help prepare him for a
business career. At the end of his course the proud father was
present at commencement, and, in the course of conversation with
his son, said: “Well, John, I suppose you have learned a great deal.”
John answered, “I have learned one thing which I think is of value;
and that is, if any legal matter comes up in the course of my
business, to consult the very best lawyer I can find.” That young man
had really learned something worth far more than the cost of his
course in the college of law.
There is, perhaps, no other of the so-called learned professions
which is so exacting and which requires more devotion and study for
its mastery. Some of the brightest men in this country have devoted
a lifetime to the study and practice of law, only to have just entered
its broad field as they have been compelled to lay down their work.
How futile, then, would be the attempt to make every man his own
lawyer! The real purpose of this chapter is to open the eyes of the
farmer to the necessity of a closer relationship between himself and
the lawyer,—the family lawyer, if you please, having his confidence
to the same extent as that of the family doctor.
Most farmers desire a comfortable and a beautiful home, and it is
to aid such that this book is written. Such a farmer would doubtless
consult a builder or an architect as to the foundation, walls, plan and
materials of the home to be constructed, and he would act wisely;
but how many would think so far as to consult a lawyer as to the very
foundation upon which his home and his future happy occupancy of
it rest: the title to the farm. Too many times he is satisfied with the
services of the village solons,—the shoemaker who is a notary
public, the justice of the peace, or the pettifogger who daily overrules
the supreme court or the court of appeals. Years after he has
purchased his farm, he finds, perhaps, that some man has given a
deed whose wife has not signed, and upon the death of the woman’s
husband our farmer friend is confronted with a law suit; and he finds
that this wife, who did not sign the deed, is entitled to dower in his
farm, the use of one-third of its value at the time her husband gave
the deed, for life. Such cases are frequent, and might easily be
prevented by submitting an abstract of the title to a lawyer at a cost
of $5 or less. The flaw in the title may be a mortgage or judgment, or
a failure of all the heirs of a deceased person, somewhere along the
chain of title, to join in the deed; all of which might be overlooked by
the ordinary business man, and yet be readily detected by a lawyer.
Some day the farmer may be annoyed by the encroachment of a
neighbor upon his farm, and, when in the midst of a litigation, find
that the description of his farm is so defective that there is no relief. I
have in my possession a deed of a valuable farm containing this
description: “Beginning on the —— road at the south end of a pile of
four-foot wood; running thence westwardly to a black cherry tree,
thence northerly to a stake, thence easterly to a pine stump in the
center of the road, and thence southerly to the place of beginning,
containing 100 acres, more or less.” For fifty years this description
has been copied, a score of times, by the various justices of the
peace and notaries public of the neighboring hamlet, but fortunately,
however, it has never devolved upon the owners to establish the
boundaries of that farm. The first lawyer who got hold of this
particular deed insisted upon such a description as would be tangible
and certain. Not many years ago a mortgage on a valuable farm in
Tompkins county, N. Y., was foreclosed, and during the foreclosure it
was discovered that this mortgage covered about fifty acres of
Cayuga lake, and what had been supposed to be a valuable
mortgage was depreciated one-half by reason of the neglect and
incompetence of the country conveyancer.
So, too, there are questions as to line fences, water courses,
rights of way, encroachment upon the highway, and an innumerable
train of threatening evils, continually arising, any one of which, if
neglected or referred to the many wiseacres common to every
community, may lead to costly litigation, or even to the loss of the
farm itself. A bit of counsel at the right time, which is when the matter
first appears, will prevent, at trifling cost, all the attendant evils of a
law suit.
Such instances are very common in the experience of every
lawyer who enjoys even a moderate country practice; and it is an
alarming fact that perhaps fifty per cent of the titles to all the farms,
especially in the older states, have flaws more or less serious, any
one of which is a microbe of trouble, liable to assert itself when least
expected. This being so, the general and inflexible rule should ever
prevail, never to take a deed of property without an abstract of title
which has been examined by a competent attorney. The so-called
maxims of law, often repeated and distorted, especially in farming
communities, are extremely dangerous to follow. They may have
some foundation in fact, but as almost all rules of law have their
exceptions, and as no one not versed in the law is competent to
pass upon them, they should never be blindly followed by a layman.
To illustrate this point: Not long ago a prosperous farmer, relying
upon the oft-repeated assertion that twenty years of peaceable
possession gave title, became involved in a lawsuit with the town
over a fence which had been built in the highway adjacent to his
farm. He was an astonished man when the lawyer whom he
consulted told him that possession for a thousand years of the land
claimed would not give him title as against the public.
It seems almost incredible that a farmer, who will drive his horse
for miles to have him shod by an expert, or who will summon a
veterinarian to treat a sick cow, will be satisfied to consult what
someone has brightly termed a necessity lawyer,—because
necessity knows no law,—upon matters affecting his farm, his home,
or his competence, rather than the experienced lawyer. The cow
might be replaced for forty or fifty dollars if a mistake was made, but
the farm, the competence, have cost a lifetime of labor.
Perhaps the most striking example of neglect on the part of the
farmer is in regard to the disposal of the fruits of his life-work. It is
true that anybody can draw a will, and yet the fact that men and
women allow anybody to draw their wills is productive of more fat
fees than arise from any other source. Not long ago an
acquaintance, who did not realize the truth of the old adage that “a
little knowledge is a dangerous thing,” drew his own will, and, being
childless, sought to leave his property to his wife, who had been the
partner of his labors in a long life of toil. The law of the state of New
York requires two witnesses to a will. He procured only one, and
upon his death the property, which husband and wife had with so
much toil secured, was for the most part scattered among distant
relatives, almost strangers, because he was afraid of lawyers and
their fees.
In all the varied business which a farmer will meet,—the giving of
notes, mortgages, etc., or, better, the taking of mortgages, bills of
sale, and promissory notes,—it is well to remember that different
conditions of fact make necessary different interpretations of the law,
and that it is usually unsafe to follow a neighborhood precedent.
Oftentimes you may be called upon to transact business where it is
not convenient to consult a lawyer. In such cases, and in all
transactions of any magnitude or possible importance, all talk, or the
essence of it, should be reduced to writing. Then it cannot get away
or be distorted or forgotten, and is in good shape to submit, at the
first opportunity, to your lawyer, who, if an error has been made, can,
while the matter is fresh, more easily correct it. Remember that a
contract is simply a meeting of the minds of the contracting parties,
and the best drawn contract possible is one that states, in language
simple and concise, what each means as expressed by word of
mouth.
 Most of the litigation so much feared by the farmer is due to the
farmer himself and his neglect to seek an ounce of preventive. It is
true that there are rascally lawyers; so, too, there are dishonest men
in every trade, occupation or profession, but they are generally easily
located.
If this chapter shall lead the farmer to feel that his business is
farming, that “a jack-at-all-trades is master of none,” and that the law,
justly interpreted and enforced by those who know it thoroughly and
well, is to be the foundation of his success, the guarantee of his
home through life, and the channel of its proper disposal after death,
then it has not been written in vain. Remember that the province of
the true lawyer is to keep his client out of trouble, rather than to get
him out of trouble. An honest lawyer, of whom, thank Heaven, there
are very many, notwithstanding the popular prejudice of those who
have suffered from litigation, will always try to steer you clear of
litigation and loss.
In conclusion, then, always consult a lawyer in matters affecting
your farm or property. The average fees of a lifetime will not exceed
fifty dollars, and oftentimes valuable advice will be given free. Select
one in whom you have confidence, and stick to him. Become his
friend, and let the relation be one of mutual confidence. Do not
neglect to ask him a question because you fear he will think you
dumb; he probably knows less about farming than you do about law.
He will need your advice and influence in minor matters as much as
you need his. Call on him when you are in town, and he will be glad
to see you. Very often he will answer your question gratis. When he
charges you what may seem a large fee, remember that you are
paying for skilled labor, and that you are entitled to expend as much
for the possible welfare and happiness of your family as you expend
upon the choice stock in your stables. Farmers, more than any other
class of men, perhaps, are prone to neglect legal matters, or place
them in incompetent hands.
 CHAPTER VI
L O C AT I N G T H E H O U S E

Since more than three-fourths of the life of the farmer and his
family are spent in sight of home, more than one-half of life in the
house, and more than one-fourth in bed, the house, the place where
they live, should receive most careful attention. Having secured
sufficient land to maintain a home, and having made certain that
these lands are productive and profitable, a problem is presented in
locating and building the house which demands a high degree of
intelligence, long, painstaking study, and a good understanding of
what constitutes fitness, beauty and durability.
Life in the country gives one the idea of repose, of strength and
breadth, of largeness, of solidity and durability, of healthy,
symmetrical, solid development. Things which are evanescent,
unreal, shoddy; things which are simply for show or vulgar display;
things which have the appearance of aping that which may be
appropriate under different conditions, but are totally out of place in
rural life, must be avoided if utility, natural beauty and comfort,
economy and repose are to be secured.
The pioneer in the wooded districts built the home in some
sequestered nook or valley at the base of the hill or table land, where
the spring or the stream issued from the wood-covered heights. The
rural house of the pioneer allowed free circulation of the frosty air;
the problem of ventilation they solved without knowing it. Unwittingly
they adopted the correct principle; viz., ventilation by many small,
gentle streams of air instead of by a few large openings, which
create dangerous drafts. It must be admitted that our forefathers
overdid the ventilation in most cases, and rheumatism and chilblains
were the result; but the principle was correct.
Now the spring has dried up, the water from the deforested hills
comes rushing to the lowlands until the streams overflow their banks,
and these and other changed conditions indicate that the future
farmsteads should be erected on higher land, on the slopes of the
hills. From the one extreme we have gone, in some cases, to the
other, and the home has been built on the very apex of some lofty
hill. Such locations may be well adapted for summer residences,
where little or no farming is carried on, but are not suitable for the
farm home.
Now that the house is constructed by more skilled workmen than
formerly, and out of better material, there is little need of locating the
home in the sheltered nook, except possibly in the extreme north, or
on plains subject to tornadoes. The object in locating the house on
somewhat elevated lands is fourfold. First, air drainage. In deep,
crooked, narrow valleys the air is pocketed, especially at night, and
the damp, cold air settles in the lowest land as certainly as water
finds the low-lying pool. In these pockets between the hills, frosts
come early and remain late.
While traveling in western North Carolina in the late summer and
fall, I could not but observe how every little break in the hillside and
every narrow valley was filled at sunrise, to the crest of the adjoining
hill, with a dense fog. Slowly the sun, as it approached the zenith,
dissipated the fog, but the narrow valleys were often free from fog for
only a few hours each day. Here the home might be situated well up
the mountain side, as shown at the right in Fig. 5.
 Fig. 5. A house in the bottom of the valley and one on the mountain side.

In a little pocket about twenty feet deep, formed by hills, with a

road embankment at its mouth, fruits failed, although they flourished
on the adjoining land, where there was good air drainage (Fig. 6). If
fruits do not thrive on these undrained areas, the natural conclusion
is that the children will not. It is found that the upper stories of city
buildings are healthier than the lower ones, and that the ground floor
is the most unhealthy of all. This is the only objection to a one-story
house. On the level prairies little opportunity is offered for locating
the house above the level of the surrounding country. Fortunately,
many of the prairies are undulating, and furnish most beautiful
locations for country homes. Much may be done, even in the level
country, to overcome the disadvantages of the site by placing the
cellar of the house only two or three feet in the ground and grading
up to within a short distance of the top of the wall. A pool or two, or a
miniature lake near the barns, and skilful planting of trees will lend a
diversity and charm well worth the attention and time given to them.

Fig. 6. A frosty pocket.

A pool may be made by scooping a place in hard earth or by

damming a stream (Fig. 7). If no water is allowed to flow over the
dam and it is raised some two feet above the overflows, it will serve
every purpose as well as an expensive grout or stone structure. It
will be noticed in the picture that provision has been made by digging
shallow ditches on the right and left for carrying off the surplus water
when the miniature lake is full. In constructing the dam, a trench two
feet wide, at right angles to the stream, should be dug to the depth of
one foot, or until solid ground, unmixed with vegetable matter, is
reached. Fill the trench with clayey earth which is free from humus,
which will prevent the dam from leaking at the bottom where it meets
the natural soil. The stream which feeds the lake or pond should be
small, and need not be perennial if the dam is raised as high as it
should be. If the water is dammed back to the depth of twelve to
fourteen feet, and the banks of the pond are rather steep (A, Fig. 7),
a cool, useful miniature lake will be formed, and not an unsightly
marsh, during the dry months of summer.

Fig. 7. A useful pond.

Dryish, gravelly soil and subsoil is to be much preferred as a site

for a house to clayey or dark, damp soil which contains much
humus. If the ideal soil cannot be secured, then thorough drainage
should be provided. In locating on a gentle declivity, there is a
constant tendency for water to penetrate the wall next the hillside or
to pass under the wall and appear in the bottom of the cellar. Unless
this can certainly be prevented, another location had better be
selected.
 The house should be situated on somewhat elevated ground, to
promote both surface and house drainage. If it is the purpose to
introduce into the house more water than has been furnished
heretofore, then full provision should be made for carrying all waste
water and fecal matter to a safe distance from the house, and to do
this beyond a peradventure, sufficient fall must be secured to give
permanency to the work and an unobstructed outlet.
One of the objections urged against a country home is that it is
“too quiet,” too much shut up from the outside world. This, in part, is
true. It detracts much from the enjoyment and beauty of the country
home if vision is shut in to a few acres just about the house. The
American farmer is not content to live under the conditions which
delight the Transvaal Dutch farmer, so isolated that he cannot see
the smoke from his neighbor’s chimney nor hear the bark of his
neighbor’s dog.
When visiting the home of the Hon. Edwin Morgan, I found that he
was having three large trees cut down. It seemed to the uninstructed
like vandalism. When asked the reason for sacrificing these noble
trees, nourished and tended for half a century, he answered: “I have
many more trees, but I have but one lake—Cayuga—and I must
have vistas through which I can watch the white sail, the crested
waves, the ever-changing colors of the water as the winds open
vistas in the fleecy clouds. I love the trees not less, but the soft
reflection of the moonbeams on the rippling wave more, and so the
trees must give way.”
The outlook from the vine-covered veranda should be broad and
extended. If possible, the hill and dale, the stream and wood,
neighbors’ houses nestled in plantations of trees and shrubs, all
should be in sight. As life advances, I see more and more clearly the
effect of that noble lake, its now boisterous now placid surface of the
rippling water which laved the stony beach. I see its effect on that
“tow-headed” lad who at one time breasted the waves, at another sat
dreamily casting pebbles into the clear expanse, wondering what life
had in store, what the great unknown world offered for the nut-
brown, high-tempered, crude country boy. Then plant the country
home where nature in her happiest moods has showered her richest
gifts!
 But beauty loses much of its charm where healthy vigor gives not
the power to appreciate and enjoy it. So the house should be located
on a healthy eminence. But it is not easy to find a location which
shall combine convenience, beauty, air and water drainage, and
healthfulness all in the highest degree. In the case of the farmer,
convenience as to carrying on the various operations of the farm and
healthfulness are paramount. Drainage may be artificially improved,
vistas opened, miniature lakes constructed, and surroundings made
more beautiful. The farm and its equipment is the workshop, and
must be convenient in all its appointments, or much energy is spent
for naught; health must be maintained at the highest, or work may
become but toil and drudgery.
In locating a house, its relation to the size of the farm, its
productiveness and agricultural capabilities should be considered. In
locating the site, two places should be carefully avoided: First, at the
end of a long lane in the middle of the farm. It may be said that the
buildings form the natural nucleus in and around which the work
centers, and therefore they should be placed near the middle of the
estate. But the work carried on in the fields forms but a small part of
the farmer’s activities. He must ever, in these modern times, be in
touch with the school, the church, the post office, the railway, the
market, and his neighbors. When an infrequent call is made at the
end of this long lane, the children appear like frightened deer as they
seek shelter in the shrubbery or behind the corner of a building, and
the more the inherited timidity and reserve, the wilder they appear.
The other location to be avoided is within a few feet of the
highway. Such locations are only admissible in the city, where land
sells by the square foot. What fortunes are sometimes spent in the
city to secure some amplitude of space between the dusty, noisy
street and the residence! What dignity and repose an ample, well
kept house-yard gives to even a plain, modest house! The effect of
the mistake of locating the house too close to the highway is often
accentuated by locating the barns on the other side and immediately
upon the highway, and in front of the house. The location of the
house, as to the highway, should be governed, in part, by the size
and productive power of the farm. If ample acres and means are
available, then the grounds should be ample; if limited, the grounds
should be made to correspond.
In moderate-sized holdings, a clear space of from 100 to 200 feet
between the house and the highway, and width equal to or
exceeding the length, will give room for a few shade trees and an
ample grass plat. The site should be either suited to the house or the
house to the site. Therefore, the character of the proposed house
and the site should be considered at the same time. One location
may be suited to a one-story, another to a two-story house. No
location is suited to a story-and-a-half house.
It may be said that on most farms the house is already located,
and has grouped around it plantations and barns. In many cases it
would be inexpedient to change the site of the house, as this would
necessitate many changes of outbuildings and other permanent
improvements. But if a careful inspection is made of farmsteads, it
will appear that many of the houses are in need of repairs and
additions, and that the cost of making them would be but slightly
increased if either the house or the outbuildings were removed to a
more desirable site. In the great majority of cases, the old barns
should be gathered together into one structure, or into two at most,
and adapted to the needs of modern agriculture (as will be explained
in a subsequent chapter). All changes presuppose well matured
plans and long and careful study of problems which will have to be
solved if the location of the house or barn is changed.
The scope, and particularly the cost, of the changes should be
known approximately before the execution of the plan begins. “For
which of you, intending to build a tower, sitteth not down and
counteth the cost, whether he have sufficient to finish it? Lest haply
after he hath laid the foundation, and is not able to finish it, all that
behold it begin to mock him, saying, this man began to build and was
not able to finish.” Far better live in the old house, with its
inconveniences, and get the greatest possible happiness out of the
ancient structure, than to build a new one and cover it with shining
paints of many colors and a mortgage which sticks longer than the
paints.
Some of these old farm houses embody many beautiful and
reposeful characteristics, are well located, and need only slight
modifications to make them fit the site as nicely as a bird fits its nest.
If thought can be awakened as to the possibilities of these neglected
homes and some information imparted as to their treatment, or, in
other words, if the eyes and understanding can be trained to take in
the fundamental principles of beauty, dignity, fitness, and repose, we
shall soon see fewer architectural monstrosities. That there are not
more is a wonder. What lad or lass has ever had the slightest
instruction by teacher in rural or city school along the lines of fitness,
beauty, and healthfulness of sites for country homes? The few
youths who reach the institutions of higher learning are scarcely
better off. Some of these are taught to see the beauties and wonders
of nature through a microscope, and, in rare cases, one may be
taught to observe the lines of symmetry and form as exhibited in a
poor plaster cast of some mythological Roman warrior; but as for any
instruction which leads directly to a broad understanding or keen
appreciation of nature in her broader, happier, and grander aspects,
it is painfully conspicuous by its absence. So, is it any wonder that
the farmer is deficient in appreciation of the fitness and beauty of the
tree-clad, gently rolling plateau for a home site, when the “liberally”
educated fail to see the innumerable beauty-spots which cover the
face of nature?
 CHAPTER VII
PLANNING RURAL BUILDINGS

The farm house is not what is called, a “paying investment.” It is

not a direct source of income; neither can the other rural buildings be
said to produce a direct income. Generally speaking, the farm house
can fulfil but four purposes if properly planned and well constructed:
the house may serve to keep the family warm in cold weather, cool in
hot weather, dry in wet weather, and to gratify a love for the beautiful.
Since the farm house as a paying investment is usually a failure, if it
does not supply the wants of the household and fulfil its object, it
becomes a failure indeed. The first great mistake which the
prosperous farmer usually makes is to invest too much money in
expensive, hastily planned buildings. The house should be built to
serve its inmates; too often the inmates become the servants of the
house. A farmer’s wife cannot well afford to devote one room in the
overcrowded house to the storage of expensive, useless upholstery
and bric-a-brac, nor time to keep them presentable and in order.
The debt incurred for a part of the purchase price of the farm
forbids the employment of help to keep in order this home museum
of things useful and beautiful, and things useless and ugly. If
plainness, durability, and natural beauty in parlor, sitting-room and
chamber would only become fashionable, what a burden would be
removed from the shoulders of housewives, both in country and city!
The time is at hand when health and intelligence should count for
more among American women than show and the possession of a
miniature upholstery shop. The furnishings of the rooms should
minister to the comfort of their owner, and not tend to make life
burdensome.
Not infrequently farmers of energy and ability become possessed
of more than a competence near the close of life. Having lived in
somewhat restricted circumstances, they think to make the close of
life more comfortable and luxurious. So, notwithstanding the fact that
most of the children have left the paternal roof, they set about
building a large house, tear down or remodel, and add to the
outbuildings; and at the close of life they leave the possessions
encumbered and a farm overloaded with buildings as an inheritance
to a child unable, by reason of youth and inexperience, to secure a
competence sufficient to live and keep up repairs.
A beautiful farm of 180 acres, in central New York, is provided with
the following buildings:

Fig. 8. The buildings on a 180-acre farm.