PhJLIS VOL. 41 NO.

2 • 2021

Information Literacy: Importance and Consequences*

Maureen Henninger
Visiting Professor, University of the Philippines School of Library and Information Studies
Visiting Fellow, School of Communications, University of Technology Sydney
[email protected]

Abstract

The brief for this lecture in honour of Prof. Gabriel A. Bernardo, the doyen of Philippine librarianship, was
twofold — to explore what promotes informed societies and responsible citizenry, and to examine the supposition
that there is a role for libraries in a democratic society. The paper takes the position that such an endeavour in
the digital age must extend to all information professionals and informed individuals, since librarians are part of
the information profession, and each is an individual, a citizen, an educator, and an information practitioner. It
also proposes that discussion about informed societies and responsible citizenry is based on the proposition that
societies and individuals have agency, that they can and do make informed decisions concerning governments
and governance, that they must be informationally literate, a concept that includes the many literacies that
emerge and overlap in the current, dynamic information environment.

The paper raises important issues of trust, ethics, allegations and responsibilities concerning the technology
giants, in particularly search engines and social media. The intention of this paper was not to be partisan in these
issues and debates, or to provide answers. Rather it was to persuade the readers that media and digital literacy
mandate an awareness of these issues. Importantly, it was my objective to argue that not being literate in these
matters has dire consequences for informed societies and responsible citizenry; and to argue that information
professionals, in all their roles, have a critical part to play in this endeavour.

Keywords: Gabriel A. Bernardo memorial lecture, digital literacy, media literacy, information professions

INTRODUCTION the premise that societies and their citizens are

I would like to thank the University of the Philippines informationally literate. In this paper, I will examine
School of Library and Information Studies for the what information literacy entails in the first quarter of
honour of presenting the 41st Gabriel A. Bernardo the 21st century and beyond in any civil society,
Memorial Lecture on informed societies and including the Philippines. The paper explores some of
responsible citizenry, and the role of libraries in a the many issues, discussions and debates surrounding
democratic society. Gabriel Bernardo was “the thinker the myriad ways of finding information in the digital
who plans, organises and administers the proper age. Through these lenses, I contend there are serious
utilisation of materials and human resources of his consequences of not being informationally literate.
library” (Verzosa, 1963, p. 527) but that was many Finally, I will offer some strategies that those in the
years ago, and I am quite sure that he would approve information professions, as individuals, citizens,
of my extending the role of libraries in such an educators, and information practitioners can employ
endeavour to all information professionals and to further such literacies.
informed individuals.
WHAT IS INFORMATION LITERACY
Any discussion about informed societies and IN THE 21ST CENTURY?
responsible citizenry is based on the proposition that According to a framework developed by the Association
societies and individuals have agency, that they can of College Research Libraries (ARCL, 2016),
and do make informed decisions concerning information literacy is a complex and dynamic concept.
governments and governance. Such agency is built on It expands the traditional Big6 model (see Eisenberg,

*This paper was originally delivered during the 41st Gabriel A. Bernardo (GAB) Memorial Lecture Series hosted by the UP School of
Library and Information Studies (UP SLIS) held last 17 March 2021.

Henninger, M. (2021). Information literacy: Importance and consequences. 3

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2003; Eisenberg et al., 2010, p. E5420) that emphasises competences that are variously a media culture (Tornero & Varis, 2010). As already By way of example, Kathleen Obille (2018) speaks of
an understanding of literacy based on problem-solving, referred to as computer literacy, ICT noted, countries and institutions have been concerned the values or characteristics identified with Filipinos;
a research process that defines the information problem, literacy, information literacy and about the need for education about media (Morsy, social norms such as “utang na loob (indebtedness or
determining and locating sources (including technology media literacy. (p. 7) 1984) and by the early 1990s it was generally realized being grateful), hiya (to feel shame or shyness),
competencies and digital sources), using and engaging that media education should be restated as media delicadeza (to be cautious), pagtitiis (to endure),
with the information, synthesising, and evaluating However, this definition does not provide any literacy (Altun, 2011). pakikisama (to get along with) and pagkakaibigan
information. The ARCL framework incorporates indication of how the concept developed with the (friendship)” (p. 552). Obille argues that these traits
notions of collaborative production and the sharing of emergence of the information or knowledge age or In 2008, UNESCO, noting that it had “become apparent which ensure smooth interpersonal relations, are
information in participatory digital environments. It also society in the last decades of the 20th century (Bell, that the concepts underlying [both] media and reflected in their behaviour online, particularly in their
contains fundamental keywords suggesting information 1973; Machlup, 1962, 1980). Since then, with each information literacy are inextricably intertwined” use of social media. Social media is extensively used
literacy is a reflective discovery of information, an technological development new terms appeared, for (Moore, 2008, p. 4), introduced a media and information in the Philippines, and Obille suggests that such
understanding how information is produced and valued, example computer literacy, internet literacy, network literacy (MIL) initiative. It described MIL as: values may be reflected in “liking” of posts and
that its use creates new knowledge, enables ethical literacy and hyper-literacy (Bawden, 2001; Castells, validation of opinions. However, the rise of political
participation in communities of learning, and that 1996; Fillmore, 1995; McClure, 1994). Mackey and ...a composite set of knowledge, skills, trolling (deliberatively provocative posting) in the
information authority is constructed and contextual (p. Jacobson (2011) put forward a new term that attitudes, competences and practices Philippines (Cabañes & Cornelio, 2017) has led
8). This is a similar position to that taken by Annemaree integrates new and emerging technologies with that allow effectively access, analyze, Renee Karunungan (2017) to plead “it's time we re-
Lloyd (2019) who offered the definition that information various other literacies; that “[i]nformation literacy is critically evaluate, interpret, use, evaluate ourselves, check our values [my emphasis],
literacy is “a practice that is enacted in a social setting the metaliteracy for a digital age because it provides create and disseminate information and start becoming human again.” This is possibly a
...a suite of activities and skills that reference structured the higher order thinking required to engage with and media products with the use of plea for the use of non-confrontational language—the
and embodied knowledges and ways of knowing multiple document types through various media existing means and tools on a creative, Filipino trait of delicadeza, to be cautious and to use
relevant to the context” (p. 1475). formats in collaborative environments” (p. 70). legal and ethical basis (UNESCO, non-confrontational language.
2021).
However, no single definition can adequately show Such collaborative formats were driven by the Finally, there one other type of literacy that is essential
the full complexity and nuances of the knowledge, development and subsequent exponential growth and I would argue that the separation of information from if citizens are to be informed and responsible
requirements, and competencies for responsible influence of social media platforms or network media products, as in the MIL definition, is not members of civil society—civic literacy.
citizenship in the digital age, nor for the implications services (SNS) in the first decade of this century. tenable; they cannot be separated in a media culture,
for information professionals as practitioners and Social media obviously includes the notion of digital media is information and information is media. CIVIC LITERACY
instructors. Historically, information literacy was, and literacy, and just as obviously, it must include visual Nevertheless, it is reasonable to say that whatever the
still is, often incorrectly conflated with “library literacy which “involves the ability to understand, particular permutation of media/information literacy, ...the knowledge and skills to
instruction” (Head et al., 2020, p. 8). However, as produce, and use culturally significant images, objects, it is an overarching concept that is the starting point in participate effectively in civic life
early as 2002 institutions such as the European Union and visible actions” (Felten, 2008, p. 60). As Ely noted many professional practices and academic disciplines. through knowing how to stay informed,
and the United Nations (specifically UNESCO) were as early as 1984, “visual literacy is part of the media One can provide a long list of such professional understanding governmental processes,
concerned with a broader remit of education in world, conflating visual literacy, media literacy and literacies, particularly within an educational and knowing how to exercise the rights
information technologies in the developing digital visual communication” (Ely, 1984, p. 104). environment, for example agriculture (Vallera & and obligations of citizenship at local,
environment (Tornero, 2004; WSIS Executive Bodzin, 2016), science (National Academies of state, national, and global levels
Secretariat, 2004). In fact, UNESCO from the last MEDIA LITERACY AND ITS CONTEXT Sciences Engineering and Medicine, 2016) and law (Partnership for 21st Century Skills,
decades of the 20th century, was concerned with The most ubiquitous of information communications (Schimmel & Militello, 2007) literacies. Certainly, 2019)
education about the media, asking the question “how overtime has been the media, that is, the notion of health literacy is immensely important for decision-
can anyone become a fully functioning citizen in a mass communication, whether in print or by making in public health, not least of which among I will return to the question that Elizabeth Thoman
democratic society if he/she is manipulated by broadcasting, and including journalism, propaganda, ordinary citizens (see for example, Baker, 2006; (1990) asked about manipulative commercial
commercial media?” (Thoman, 1990). Thus, any opinions, etcetera. Any type of communication Nutbeam, 2008), and particularly with high levels of practices in her discussion concerning media literacy,
discussion of such information literacy must include consists of the message and its method of delivery, misinformation concerning the COVID pandemic but first, there is another important set of skills
myriad other literacies—including digital literacy, that is, the media and medium.¹ In the 21st century the (Paakkari & Okan, 2020). embodied in notions of civic and political literacies,
media literacy, visual literacy, civic literacy, and what medium, the conduit or vehicle of mass which are not necessarily identical. Milner (2010) for
has been called metaliteracy. communication, is now primarily through the Internet, CULTURAL LITERACY example, believes that to be politically engaged, all
its websites, apps and social media platforms. And the No matter what the definitions, information/digital citizens—the Internet generation in particular—have
EMERGENT DIGITAL LITERACIES media is the content (the message) is communicated literacy cannot be understood in isolation from its a need for “informed political participation”, a phrase
According to UNESCO (Law et al., 2018), digital through text, sound, data and images. The media is context; as Lankshear and Knoble (2006) have said he suggests is synonymous with civic literacy, “since
literacy is: thus both. “literacies are bound up with social, institutional and being politically informed and putting that
...the ability to access, manage, cultural relationships, and can only be understood information into practice are closely associated” (p.
understand, integrate, communicate, The Information Society as it emerged in the later 20th when they are situated within their social, cultural and 17). However, the basis for both civic and political
evaluate and create information safely century, based as it was on a technological revolution historical contexts” (p. 12). It requires ‘meaning- literacies is to be informed. This was pointed out by
and appropriately through digital and its current shorthand ICTs (information and making’ in particular social worlds, involving social Crick and Porter (1978) when they stated that political
technologies for employment, decent communication technologies), had enormous impact relationships (Hoechsmann & Poyntz, 2012, p. 140), literacy “involve[s] having notions of policy, of policy
jobs and entrepreneurship. It includes on media. We now speak of the 21st century as one of that is, to take into consideration the social norms objectives, and an ability to recognise how well policy
embedded in the culture and its social relationships. objectives had been achieved as well as being able to
comprehend those of others ...[and] respond to them
¹Here, a nod to Marshall McLuhan and his not uncontroversial contribution to modern communication theories.

4 Henninger, M. (2021). Information literacy: Importance and consequences. Henninger, M. (2021). Information literacy: Importance and consequences. 5
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morally” (p. 96). Milner (2010) also contends that to Table 1 ...people need to trust us with their to others who argued that the optimisation of content is
achieve political participation, education about Social Media Platforms as Sources of News in the Philippines personal information, because we have a beneficial for their users (Bruns, 2019; Goldman, 2005).
political decision-making institutions and political Platform Percentage of population huge amount of data now and will have Indeed, Bruns (2019, pp. 8–9) argues that there is little
issues is needed. This question of being informed much more soon...Sensors are really empirical evidence filter bubbles actually exist,
includes how and where citizens find news concerning Facebook 73% cheap and getting cheaper. Storage is speculating that moral panics around the “filter bubble”
these issues. YouTube 53% cheap. Cameras are cheap. People will meme often also serve as part of a rear-guard defence of
Facebook Messenger 36% generate enormous amounts of data. the old elites like mainstream media, that stand to lose
According to the latest Reuters Institute Digital News Twitter 19% Everything you’ve ever heard, seen, or the most from any change to the status quo.
Report (2021), the majority of respondents across all experienced will become searchable.
countries (74%) said they still prefer news that reflects TikTok 6% Your whole life will be searchable This paper does not argue for or against either side of
a range of views and lets them decide what to think. Source: Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2021. (quoted in Edwards, 2011, p. 291) these debates. Its concern is if societies, their citizens,
However, the report notes that social media as a news and their information professionals are to be informed
source continues to be strong, especially with younger Of course, any type of information literacy not only In the digital world of information algorithms have the and to have agency, they cannot be inert. They need to be
people and those with lower levels of education (p. 9). stresses the selecting of sources, but also the ability to ability to prioritise information for you (e.g., search aware of the existence of these questions about bias,
Indeed, only 25% of all people surveyed began critically evaluate those sources. With so much engine ranking website results; YouTube suggesting manipulation and trust surrounding sources of
looking for news on a website, and 18–24-year-olds information being delivered digitally via search what next to watch); they classify you in order to information within the technology giants of search and
(Generation Z) were twice as likely to use social media engines, social media and other online applications, deliver selected content and associated links (and social media. Commenting on their experiments on
and apps (p. 10). The report also noted a “continuing information literacy must include an understanding of annoying ads); and they filter out or in, information search engines ranking manipulations in at the time of
move to closed messaging apps and more visual social the algorithms that select, curate and deliver that based on data stored about you and your perceived elections, Epstein and Robertson (2015), concluded that
media, as well as the continued widespread public information. Indeed, Abigal Bakke suggests that all interests. Such personalisation in effect, leads to of greater concern was the fact that when “people are
concern over false or misleading information— curricula should include algorithmic literacy. If as gatekeeping, a role once played by journalism (Bruns, unaware they are being manipulated, they tend to believe
especially Facebook and Facebook-owned messaging Lloyd (2019) suggests information literacy includes 2008; Pariser, 2011b). There is the additional they have adopted their new thinking voluntarily” (p.
applications including WhatsApp” (p. 4). Of course, “how we understand and express our agency and our complication that in this environment published E4520). Kosinski et al. (2013) contends that “liking” on
this stated concern does not denigrate the advantage of capacity to reflexively understand how information material is often disaggregated and its delivery through Facebook can be used to “automatically and accurately
these apps for the immediacy of disseminating news and knowledge is shaped” (p. 1476), then there is an social media, based on personal data trails for example, predict a range of highly sensitive personal attributes
concerning disasters and emergencies. In the Reuters’ enormous problem when algorithms deliver makes evaluation difficult (Head et al., 2020; Pariser, including: sexual orientation, ethnicity, religious and
sample of Filipinos (2,029 interviewees), only 16% information, and we have no idea of how this is done 2011b). All these factors raise the question is this a political views, personality traits, intelligence,
said they used print sources in the last week of the and by whom. One needs therefore to question if in a problem? And if it is, what are the implications for happiness, use of addictive substances, parental
years 2016-2021, and across all ages, the use of social digital, algorithmic world we really do have agency, informed societies and responsible citizenry? And what separation, age, and gender” (p. 5802).
media and apps for getting news is extensive (see that is the ability to act independently and to make our can citizens and information professionals do about it?
Table 1).² own free choices. And of trust? As noted above, Google needs “people
By the 2000s, scholars began asking questions about the need to trust us with their personal information”
It should be noted that there is a digital literacy ALGORITHMS: FILTER BUBBLES, BIAS AND TRUST effects of algorithmic personalisation in both search (quoted in Edwards, 2011, p. 291). When search and
standard for the Philippines (Republic of the engines and social media (Bozdag, 2013; Bruns, 2008; social media platforms use the powerful technologies
Philippines. Department of Education, 2017) which The algorithms—useful and impressive Pariser, 2011b; Sunstein, 2001, 2018). In 2001, building of artificial intelligence (AI) and biotechnology to
mandates competencies in “navigating the digital as they are—have left us with a tangle on Nicholas Negroponte’s vision (1995), the legal harvest personal data through sensors and eye-tracking
global system to search for information and resources of complications to unpick (Fry, 2018, scholar Cass Sunstein imaged The Daily Me in which front-facing cameras on your devices (Tsukayama &
and communicate with others in everyday life” p. 235) people, “through technology are able to design their Romm, 2018), trust becomes both an issue and an
(Performance Standard D); “demonstrating ethical own newspapers and magazines ...containing exactly imperative.
practices and values in using technology” including Algorithms are a finite sequence of well-defined, what they want and excluding what they do not want
securing and protecting information privacy; and computer-implementable instructions, typically to ...sort[ing] themselves into echo chambers of their own The historian and public intellectual Yuval Harari, in
“digital higher order thinking—critically evaluate, solve a class of problems or to perform a computation. design”. He argued that this supposedly utopian vision an interview said of the power and authority of the
share, utilize, and create digital content” They are neither inherently good nor evil, but they have of complete ‘personalization’ would undermine technology giants:
(Performance Standard F). However, when asked consequences—ethical, philosophical, psychological, democratic ideals” (Sunstein, 2001, pp. 1-6).⁵
about difficulties in popularizing, implementing and and of responsibilities. Those who develop and use ...liberal democracy trusts in the
effectively disseminating this methodological them within systems have enormous power and Over ten years ago, Eli Pariser (2011a) galvanized his feelings of human beings, and that
standard, Filipino citizens noted several difficulties, authority. TED talk audiences by suggesting search engines and worked as long as nobody could
including that of “contextualization, generalization social media were doing “invisible algorithmic editing understand your feelings better than
from or lack of awareness of use cases³...[that there It has been long known that algorithmic systems harvest of the Web”, in effect creating a “filter bubble” or “echo yourself—or your mother. But if there
was a] need for training and development organization and store data about their users. In 2011, Larry Page, chamber”, terms that according to Bruns (2019), have is an algorithm that understands you
...[and that there were] negative attitudes”⁴ (Law et al., one of the founders of Google musing about adding not been adequately defined. The notion of an better than your mother and you don’t
2018, p. 109). personalized features to make Google more useful, said algorithmic-driven information filter bubble has even understand that this is happening,
generated a great deal of attention and debate, from dire then liberal democracy will become an
warnings of the detrimental consequences of users not emotional puppet show. (Thompson,
²The annual Reuters Institute Digital News Reports cover many countries; in the 2021 report analysis was for 46 markets, with an knowing what content has been left out (Pariser, 2011b), 2018)
increased emphasis on the Global South.
³Among other countries making the same comment were Australia and China.
⁴Although an Australia interviewed in this survey noted “while attitudes are important and should be a part of digital competence
assessment, what constitutes an attitude can be confusing and attitude shouldn’t be merged with knowledge and skills as competence”. ⁵For an interesting discussion about filter bubbles and democratic theories, Bozdag, E., & Van Den Hoven, J. (2015). Breaking the
See the discussion in this paper about cultural literacy. filter bubble: democracy and design. Ethics and information technology, 17(4), 249-265. 10.1007/s10676-015-9380-y

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As users of the search and social media platforms one misaligned with the fabric of society responsibility for individual information practices, such of strategic partnerships with these organisations, could
needs to heed the warning of Hannah Fry (2018, p. 26) and specifically poses a kind of as making critical evaluations of online tools and to not only deliver aspects of continuing professional
not to blindly follow wherever technology leads you to existential threat to democracy and a constantly updating knowledge of the digital landscape, information, but also collaborate in workshops, projects
go. There are considerations concerning the functioning society. (Harris, 2020) and to follow ethical discussions and the regulatory or internships (Hobbs & Coiro, 2016).
implications for privacy (see for example, Sætra, 2019; aspects of technologically-delivered information.
Zwitter, 2014), and for democracy as suggested by Whether one considers these notions to be credible or CONCLUSIONS
Harari and others (for example, Helbing et al., 2019). exaggerated, the reality is that the current business CONSEQUENCES OF NOT BEING LITERATE: The brief for this lecture in honour of Prof. Gabriel A.
model of technological giants is based on advertising. IMPLICATIONS FOR INFORMATION PROFESSIONALS Bernardo, the doyen of Philippine librarianship, was
One has only to examine the 2020 advertising The issues and questions that have been addressed in twofold. To explore what promotes informed societies
THE ASYMMETRIC POWER OF TECHNOLOGY: revenues of Google (USD 146.92 billion) and this paper raise many questions and concerns for and responsible citizenry, and to examine the
A FRAMEWORK OF CONSEQUENCES Facebook (approx. USD 84,2 billion) to consider the information professionals as practitioners, educators supposition that there is a role for libraries in a
possibility of this proposition.⁷ and as individual citizens. It is obvious that in all democratic society. I have taken position that in the
...the real problem of humanity is the three roles, we need to be highly digitally literate. As 21st century—the digital age—such an endeavour
following: we have paleolithic It is these concepts which give the technology giants an individual, constantly updating your knowledge of must extend to all information professionals and
emotions, medieval institutions, and of the search and social media platforms great power. the digital landscapes seems a daunting challenge, informed individuals, since librarians are part of the
God-like technology. (Wilson, 2009) which at one level, can fall under conventional information profession, and each is an individual, a
WHOSE RESPONSIBILITY continuing professional development through both citizen, an educator, and an information practitioner.
If we take seriously the statement of Larry Page, “your It has been said that where there is great power there formal and informal methods (Julien, 2018). Formal The paper assumes that to be informed is to be
whole life will be searchable” (quoted in Edwards, comes great responsibility.⁸ We therefore ask, who is methods can be international cooperative initiatives informationally literate, a concept that includes the
2011, p. 291), we need to consider the implications responsible? Should it be governments, through like the Training Centre Network for Librarianship many literacies that emerge and overlap in the current,
and consequences of the power of the search and communications laws and regulations or should the and Information Science (Robinson & Glosiene, dynamic information environment.
social media platforms becoming technology giants in search and social media platform companies be self- 2007), and many national and international
what van Dijck et al. (2018) call “the platform regulatory? Scholars and commentators are concerned professional associations and consortia. However, In this paper, I have raised what I consider to be some
society”. Helbing et al. (2019) noted that “the trend that the search and social media platforms do not many of the formal methods may not meet individual of the important issues within this digital
goes from programming computers to programming consider that they have an ethical duty of care (Harris, development needs (Greenhow et al., 2019), and in an environment. These include a discussion of the
people” (p. 28). David Schultz, when considering 2017; Zuboff, 2015). Axel Bruns (2019) writes of the environment where the use of social media is algorithms that drive the information world of search
search engine bias (see Epstein & Robertson, 2015), social media platforms “at present there is an acute ubiquitous, many scholars have suggested that the use and social media platforms, their filtering of content
alarmingly commented "what we're talking about here need to compel them (through regulatory or other of social media platforms can be used to build based on personal preferences, and their perceived
is a means of mind control on a massive scale that means) to do more to remove extremist accounts, communities for sharing knowledge and resources biases. I have also introduced issues of trust, ethics
there is no precedent for in human history” (para. 1). prevent the circulation of disinformation, and open (Corcoran & McGuinness, 2014; Luo & Hostetler, and allegations that have been raised by scholars and
themselves to independent scholarly scrutiny” (p. 9). 2020) and for establishing mentoring relationships commentators that these technology giants work on
The “emergent logic of accumulation in the The extraordinary allegations of the Facebook whistle (Krutka et al., 2017). business models that are detrimental to individuals
networked sphere” is the concept of surveillance blower, Frances Haugen (2021) who detailed how the and society, and ipso facto, to democratic principles.
capitalism (Zuboff, 2015), in which people are the company was “deliberate in its efforts to keep people, In one’s role as an information professional, it is These questions hopefully have raised the reader’s
product that the technology giants are selling. Within including children, hooked to its service” is one of important to forge key trusted partnerships with awareness of the power and responsibilities of the
the social media space, it is “the attention economy”, many calling for regulation. Harris (2020) in his community-based organisations (Detlor et al., 2020), technology companies that deliver information
that is, tracking the users’ mental engagement on a testimony to the U.S. Senate argued that “we are such as with public libraries “as part of the content, and leads them to ask if there is a problem,
particular item of information (Harris, 2017). Zuboff moving from a lawful society to an unlawful virtual educational ecosystem and as resources for promoting and if the answer is yes, what should be done about it?
and others writing about surveillance capitalism, internet society, and that is what we have to change; if digital and information literacy” (Horrigan, 2015, p.
suggest there is a new economic order which claims nations have physical borders protection, then why 5). In matters of local, national, and cultural The intention of this paper was not to be partisan in
human experience as free raw material for hidden not digital borders protection?” information, partnering with local newspapers (print these issues and debates, or to provide answers.
commercial extraction, prediction, and sales.⁶ or digital) that maybe considered trusted sources and Rather it was to persuade the readers that media and
Furthermore, they contend that it is a parasitic While the world waits for either the technology giants therefore can extend literacies for responsible and digital literacy mandate an awareness of these issues.
economic logic in which the production of goods and act responsibly in the interests of civil society or for informed citizenship. This could include, for example, Importantly, it was my objective to argue that not
services is subordinated to a new global architecture national or international governments to regulate the provision of factual information to counterbalance being literate in these matters has dire consequences
of behavioural modification. Tristan Harris, a former against any egregious overreach of power, it remains mis- or disinformation concerning public health for informed societies and responsible citizenry; and
ethicist with Google, has said the responsibility of the digital citizens. I would argue (Henrich & Holmes, 2011); as a way to increase social to argue that information professionals, in all their
that the first step is to be digitally literate. This implies inclusion among ethnic populations (Katz et al., roles, have a critical part to play in this endeavour.
...a business model that is infused in an understanding of privacy issues in the digital sphere, 2012); or citizen participation in local heritage
the social communications and within this environment to develop an planning and implementation (Swensen et al., 2012). DECLARATION ON CONFLICTING INTERESTS
infrastructure that 3 billion people live understanding of and an ability to apply all the other The author declared no potential conflicts of interest
by, and are dependent on, is literacies discussed in this paper. It also implies taking Finally, reaching out to community groups and non- with respect to research, authorship, and/or
government organisations, local businesses, and publication of this article.
industries in particular fields of study, and to
⁶One of the more infamous incidents of social media data harvesting is the 2010 Cambridge Analytica scandal; see Isaak, J., & Hanna, professional associations such as health and legal DECLARATION ON SOURCES OF FUNDING
M. J. (2018). User data privacy: Facebook, Cambridge Analytica, and privacy protection. Computer, 51(8), 56-59. 10.1109/ professions, all of which have specialised knowledge
MC.2018.3191268 The author received no financial support for the
⁷Source: Statista.com and expertise that can be passed on. The development research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
⁸Winston Churchill, among many

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ISSN 2719-0471 (Online)

12 Henninger, M. (2021). Information literacy: Importance and consequences.

Philippine Journal of Librarianship and Information Studies, 41 (2), 3-12.