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Defining literacy in the 21st century: A guide to terminology and skills

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Volume 1, Issue 1
C

Texas Journal of Literacy

Education
Journal of the Texas Association for Literacy Education
State Affiliate of the International Reading Association

2013
Co-editors:
Leslie Haas
Debra Lee
Susan Szabo
Sheri Vasinda

www.texasreaders.org
 60

Defining Literacy in the 21st Century: A Guide to Terminology and

Skills
Jodi Pilgrim
University of Mary Hardin-Baylor

Elda E. Martinez
University of the Incarnate Word

Abstract
In the twenty-first century, literacy skills increasingly reflect technology use and the
abilities necessary to problem-solve, collaborate, and present information through multi-
media. As technology becomes more readily available to all students, concepts of
literacy change. Researchers and theorists from various disciplines define and describe
21st century literacies using many terms that are inadvertently interchanged and/or
unfamiliar to teachers. The purpose of this article is to review contemporary definitions
of literacy to clarify what is currently known about 21st century literacy skills.

Literacy generally refers to reading and However, literacy concepts have not
writing effectively in a variety of only been changing, they have been
contexts. In the 21st century, the overlapping, as information literacy,
definition of literacy has increasingly multiliteracies/multiple literacies, new
reflected the ability to use technology literacy, digital literacy, and web literacy
for gathering and communicating are all used to describe similar skills
information. The International Reading necessary for 21st century learning. The
Association (IRA) stated that the intent of this literature review is to
literacies used by today’s students are document and clarify what is currently
much different from those of their known about 21st century literacy skills
parents or even those of students from in order to provide clarity and
just a decade ago (IRA, 2009). The IRA consistency among educators.
position statement reported that in
order “to become fully literate in 21st Century Literacies
today’s world, students must become
Information Literacy
proficient in the literacies of the 21st
Information literacy has been
century technologies” (p.1).
historically used to reference the
literacy skills needed for information
Since IRA’s statement adoption in 2009,
access and problem-solving. Paul
abundant research has been published
Zurkowski, President of the Information
about 21st century literacy skills. In
Industry Association, included reference
addition, the National Education
to this term in a 1974 proposal
Technology Plan (NETP, 2010) called for
recommending the establishment of a
an emphasis on 21st century
program to promote information
competencies at all levels of education.

Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1

 61

literacy. In 1976, Burchinal explained have advanced, the ways in which

information literacy required new skills research and learning transpire have
that would “…include how to locate and become entwined with information
use information needed for problem- literacy. The American Association of
solving and decision-making efficiently School Librarians (AASL) has established
and effectively” (p.11). In 1998, a standards to guide practitioners. The
report from the American Library four standards state that learners will
Association (ALA) explained, “To be use skills, resources and tools to: 1)
information literate, a person must be inquire, think critically, and gain
able to recognize when information is knowledge; 2) draw conclusions, make
needed and have the ability to locate, informed decisions, apply knowledge to
evaluate and use effectively the needed new situations, and create knowledge;
information” (p.1). In addition, the 3) share knowledge and participate
report described those who are ethically and productively as members
information literate as people… of our democratic society; and 4) pursue
…who have learned how to learn. personal and aesthetic growth (AASL,
They know how to learn because 2007).
they know how knowledge is
organized, how to find information While the term information literacy has
and how to use information in such provided the foundation for various
a way that others can learn from literacy frameworks, it is somewhat
them. They are prepared for lifelong limited as it focuses on the learner’s use
learning, because they can always of information; while current
find the information needed for any technologies allow the learner to not
task of decision at hand. (1998, p. 3). only use, but to construct and
disseminate information.
The ALA report further outlined six While using information in this
areas of competency: 1) recognizing a standard definition suggests a range
need for information, 2) identifying of author practices, it exists
what information would address a independently from the act of
particular problem, 3) finding the creating and sharing information
needed information, 4) evaluating the through collaborative ventures. The
information found, 5) organizing the definition adopted by ACRL [the
information, and 6) using the Association of College and Research
information effectively to address the Libraries]…expands upon the ALA
specified problem (ALA, 1998). This definition by emphasizing the depth
definition has remained the generally of the information needed, the
accepted foundational definition in the ability to find the information
literature (Campbell, 2004; Spitzer, effectively and efficiently, the
Eisenberg & Lowe, 1998). incorporation of new information
with existing knowledge, and an
Sources of information have changed understanding of the information
since the original definitions of environment. (Mackey & Jacobson,
information literacy and as technologies 2011, p.63)

Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1

 62

This extension is a necessary (Kress, 2010). These various modes of

consideration as learners become communication affect the way readers
literate in the information age and as approach text. For example, graphic
literacy is evaluated from emerging novels, a more complex version of the
perspectives. traditional comic strip (Schwarz, 2006),
require visual literacy skills to
Multiliteracies/Multiple Literacies comprehend both the text and the
In 1996, the New London Group coined illustrations used by the author to
the term multiliteracies to describe a represent meaning. The dimensions of
more contemporary view of literacy that multimodal literacy add to the
reflected multiple communication forms complexity of online learning and
and a context of cultural and linguistic expand the ways readers acquire
diversity within a globalized society. information and comprehend concepts.
Thus, multiliteracies was defined as the Thus, teachers need to understand the
multiple ways of communicating and literacy skills involved in comprehending
making meaning, including such modes text or media that utilizes various
as visual, audio, spatial, behavioral, and models of presentation.
gestural (New London Group, 1996).
Reading is a cognitive process as well as
A similar term, multiple literacies, also a social/linguistic process. Multiple
depicts the ways people read and write literacies include the varied forms of
in their lives. This definition includes a text as well as the cultural identities
variety of static texts, such as books, expressed during communication,
magazines, labels, and pamphlets as known as discourse (Sheridan-Thomas,
well as non-print media such as music, 2007). Sociolinguists discuss discourse,
art, film, and television. In other words, semiotics and other terms relating to
multiple modes of communication are the use of symbols to convey meaning
possible, and these modes affect the with and emphasize culture and the role
ways readers approach a literacy it plays (Gee, 1996). Many cognitive
situation. researchers seek to understand the
skills, strategies, and dispositions
Kress (2003) attributed the changes in required for effective online reading
concepts of literacy to the media. He comprehension (Coiro & Dobler, 2007;
specifically discussed media shifts from Jetton & Shanahan, 2012). The multiple
book to screen, which enabled the use disciplines/theories involved in defining
of a variety of modes of communication. literacy contribute to the complexity of
Therefore, the term multimodality this topic.
describes the various ways print and
media are represented and are a huge New Literacy
component of new concepts about What is “new” about literacy?
literacy. Multimodal forms of Researchers suggested that concepts of
information include visual and audio literacy beyond the traditional views of
modes of communication presented alphabetic writing, vocabulary
through print, photos, videos, or graphs knowledge, and recall of information

Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1

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may be considered new (Coiro, Knobel, 2008). Because the research comes
Lankshear, & Leu, 2008). Definitions of from various fields such as cognitive
literacy depend on emerging technology science, sociolinguistics, cultural
tools which require different ways of anthropology, information science, and
conceiving and communicating meaning others, it can be difficult to understand
presented in multiple media and the varying terminology. Leu, Kinzer,
modality forms as a part of literacy. The Coiro, and Cammack, (2004) stated that
Internet has greatly impacted literacy new literacies allow individuals to use
and has contributed to changing views the Internet “to identify important
of literacy (Coiro et al., 2008). New questions, locate information, critically
web-based tools emerge on the Internet evaluate the usefulness of that
constantly and require specific, new, information, synthesize information to
skills. answer those questions, and then
communicate the answers to others” (p.
The terms multiple literacies and new 1570). Therefore, one might consider
literacies signify a broad range of any technique requiring new
perspectives on literacy similar in that technological reading and writing skills
they convey an understanding of to be a new literacy. For example,
literacies as social and cultural practices blogging is an online form of a journal
that are continuously changing. that requires new skills for users. Media
However, discussion of new literacies sharing, such as photo and video
tends to involve new technologies, and sharing, also requires new skills for
literacy education (Cervetti, Damico, & users (Pilgrim & Bledsoe, 2013).
Pearson, 2006). These two concepts
tend to involve many literacies and Leu et al. (2004) presented a difference
modalities beyond print literacy between the terms new literacies (lower
(including new literacies) as well as an case) and New Literacies (upper case).
emphasis on cultural considerations This difference may best be explained
(Cervetti, Damico, & Pearson, 2006). with the familiar umbrella analogy.
Many terms are associated with new Consider the overarching umbrella to be
literacies. Digital literacy, 21st century New Literacies. Everything in the field
literacies, internet literacy, media under the umbrella, including topics in
literacies, information literacy, ICT this article, includes new literacies.
literacies, and computer literacy refer to According to Leu (2011), lower case
terms which evolved to describe theories reflect the rapidly changing
literacies associated with ways to gather nature of literacy in a deictic world since
and communicate information using the they are closer to the specific types of
Internet and new technologies (Coiro et changes that are taking place and
al., 2008). interest those who study them. Lower
case theories enable the use of multiple
Many disciplines recognize and define lenses that are used and the
new literacies, and a new literacies technologies and contexts that are
perspective has emerged based on a studied. All theoretical insights are
wide range of research (Coiro et al., valued, even if they do not share a

Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1

 64

particular lens, technology, or context literacy in this new milieu. Using the
(Leu, 2011). same skills used for centuries-
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation-
Digital Literacy we must look at digital literacy as
Digital literacy describes reading and another realm within which to apply
writing tasks utilizing media powered by elements of critical thinking. (Jones-
technology. Digital literacy is the ability Kavalier & Flannigan, 2008, p.14)
to find, evaluate, utilize, share, and
create content using information The Department of Education used the
technologies and the Internet (Cornell term digital literacy in the National
University, 2009, para. 1). This is a very Education Technology Plan (U.S.
general, broad term related to skills Department of Education, 2010) in
necessary in the 21st century and often reference to skills teachers need for the
used interchangeably with new literacy development of appropriate
and information literacy. Jones-Kavalier assignments for students to improve
& Flannigan (2008) narrowed the learning, assessment, and instructional
definition of digital literacy as “…the practice. This extensive plan for
ability to read and interpret media (text, transforming education referenced the
sound, images), to reproduce data and ISTE standards for additional
images through digital manipulation, information about what it means to be
and to evaluate and apply new digitally literate in an age of evolving
knowledge gained from digital technology. According to The
environments” ( p.14). International Society for Technology in
Education (ISTE), “Today's students
Digital literacy has become a more need to be able to use technology to
common term since Marc Prensky analyze, learn, and explore. Digital age
(2001) coined the terms digital native skills are critical for preparing students
and digital immigrant to describe to work, live, and contribute to the
generational differences among social and civic fabric of their
learners. According to Prensky, a digital communities” (ISTE, 2012, para. 2). ISTE
native was born in the digital age with developed the National Educational
access to technology. A digital Technology Standards (NETS) for
immigrant refers to one lacking student success in a digital age which
exposure to technology until later in life. include skills related to creativity and
However, just because one is born in innovation; communication and
the digital age does not mean the digital collaboration; research and information
natives have instinctively learned how fluency; critical thinking, problem
to use technology effectively. It cannot solving and decision making; digital
be assumed they know how to citizenship; and technology operations
synthesize and analyze what they and concepts.
access, as ….
the greatest challenge is moving Web Literacy
beyond the glitz and pizazz of the Web literacy refers to the skills needed
flashy technology to teach [new] for successful web navigation

Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1

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(November, 2008). Online reading

requires specific skills, and these skills Blanchard and Farstrup (2011)
are often referred to by educators in K- suggested that Internet searching skills
12 settings as web literacy skills. are essential for secondary students and
Classroom practices often involve they are in need of instructional
research and “the rules of research have support. Many educators in higher
changed with society’s move from education have left the dissemination of
paper to digital information” literacy knowledge and search skills to
(November, 2008, p. 6). Web literacy the technology experts. However, web
may fit under the umbrella of New literacy skills are a component of all
Literacies in that it relates directly to disciplines and should be integrated into
skills needed to locate information the curriculum. According to Pilgrim
accurately and effectively. Web literacy and Bledsoe (2012), teachers in a
is also reflective of digital literacies, as it middle school utilizing a one-to-one
is a term used to explain knowledge an iPad initiative reported concerns with
individual needs to find information, to plagiarism and with students skimming
examine content, to find out who online information. Teachers reported
published a Web site, and to see who is students lacked skills needed to find
linked to a site (November, 2008). information in an online setting. Middle
school students seemed to skim the text
Web literacy skills are similar to and focus on pictures, unable to find
traditional reference skills used to and retain the important information in
navigate textbooks and paper based the text. These concerns mirror Kymes’
reference materials. For example, (2005) research, in which he described a
where a student may use key words at “snatch and grab” (p. 494) strategy
the top of a dictionary to help them where readers skimmed and scanned
navigate the resource, they may use online information in order to navigate
words/symbols in a URL (uniform overwhelming amounts of information.
resource locater) to help them navigate
a website. A student may use web In addition, online information is
literacy skills to determine the author of “linked” in ways that vary from trade-
a website, or he/she may use tional text. For example, information is
knowledge of domain names interconnected through hyperlinks and
(edu, .org, .com) to determine what visuals in multiple ways, and
type of website is available. As more understanding online text can be a
and more online research is required of complex process (Coiro & Dobler, 2007).
students, educators need to understand Intertextuality and text navigation
the importance of knowledge about become critical variables in constructing
Internets searches, hyperlinks, search meaning (Jetton & Shanahan, 2012) and
engines, and other components of have contributed to the new notions of
Internet searches. This knowledge is literacy.
crucial to help students find reliable
information online, while keeping them
safe in the process.

Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1

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Conclusions and article is technology. Table 1 presents a

summary of the aforementioned terms.
Recommendations
The Texas College and Career Readiness The chart shows that while all of the
Standards addressed technology skills literacy concepts presented include
and literacy applications, including the technology, while new literacies or
ability to gather, organize, manage, multiple literacies extend beyond
analyze, and communicate information technology-related literacy skills to
(Texas Higher Education Coordinating include visual media. In addition, all the
Board, 2009). As teachers integrate terms deal with how knowledge is
these skills into classroom instruction, gained. And, even though information
they need to have a clear understanding literacy was initially used to recognize
of what it means to be literate in the information gathering using reference
21st century. materials housed in libraries, the
definition today is used infrequently in
A review of the literature provided library and information science
some insight into various 21st century literature to include skills necessary for
literacy terms as well as skills needed successful information access through
for 21st century learning, as online Internet navigation. Thus, teachers
reading tasks differ from offline tasks. must address the students’ ability to
Teachers need to understand the read nonlinear text in an online
similarities and differences in order to environment.
use reading and writing strategies and
apply skills within an online reading The two terms that seem most
environment (Coiro, 2011). Text practitioner-friendly are web literacy
features presented in online reading, and digital literacy. Web literacy, as the
such as hyperlinks, digitized speech, term implies, describes a user’s Internet
embedded glossaries, and interactive navigation skills as well as critical
questions, affect the online thinking skills required to evaluate
environment (Gunning, 2012). Students online information. This term is not as
encounter a great deal of information broad as digital literacy, but the skills
during online reading tasks and need to provide teachers with concrete ways to
know how to navigate the information help students search for accurate and
in an effective manner. As teachers reliable information in a safe Internet
address these skills in the classroom, we environment (November, 2008). This
recommend consistency in term usage type of information and support for
in both practice and in teacher teachers has enabled educators to
preparation programs. develop curriculum for teaching literacy
skills.
Understanding the distinctions of these
terms allows teachers to effectively Definitions of literacy will continue to
integrate the specific discerning change as new technologies emerge
associated skills. The common thread (Leu et al., 2004). Additionally, these
across all literacy terms defined in this new technologies will continue to

Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1

 67

impact education and how teachers literacy skills and the roles they will play
address literacy tasks. Thus, educators in classroom instruction.
need to understand 21st century

Table 1
Summary of 21st Century Literacy Terminology
Term Description
Information Literacy The ability to recognize when information is needed and to
have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the
needed information (ALA, 1989).
Multiliteracies The multiple ways of communicating and making meaning,
including such modes as visual, audio, spatial, behavioral,
and gestural (New London Group, 1996).
New Literacy The use of new technologies to gather and communicate
information (Coiro et al., 2008).
Digital Literacy The ability to find, evaluate, utilize, share, and create
content using information technologies and the Internet
(Cornell University, 2009).
Web Literacy The knowledge and use of specific skills needed to locate,
analyze, and communicate information found online.

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