Metabook 6956

Distribution System Modeling and
Analysis with MATLAB® and WindMil®

5th Edition William H. Kersting
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Distribution System
Modeling and Analysis
with MATLAB®
and WindMil®
This Fifth Edition includes new sections on electric vehicle loads and the impact they
have on voltage drop and transformers in distribution systems. A new and improved
tape-shield cable model has been developed to produce more accurate impedance
modeling of underground cables. In addition, the book uses state-of-the-art software,
including the power distribution simulation software Milsoft WindMil® and the
programming language Mathworks MATLAB®. MATLAB scripts have been devel-
oped for all examples in the text, in addition to new MATLAB-based problems at
the end of the chapters.
This book illustrates methods that ensure the most accurate results in computa-
tional modeling for electric power distribution systems. It clearly explains the prin-
ciples and mathematics behind system models and discusses the smart grid concept
and its special benefits. Including numerous models of components and several prac-
tical examples, the chapters demonstrate how engineers can apply and customize
computer programs to help them plan and operate systems.
The book also covers approximation methods to help users interpret computer
program results and includes references and assignments that help users apply
MATLAB and WindMil programs to put their new learning into practice.
Distribution System
Modeling and Analysis
with MATLAB®
and WindMil®
Edited by
William H. Kersting
Robert J. Kerestes
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion
of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by
The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.
Fifth edition published 2023

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2023 William H. Kersting, Robert J. Kerestes
First edition published by CRC Press 2001

Fourth edition published by Routledge 2017
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors
and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
ISBN: 978-1-032-19836-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-19838-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-26109-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003261094
Typeset in Times
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
Contents
Preface........................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................xvii
Authors.....................................................................................................................xix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Distribution Systems.................................................... 1

1.1 The Distribution System............................................................. 2
1.2 Distribution Substations............................................................. 2
1.3 Radial Feeders............................................................................ 4
1.4 Distribution Feeder Map............................................................. 6
1.5 Distribution Feeder Electrical Characteristics............................ 6
1.6 Summary..................................................................................... 8
References............................................................................................. 8
Chapter 2 The Nature of Loads............................................................................. 9

2.1 Definitions.................................................................................. 9
2.2 Individual Customer Load........................................................ 10
2.2.1 Demand....................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Maximum Demand...................................................... 11
2.2.3 Average Demand......................................................... 11
2.2.4 Load Factor.................................................................. 12
2.3 Distribution Transformer Loading............................................ 12
2.3.1 Diversified Demand..................................................... 13
2.3.2 Maximum Diversified Demand................................... 14
2.3.3 Load Duration Curve................................................... 14
2.3.4 Maximum Non-coincident Demand............................ 14
2.3.5 Diversity Factor........................................................... 15
2.3.6 Demand Factor............................................................ 16
2.3.7 Utilization Factor......................................................... 17
2.3.8 Load Diversity............................................................. 17
2.4 Feeder Load.............................................................................. 17
2.4.1 Load Allocation........................................................... 18
2.4.1.1 Application of Diversity Factors.................. 18
2.4.1.2 Load Survey................................................. 18
2.4.1.3 Transformer Load Management.................. 22
2.4.1.4 Metered Feeder Maximum Demand............ 22
2.4.1.5 What Method to Use?.................................. 24
2.4.2 Voltage Drop Calculations Using Allocated Loads..... 24
2.4.2.1 Application of Diversity Factors.................. 24
2.4.2.2 Load Allocation Based Upon
Transformer Ratings.................................... 24
v
viContents
2.5 Individual Customer Loads with Electric Vehicles................... 29

2.6 Summary................................................................................... 31
Problems.............................................................................................. 32
References........................................................................................... 36
Chapter 3 Balanced System Method of Analysis................................................ 37

3.1 Line Impedance........................................................................ 37
3.2 Voltage Drop............................................................................. 38
3.3 The LIT..................................................................................... 42
3.3.1 Linear Network............................................................ 42
3.3.2 Non-linear Network..................................................... 46
3.4 Summary................................................................................... 52
Problems.............................................................................................. 52
References........................................................................................... 53
Chapter 4 Series Impedance of Overhead and Underground Lines.................... 55

4.1 Series Impedance of Overhead Lines....................................... 55
4.1.1 Transposed and Balanced Three-Phase Lines............. 56
4.1.2 Untransposed Distribution Lines................................. 56
4.1.3 Carson’s Equations...................................................... 59
4.1.4 Modified Carson’s Equations...................................... 61
4.1.5 Primitive Impedance Matrix for Overhead Lines........ 63
4.1.6. Phase Impedance of Matrix for Overhead Lines......... 64
4.1.7 Parallel Overhead Distribution Lines.......................... 71
4.2 Series Impedance of Underground Lines................................. 73
4.2.1 Concentric Neutral Cable............................................ 74
4.2.2 Tape Shielded Cables.................................................. 79
4.2.3 Parallel Underground Distribution Lines.................... 83
4.3 Summary................................................................................... 87
Problems.............................................................................................. 87
WindMil Assignment........................................................................... 92
References........................................................................................... 92
Chapter 5 Shunt Admittance of Overhead and Underground Lines.................... 93

5.1 General Voltage Drop Equation................................................ 94
5.2 Overhead Lines......................................................................... 94
5.2.1 The Shunt Admittance of Overhead Parallel Lines..... 99
5.3 Concentric Neutral Cable Underground Lines....................... 102
5.4 Tape Shielded Cable Underground Lines............................... 106
5.5 The Shunt Admittance of Parallel Underground Lines..........107
5.6 Summary................................................................................. 109
Problems............................................................................................ 109
WindMil Assignment......................................................................... 110
References......................................................................................... 110
Contents vii
Chapter 6 Distribution System Line Models..................................................... 111

6.1 Exact Line Segment Model.................................................... 111
6.2 The Modified Line Model...................................................... 120
6.2.1 The Three-Wire Line................................................. 121
6.2.2 The Computation of Neutral and Ground Currents... 122
6.3 Source Impedances................................................................. 126
6.4 The LIT................................................................................... 128
6.5 The General Matrices for Parallel Lines................................. 131
6.5.1 Physically Parallel Lines........................................... 135
6.5.2 Electrically Parallel Lines......................................... 140
6.6 Summary................................................................................. 145
Problems............................................................................................ 146
References......................................................................................... 150
Chapter 7 Voltage Regulation............................................................................ 151

7.1 Standard Voltage Ratings........................................................ 151
7.2 Two-Winding Transformer Theory......................................... 153
7.3 Two-Winding Autotransformer............................................... 158
7.3.1 Autotransformer Ratings........................................... 162
7.3.2 Per-Unit Impedance................................................... 165
7.4 Step-Voltage Regulators......................................................... 169
7.4.1 Single-Phase, Step-Voltage Regulators..................... 171
7.4.1.1 Type A Step-Voltage Regulator................. 171
7.4.1.2 Type B Step-Voltage Regulator................. 172
7.4.1.3 Generalized Constants............................... 175
7.4.1.4 The Line-Drop Compensator..................... 175
7.4.2 Three-Phase, Step-Voltage Regulators...................... 182
7.4.2.1 Wye-Connected Regulators....................... 182
7.4.2.2 Closed Delta-Connected Regulators.......... 194
7.4.2.3 Open Delta-Connected Regulators............ 197
7.5 Summary................................................................................. 210
Problems............................................................................................ 211
References......................................................................................... 216
Chapter 8 Three-Phase Transformer Models..................................................... 217

8.1 Introduction............................................................................ 217
8.2 Generalized Matrices.............................................................. 218
8.3 The Delta-Grounded Wye Step-Down Connection................ 219
8.3.1 Voltages..................................................................... 219
8.3.2 Currents..................................................................... 224
8.4 The Delta-Grounded Wye Step-Up Connection..................... 234
viiiContents
8.5 The Ungrounded Wye-Delta Step-Down Connection............ 236

8.6 The Ungrounded Wye-Delta Step-Up Connection................. 247
8.7 The Grounded Wye-Delta Step-Down Connection................ 248
8.8 Open Wye – Open Delta......................................................... 255
8.9 The Grounded Wye – Grounded Wye Connection................. 261
8.10 The Delta – Delta Connection................................................ 264
8.11 Open Delta – Open Delta....................................................... 273
8.12 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit................................................... 278
8.13 Summary................................................................................. 281
Problems............................................................................................ 282
Chapter 9 Load Models..................................................................................... 287

9.1 Wye-Connected Loads............................................................ 287
9.1.1 Constant Real and Reactive Power Loads................. 288
9.1.2 Constant Impedance Loads....................................... 288
9.1.3 Constant Current Loads............................................. 289
9.1.4 Combination Loads................................................... 289
9.2 Delta-Connected Loads.......................................................... 293
9.2.1 Constant Real and Reactive Power Loads................. 294
9.2.2 Constant Impedance Loads....................................... 294
9.2.3 Constant Current Loads............................................. 295
9.2.4 Combination Loads................................................... 295
9.2.5 Line Currents Serving a Delta-Connected Load....... 295
9.3 Two-Phase and Single-Phase Loads....................................... 295
9.4 Shunt Capacitors..................................................................... 295
9.4.1 Wye-Connected Capacitor Bank............................... 296
9.4.2 Delta-Connected Capacitor Bank.............................. 296
9.5 Three-Phase Induction Machine............................................. 297
9.5.1 Induction Machine Model......................................... 298
9.5.2 Symmetrical Component Analysis of a Motor.......... 301
9.5.3 Phase Analysis of an Induction Motor...................... 306
9.5.4 Voltage and Current Unbalance................................. 314
9.5.5 Motor Starting Current.............................................. 314
9.5.6 The Equivalent T Circuit........................................... 314
9.5.7 Computation of Slip.................................................. 321
9.5.8 Induction Generator................................................... 325
9.5.9 Induction Machine Thevenin Equivalent Circuit...... 325
9.5.10 The Ungrounded Wye – Delta Transformer Bank
with an Induction Motor............................................ 329
9.6 Electric Vehicle (EV) Chargers............................................... 335
9.7 Summary................................................................................. 340
Problems............................................................................................ 340
References......................................................................................... 344
Contents ix
Chapter 10 Distribution Feeder Analysis............................................................. 345

10.1 Power-Flow Analysis.............................................................. 345
10.1.1 General Feeder.......................................................... 345
10.1.2 Uniformly Distributed Loads.................................... 346
10.1.3 Series Feeder............................................................. 349
10.1.4 The Unbalanced Three-Phase Distribution Feeder.... 350
10.1.4.1 Shunt Components..................................... 351
10.1.5 Applying the Iterative Technique.............................. 351
10.1.6 Let’s Put It All Together............................................ 352
10.1.7 Load Allocation......................................................... 360
10.1.8 Loop Flow................................................................. 362
10.1.8.1 Single-Phase Feeder................................... 362
10.1.8.2 IEEE 13 Bus Test Feeder........................... 365
10.1.8.3 Summary of Loop Flow............................. 374
10.1.9 Summary of Power-Flow Studies.............................. 375
10.2 Short-Circuit Studies.............................................................. 375
10.2.1 General Short-Circuit Theory.................................... 376
10.2.2 Specific Short Circuits............................................... 379
10.2.3 Back-Feed, Ground-Fault Currents........................... 384
10.2.3.1 One Downstream Transformer Bank......... 384
10.2.3.2 Complete Three-Phase Circuit Analysis.... 387
10.2.3.3 Back-Feed Currents Summary................... 392
10.3 Summary................................................................................. 397
Problems............................................................................................ 398
References......................................................................................... 407
Chapter 11 Center-Tapped Transformers and Secondaries.................................409

11.1 Center-Tapped, Single-Phase Transformer Model................. 410
11.1.1 Matrix Equations....................................................... 413
11.1.2 Center-Tapped Transformer Serving Loads
through a Triplex Secondary..................................... 419
11.2 Ungrounded Wye – Delta Transformer Bank with Center-
Tapped Transformer................................................................ 425
11.2.1 Basic Transformer Equations.................................... 425
11.2.2 Forward Sweep.......................................................... 427
11.2.3 Backward Sweep....................................................... 433
11.2.4 Summary................................................................... 434
11.3 Open Wye – Open Delta Transformer Connections............... 441
11.3.1 The Leading Open Wye – Open Delta Connection... 442
11.3.2 The Lagging Open Wye – Open Delta Connection... 442
11.3.3 Forward Sweep.......................................................... 443
11.3.4 Backward Sweep....................................................... 447
11.4 Four-Wire Secondary.............................................................. 451
xContents
11.5 Putting it All Together............................................................ 454

11.5.1 Ungrounded Wye – Delta Connection....................... 454
11.5.2 Open Wye – Delta Connections................................ 459
11.5.3 Comparisons of Voltage and Current Unbalances..... 460
11.6 Summary................................................................................. 464
Problems............................................................................................ 465
References......................................................................................... 467
Appendix A Conductor Data................................................................................ 469

Appendix B Concentric Neutral 15 kV Cable.................................................... 473
Index....................................................................................................................... 475
Preface
We are now in the beginning stages of the smart grid, and distribution systems are
getting smarter as automation becomes more prevalent. This is possible due to smart
meters, otherwise known as advanced metering infrastructure. The US Energy
Information Administration reported that 102.9 million smart meters have been
deployed by 2020 and that 88% of these smart meters are for residential customers
in distribution circuits [1]. At the very start, we want to emphasize that this text is
intended to only develop and demonstrate the computer models of all the physical
components of a distribution system. As the text develops the component models it
will become clear that this thing we called “load” is the weak link in the overall anal-
ysis of a distribution system. Smart meters give access to much more data than was
traditionally captured; however, they still have not been utilized to their full capacity.
At the present time, the only true information available for every customer remains
energy in kilowatt-hours consumed during a specified period. This topic is addressed
in Chapter 2. The problem with load is that it is constantly changing. Computer pro-
grams can and have been developed that will very accurately model the components,
but without real load data, the results of the studies are only as good as the load data
used. As the smart grid is developed, more accurate load data will become available,
which will provide for a much more accurate analysis of the operating conditions of
the distribution system. What needs to be emphasized is the smart grid must have
computer programs that will very accurately model all the physical components of
the system. The purpose of this text is to develop very accurate models of the physi-
cal components of a distribution system.
In the model developments, it is very important to accurately model the unbal-
anced nature of the components. Programs used in the modeling of a transmission
system assume that the system is a balanced three-phase system. This makes it pos-
sible to model only one phase. That is not the case in the modeling of a distribution
system. The unbalanced nature of the distribution system must be modeled. This
requirement is made possible by modeling all three phases of every component of the
distribution system.
The distribution system computer program for power-flow studies can be run to
simulate present loading conditions and for long-range planning of new facilities.
For example, the tools provide an opportunity for the distribution engineer to opti-
mize capacitor placement to minimize power losses. Different switching scenarios
for normal and emergency conditions can be simulated. Short-circuit studies provide
the necessary data for the development of a reliable coordinated protection plan for
fuses, recloser, and relay/circuit breakers.
So, what is the problem? Garbage in, garbage out is the answer. Armed with a
commercially available computer program it is possible for the user to prepare incor-
rect data and as a result, the program outputs are not correct. Without an understand-
ing of the models and a general “feel” for the operating characteristics of a distribution
system, serious design errors and operational procedures may result. The user must
xi
xiiPreface
fully understand the models and analysis techniques of the program. Without this
knowledge the garbage in, garbage out problem becomes very real.
The purpose of this text is to present the reader a general overall feeling for the
operating characteristics of a distribution system and the modeling of each compo-
nent. Before using the computer program, it is extremely important for the student/
engineer to have a “feel” for what the answers should be. Engineers once used a slide
rule for engineering calculations prior to the advent of hand calculators. The beauty
in using a slide rule was you were forced to know what the “ballpark” answer should
be. We have lost that ability thanks to hand calculators and computers but under-
standing the ballpark answer is still a necessity.
It has been very interesting to receive many questions and comments about previ-
ous editions of the text from undergraduate and graduate students in addition to prac-
ticing engineers from around the world. That gets back to the need for the “feel” of
the correct answer. New students need to study the early chapters of the book to
develop this “feel”. Practicing engineers will already have the “feel” and perhaps will
not need the early chapters (1, 2, and 3). In developing the fifth edition of the book,
we have retained most of the contents of Chapters 1, 5, 7, 8, and 11. We have added
the concept of electric vehicles as loads and their impact on the grid. This is visited
in Chapter 2 at a high level and in a more detailed analysis-based treatment again in
Chapter 9. We modified Chapters 3, 6, and 10 to give the book a quicker and more
direct treatment of the concept of iterative power flow. Lastly, in Chapter 4, we devel-
oped a new model for tape-shielded underground cables, which we believe to be
more accurate than the previous model.
This textbook assumes that the reader has a basic understanding of transformers,
electric machines, and transmission lines. At many universities, all these topics are
crammed into a one-semester course. For that reason, a quick review of the needed
theory is presented as needed.
There are many example problems throughout the text. These examples are
intended to not only demonstrate the application of the models but also to teach a
“feel” for what the answers should be. The example problems should be studied very
carefully since they demonstrate the application of the theory just presented. Each
chapter has a series of homework problems that will assist the student in applying the
models and developing a better understanding of the operating characteristics of the
component being modeled. Most of the example and homework problems are very
number intensive. In previous versions, all the example problems had used a software
package called “Mathcad” [2]. Since distribution engineers will soon need the skills
in both computer programming and data science in addition to traditional electrical
engineering, we have elected to convert all example problems to MATLAB [2]. All
example code is provided for instructors, students, and practicing engineers. We have
decided to keep the Mathcad iterative routines in the textbook, as Mathcad provides
a fantastic visual flow of how a program works.
As more and more components are developed, and the feeder becomes more com-
plicated, it becomes necessary to use a sophisticated distribution analysis program.
Milsoft Utility Solutions has made a student version of “WindMil” [4] available
along with a user’s manual. The user’s manual includes instructions and illustrations
on how to get started using the program. Starting in Chapter 4, there is a WindMil
Preface xiii
assignment at the end of the homework problems. A very simple system utilizing all
the major components of the system will evolve as each chapter assignment is com-
pleted. In Chapter 10, the data for a small system is given that will allow the student/
engineer to match operating criteria. The student version of WindMil and the user’s
manual can be downloaded from the Milsoft Utility Solutions website homepage.
The address is:
Milsoft Utility Solutions

P.O. Box 7526
Abilene, TX 79608
Email: [email protected]
Home page: www.milsoft.com
Unfortunately, there is a tendency on the part of the student/engineer to believe the

results of a computer program. While computer programs are wonderful tools, it is
still the responsibility of the users to study the results and confirm whether the results
make sense. That is a major concern and one that is addressed throughout the text.
Chapter 1 presents a quick overview of the major components of a distribution
system. This is the only section in the text that will present the components inside a
substation, along with two connection schemes. The importance of the distribution
feeder map and the data required is presented.
Chapter 2 addresses the important question, What is the “load” on the system?
This chapter defines the common terms associated with the load. In the past, there
was limited knowledge of the load and many assumptions had to be made. With the
coming of the smart grid, there will be ample real-time data to assist in defining the
load for a given study. Even with better load data, there will still be a concern on
whether the computer results make sense. Electric vehicles are described as loads in
Chapter 2 as well.
Chapter 3 introduces voltage drop and introduces the iterative power-flow pro-
gram. This is done by introducing the “ladder” (forward/backward sweep) iterative
method used by many commercial programs. This chapter covers the simplified
approach to distribution systems analysis, assuming that distribution systems are bal-
anced like that of their transmission level counterpart.
The major requirement of a distribution system is to supply safe reliable energy to
every customer at a voltage within the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
standard, which is addressed in Chapters 4 and 5. The major goal of planning is to
simulate the distribution system under different conditions now and into the future
and assure that all customer voltages are within the acceptable ANSI range. Since
voltage drop is a major concern, it is extremely important that the impedances of the
system components be as accurate as possible. In particular, the impedances of the
overhead and underground distribution lines must be computed as accurately as pos-
sible. The importance of a detailed feeder map that includes the phase positions for
both overhead and underground lines is emphasized.
Chapter 6 develops the models for overhead and underground lines using the
impedances and admittance computed in earlier chapters. Included will be the
“exact” model along with an approximate model. Introduced are the matrices required
xivPreface
for the application of the ladder analysis method. Included in the chapter are methods
of modeling parallel distribution lines.
Chapter 7 addresses the important concept of voltage regulation. How is it possi-
ble to maintain every customer’s voltage within ANSI standards when the load is
varying all the time? The step-voltage regulator is presented as one answer to the
question. A model is developed for the application in the ladder technique.
Chapter 8 is one of the most important chapters in the text. Models for most three-
phase (closed and open) transformer connections in use today are developed. Again,
the models use matrices that are used in the ladder iterative technique. The impor-
tance of phasing once again is emphasized.
Chapter 9 develops the models for all types of loads on the system. A new term is
introduced that helps define the types of static load models. The term is “ZIP”. Most
static models in a distribution system can be modeled as constant impedance (Z),
constant current (I), constant complex power (P), or a combination of the three.
These models are developed for wye and delta connections. A very important model
developed is that of an induction machine. The induction motor is the workhorse of
the power system and needs, once again, to be modeled as accurately as possible.
Several new sections have been included in this chapter that develop models of the
induction machine and associated transformer connection that are useful for power-
flow and short-circuit studies. Induction generators are becoming a major source of
distributed generation. Chapter 9 shows that an induction machine can be modeled
either as a motor or a generator. Lastly, a thorough ZIP model is developed for Level
2 electric vehicle chargers. Electric vehicles are being deployed at a steady rate, and
adding this energy requirement to the electrical sector from the previous fossil fuel
transportation sector is sure to have an impact. Accurate electric vehicle modeling
will be very important to future distribution engineers.
Chapter 10 puts everything in the text together for steady-state, power-flow, and
short-circuit studies. The “ladder” iterative technique is introduced in Chapter 3 and
then again in Chapter 6. This chapter goes into detail on the development of the lad-
der technique starting with the analysis of a linear ladder network that is introduced
in most early circuit analysis courses. This moves onto the non-linear nature of the
three-phase unbalanced distribution feeder. The ladder technique is used for power-
flow studies. Introduced in this chapter is a method used for the analysis of short-
circuit conditions on a feeder.
Chapter 11 introduces the center-tapped transformer that is used for providing the
three-wire service to customers. Models for the various connections are introduced
that are used in the ladder iterative technique and short-circuit analysis. The WindMil
assignments at the end of Chapters 10 and 11 allow the student/engineer to build,
study, and fix the operating characteristics of a small distribution feeder.
MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The Math Works, Inc. For product informa-
tion, please contact:
The Math Works, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098
Preface xv
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: http://www.mathworks.com
REFERENCES
1. US EIA Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs): https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.
php?id=108&t=3
2. Mathcad: www.ptc.com
3. MATLAB: www.mathworks.com
4. WindMil: www.milsoft.com
Acknowledgments
Bill would like to thank the many students and engineers who have communicated
with him via email their questions about some of the contents of the fourth edition.
It has been a pleasure to work with these individuals in helping them to better under-
stand some of the models and applications in the text. Since Bill is retired, it has been
a real pleasure to have the opportunity to work with many graduate students working
on their research involving distribution systems. Bill hopes that students and prac-
ticing engineers will continue to feel free to contact him at [email protected].
As always, Bill would like to thank his wife, Joanne, who has been very support-
ive of him for over 50 years. She has been very patient with him as he worked on the
fifth edition. Without a doubt, it has been a wonderful experience working with Bob
on this fifth edition.
Bob would like to thank his better half Amanda, and their three children, Noah,
Amelia, and Emmy for their incredible patience throughout the process of writing the
fifth edition of this textbook. In addition, Bob would like to thank his home institu-
tion, the University of Pittsburgh, for its constant support in achieving his dreams and
to thank the wonderful students at Pitt for keeping him motivated and inspired. Bob
would like to also thank one of his mentors, Tom McDermott, for introducing him to
power distribution engineering, which ended up being his life’s passion. Finally, Bob
would like to thank Bill Kersting for trusting him with the amazing work that he has
dedicated his career to. Bob is very honored to be a part of this endeavor. Bob still
actively works in teaching and research in power distribution engineering and can be
contacted at [email protected] for questions or possible collaborations.
Special thanks to Wayne Carr the CEO of Milsoft Utility Solutions, Inc., for
allowing us to make WindMil a major part of the third, fourth, and fifth editions.
Thanks also to the many support engineers at Milsoft who have guided us in develop-
ing the special WindMil assignments.
xvii
Authors
William H. Kersting received his BSEE from New Mexico State University
(NMSU), Las Cruces, New Mexico, and his MSEE from the Illinois Institute of
Technology. Prior to attending graduate school and for a year after graduate school,
he was employed by El Paso Electric Company as a distribution engineer. He joined
the faculty at NMSU in 1962 and served as professor of electrical engineering and
from 1968 the director of the Electric Utility Management Program until his retire-
ment in 2002. He is currently a consultant for Milsoft Utility Solutions.
Professor Kersting is a life fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE). He received the NMSU Westhafer Award for Excellence in
Teaching in 1977 and the Edison Electric Institutes’ Power Engineering Education
award in 1979. Professor Kersting has been an active member of the IEEE
Power Engineering Education Committee and the Distribution Systems Analysis
Subcommittee.
Robert J. Kerestes, PhD, is an assistant professor of electrical and computer engi-

neering at the University of Pittsburgh’s Swanson School of Engineering. Robert was
born in the Mount Washington neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He got his
BS (2010), his MS (2012), and his PhD (2014) from the University of Pittsburgh, all
with a concentration in electric power systems. His areas of interest are in modeling
and analysis of electric power distribution systems, smart grid technology, and the
integration of distributed energy resources and electric vehicles. Robert has worked
as a physical system simulation modeler for Emerson Process Management, working
on electric power applications for Emerson’s Ovation Embedded Simulator. Robert
also served in the US Navy as an interior communications electrician from 1998 to
2002 on active duty and from 2002 to 2006 in the US Naval Reserves.
xix
1 Introduction to
Distribution Systems
The major components of an electric power system are shown in Figure 1.1.
Of these components, the distribution system has traditionally been characterized
as the most unglamorous component. In the last half of the twentieth century, the
design and operation of the generation and transmission components presented many
challenges to practicing engineers and researchers. Power plants became larger and
larger; transmission lines crisscrossed the land forming large, interconnected net-
works. The operation of the large, interconnected networks required the development
of new analysis and operational techniques. Meanwhile, the distribution systems
continued to deliver power to the end user’s meter with little or no analysis. As a
direct result, distribution systems were typically overdesigned.
Times have changed. It has become very important and necessary to operate a
distribution system at its maximum capacity, distributed energy resources such as
solar power and energy storage are becoming more common, and new loads such as
electric vehicles continue to reshape distribution systems. Some of the questions that
need to be answered are as follows:
1. What is the maximum capacity?

2. How do we determine this capacity?
3. What are the operating limits that must be satisfied?
4. What can be done to operate the distribution system within the operating
limits?
5. What can be done to make the distribution system operate more efficiently?
All of these questions can be answered only if the distribution system can be mod-
eled very accurately.
The purpose of this text is to develop accurate models for the major components
of a distribution system. Once the models have been developed, analysis techniques
for steady-state and short-circuit conditions will be developed.
FIGURE 1.1 Major power system components.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003261094-1 1
2 Distribution System Modeling and Analysis
1.1 THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The distribution system typically starts with the distribution substation that is fed by
one or more subtransmission lines. In some cases, the distribution substation is fed
directly from a high voltage transmission line, in which case, most likely, there is
not a subtransmission system. This varies from company to company. Each distribu-
tion substation will serve one or more primary feeders. With the exception of dense
metropolitan areas, the feeders are radial, which means that there is only one path for
power to flow from the distribution substation to the user.
1.2 DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS
A one-line diagram of a very simple distribution substation is shown in Figure 1.2.
Although Figure 1.2 displays the simplest of distribution substations, it does illus-
trate the major components that will be found in all substations.
1. High side and low side switching: In Figure 1.2, the high voltage switching
is done with a simple switch. More extensive substations may use high volt-
age circuit breakers in a variety of high voltage bus designs. The low volt-
age switching in Figure 1.2 is accomplished with relay-controlled circuit
breakers. In many cases, reclosers will be used in place of the relay/circuit
breaker combination. Some substation designs will include a low voltage
bus circuit breaker in addition to the circuit breakers for each feeder. As is
the case with the high voltage bus, the low voltage bus can take on a variety
of designs.
2. Voltage transformation: The primary function of a distribution substation
is to reduce the voltage down to the distribution voltage level. In Figure
1.2, only one transformer is shown. Other substation designs will call for
two or more three-phase transformers. The substation transformers can be
FIGURE 1.2 Simple distribution substation.

Introduction to Distribution Systems 3
three-phase units or three single-phase units connected in a standard con-

nection. There are many “standard” distribution voltage levels. Some of the
common ones are 34.5 kV, 23.9 kV, 14.4 kV, 13.2 kV, 12.47 kV, and in older
systems 4.16 kV.
3. Voltage regulation: As the load on the feeders varies, the voltage drop
between the substation and the user will vary. To maintain the user’s volt-
ages within an acceptable range, the voltage at the substation needs to vary
as the load varies. In Figure 1.2, the voltage is regulated by a “step-type”
regulator that will vary the voltage plus or minus 10% on the low side bus.
Sometimes this function is accomplished with a “load tap changing” (LTC)
transformer. The LTC changes the taps on the low voltage windings of the
transformer as the load varies. Many substation transformers will have
“fixed taps” on the high voltage winding. These are used when the source
voltage is always either above or below the nominal voltage. The fixed tap
settings can vary the voltage plus or minus 5%. Many times, instead of a bus
regulator, each feeder will have its own regulator. This can be in the form of
a three-phase, gang-operated regulator or individual-phase regulators that
operate independently.
4. Protection: The substation must be protected against the occurrence of
short circuits. In the simple design of Figure 1.2, the only automatic protec-
tion against short circuits inside the substation is by way of the high side
fuses on the transformer. As the substation designs become more complex,
more extensive protective schemes will be employed to protect the trans-
former, the high and low voltage buses, and any other piece of equipment.
Individual feeder circuit breakers or reclosers are used to provide interrup-
tion of short circuits that occur outside the substation. Protection has gotten
more difficult due to distributed energy resources. Classic means of protec-
tion in many cases do not work for low fault currents supplied by these
devices. One task for smart grid solutions is to employ alternative protection
schemes [1].
5. Metering: Every substation has some form of metering. This may be as sim-
ple as an analog ammeter displaying the present value of substation current,
as well as the minimum and maximum currents that have occurred over a
specific period. Digital recording meters are becoming very common. These
meters record the minimum, average, and maximum values of current, volt-
age, power, power factor, etc., over a specified time range. Typical time ranges
are 15 minutes, 30 minutes, and one hour. The digital meters may monitor the
output of each substation transformer and/or the output of each feeder.
A more comprehensive substation layout is shown in Figure 1.3.

The substation of Figure 1.3 has two LTC transformers, serves four distribution
feeders, and is fed from two substransmission lines. Under normal conditions, the
circuit breakers are in the following positions:
Circuit Breakers Closed: X, Y, 1, 3, 4, 6

Circuit Breakers Open: Z, 2, 5
FIGURE 1.3 Two transformer substation with breaker-and-a-half scheme.
With the breakers in their normal positions, each transformer is served from a differ-
ent subtransmission line and serves two feeders. Should one of the subtransmission
lines go out of service, then breaker X or Y is opened and breaker Z is closed. Now
both transformers are served from the same subtransmission line. The transformers
are sized such that each transformer can supply all four feeders under an emergency
operating condition. For example, if Transformer T-1 is out of service, then breakers
X, 1, and 4 are opened and breakers 2 and 5 are closed. With that breaker arrange-
ment, all four feeders are served by transformer T-2. The low voltage bus arrange-
ment is referred to as a “breaker-and-a-half scheme” since three breakers are required
to serve two feeders.
There are an unlimited number of substation configurations possible. It is up to
the substation design engineer to create a design that provides the five basic functions
and provides the most reliable service economically possible.
1.3 RADIAL FEEDERS
Radial distribution feeders are characterized by having only one path for power to
flow from the source (“distribution substation”) to each customer. A typical distribu-
tion system will consist of one or more distribution substations consisting of one or
more “feeders”. Components of the feeder may consist of the following:
1. Three-phase primary “main” feeder

2. Three-phase, two-phase (“V” phase) and single-phase laterals
3. Step-type voltage regulators
4. In-line transformers
5. Shunt capacitor banks
6. Distribution transformers
7. Secondaries
8. Three-phase, two-phase, and single-phase loads
The loading of a distribution feeder is inherently unbalanced because of the large

number of unequal single-phase loads that must be served. An additional unbalance
is introduced by the non-equilateral conductor spacings of the three-phase overhead
and underground line segments.
Because of the nature of the distribution system, conventional power-flow and short-
circuit programs used for transmission system studies are not adequate. Such programs
display poor convergence characteristics for radial systems. The programs also assume
a perfectly balanced system so that a single-phase equivalent system is used.
If a distribution engineer is to be able to perform accurate power-flow and short-
circuit studies, it is imperative that the distribution feeder be modeled as accurately
as possible. This means that three-phase models of the major components must be
utilized. Three-phase models for the major components will be developed in the fol-
lowing chapters. The models will be developed in the “phase frame” rather than
applying the method of symmetrical components.
Figure 1.4 shows a simple “one-line” diagram of a three-phase feeder.
Figure 1.4 illustrates the major components of a distribution system. The connect-
ing points of the components will be referred to as “nodes”. Note in the figure that
the phasing of the line segments is shown. This is important if the most accurate
models are to be developed.
FIGURE 1.4 Simple distribution feeder.

1.4 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER MAP

The analysis of a distribution feeder is important to an engineer in order to determine
the existing operating conditions of a feeder and to be able to play the “what if” sce-
narios of future changes to the feeder. Before the engineer can perform the analysis
of a feeder, a detailed map of the feeder must be available. A sample of such a map
is shown in Figure 1.5.
The map of Figure 1.5 contains most of the following information:
1. Lines (overhead and underground)

a. Where
b. Distances
c. Details
i. Conductor sizes (not on this map)
ii. Phasing
2. Distribution transformers
a. Location
b. kVA rating
c. Phase connection
3. In-line transformers
a. Location
b. kVA rating
c. Connection
4. Shunt capacitors
a. Location
b. kvar rating
c. Phase connection
5. Voltage regulators
a. Location
b. Phase connection
c. Type (not shown on this map)
i. Single phase
ii. Three phase
6. Switches
a. Location
b. Normal open/close status
1.5 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Information from the map will define the physical location of the various devices.
Electrical characteristics for each device will have to be determined before the analy-
sis of the feeder can commence. In order to determine the electrical characteristics,
the following data must be available:
1. Overhead and underground spacings

2. Conductor tables
FIGURE 1.5 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 123 node test feeder.
a. Geometric Mean Radius (GMR) (feet)

b. Diameter (inches)
c. Resistance (Ω/mile)
3. Voltage regulators
a. Potential transformer ratios
b. Current transformer ratios
c. Compensator settings
i. Voltage level
ii. Bandwidth
iii. R and X settings in volts
4. Transformers
a. kVA rating
b. Voltage ratings
c. Impedance (R and X)
d. No-load power loss
1.6 SUMMARY
As the smart grid [2] becomes a reality, it becomes increasingly more important to be
able to accurately model and analyze each component of a distribution system. There
are many different substation designs possible but, for the most part, the substation
serves one or more radial feeders. Each component of a feeder must be modeled as
accurately as possible for the analysis to have meaning. Sometimes the most difficult
task for the engineer is to acquire all the necessary data. Feeder maps will contain
most of the needed data. Additional data such as standard pole configurations, specific
conductors used on each line segment, phasing, three-phase transformer connections,
and voltage regulator settings must come from stored records. The remaining bits of
information are the values of the loads. Chapter 2 will address the loads in a general
sense. Again, as the smart grid, along with smart meters, become a reality, the load
values will become much more accurate, which in turn will make the analysis more
accurate. Once all the data has been acquired, the analysis can commence utilizing
system models of the various devices that will be developed in later chapters.
REFERENCES
1. Carnovale, N., Fault Detection in Inverter-Based Microgrids Utilizing a Nonlinear
Observer. Master’s Thesis, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 2021.
2. Thomas, M.S. and McDonald, J. D., Power System SCADA and Smart Grids, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2015.
2 The Nature of Loads
The modeling and analysis of a power system depend upon the “load”. What is load?
The answer to that question depends upon what type of analysis is desired. For exam-
ple, the steady-state analysis (power-flow study) of an interconnected transmission
system will require a different definition of load than that used in the analysis of a
secondary in a distribution feeder. The problem is that the “load” on a power system
is constantly changing. The closer you are to the customer, the more pronounced will
be the ever-changing load. There is no such thing as a “steady-state” load. To come
to grips with load, it is first necessary to look at the “load” of an individual customer.
2.1 DEFINITIONS
The load that an individual customer or a group of customers presents to the distribu-
tion system is constantly changing. Every time a light bulb or an electrical appliance
is switched on or off the load seen by the distribution feeder changes. To describe the
changing load, the following terms are defined:
1. Demand
• Load averaged over a specific period
• Load can be kW, kvar, kVA, A
• Must include the time interval
• Example: The 15-minute kW demand is 100 kW
2. Maximum Demand
• Greatest of all demands which occur over a specific period
• Must include demand interval, period, and units
• Example: The 15-minute maximum kW demand for the week was
150 kW
3. Average Demand
• The average of the demands over a specified period (day, week, month,
etc.)
• Example: The 15-minute average kW demand for the month was 350 kW
4. Diversified Demand
• Sum of demands imposed by a group of loads over a particular period
• Example: The 15-minute diversified kW demand in the period ending at
9:30 was 200 kW
DOI: 10.1201/9781003261094-2 9
5. Maximum Diversified Demand

• Maximum of the sum of the demands imposed by a group of loads over
a particular period
• Example: The 15-minute maximum diversified kW demand for the week
was 500 kW
6. Maximum Non-coincident Demand
• For a group of loads, the sum of the individual maximum demands with-
out any restriction that they occur at the same time
• Example: The maximum non-coincident 15-minute kW demand for the
week was 700 kW
7. Demand Factor
• Ratio of maximum demand to connected load
8. Utilization Factor
• Ratio of the maximum demand to rated capacity
9. Load Factor
• Ratio of the average demand of any individual load or a group of loads
over a period to the maximum demand over the same period
10. Diversity Factor
• Ratio of the “maximum non-coincident demand” to the “maximum
diversified demand”
11. Load Diversity
• Difference between “maximum non-coincident demand” and the “maxi-
mum diversified demand”
2.2 INDIVIDUAL CUSTOMER LOAD

Figure 2.1 illustrates how the instantaneous kW load of a customer changes for two
15-minute intervals.
FIGURE 2.1 Customer demand curve.

The Nature of Loads 11
FIGURE 2.2 24-hour demand curve for Customer #1.
2.2.1 Demand
To define the load, the demand curve is broken into equal time intervals. In Figure
2.1, the selected time interval is 15 minutes. In each interval, the average value of the
demand is determined. In Figure 2.1, the straight lines represent the average load in a
time interval. The shorter the time interval, the more accurate will be the value of the
load. This process is very similar to numerical integration. The average value of the
load in an interval is defined as the “15-minute kW demand”.
The 24-hour, 15-minute kW demand curve for a customer is shown in Figure 2.2.
This curve is developed from a spreadsheet that gives the 15-minute kW demand for
a period of 24 hours.
2.2.2 Maximum Demand
The demand curve shown in Figure 2.2 represents a typical residential customer. Each
bar represents the “15-minute kW demand”. Note that during the 24-hour period,
there is a great variation in the demand. This customer has three periods in which
the kW demand exceeds 6.0 kW. The greatest of these is the “15-minute maximum
kW demand”. For this customer, the “15-minute maximum kW demand” occurs at
13:15 and has a value of 6.18 kW.
2.2.3 Average Demand
During the 24-hour period, energy (kWh) will be consumed. The energy in kWh used
during each 15-minute time interval is computed by
1
kWh 15 minute kW demand hour (2.1)
4
The total energy consumed during the day is then the summation of all of the
15-minute interval consumptions. From the spreadsheet, the total energy consumed
during the period by Customer #1 is 58.96 kWh. The “15-minute average kW

demand” is computed by
Total Energy 58.96

=
kWaverage = = 2.46 kW (2.2)
Hours 24
2.2.4 Load Factor
“Load factor” is a term that is often referred to when describing a load. It is defined
as the ratio of the average demand to the maximum demand. In many ways, load fac-
tor gives an indication of how well the utility’s facilities are being utilized. From the
utility’s standpoint, the optimal load factor would be 1.00 since the system has to be
designed to handle the maximum demand. Sometimes utility companies will encour-
age industrial customers to improve their load factor. One method of encouragement
is to penalize the customer on the electric bill for having a low load factor.
For Customer #1 in Figure 2.2, the load factor is computed to be:
kWaverage 2.46
=
Load Factor = = 0.40 (2.3)
kWmaximum 6.18
2.3 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER LOADING

A distribution transformer will provide service to one or more customers. Each cus-
tomer will have a demand curve like that of Figure 2.2. However, the peaks and val-
leys and maximum demands will be different for each customer. Figures 2.3, 2.4, and
2.5 give the demand curves for the three additional customers connected to the same
distribution transformer.
The load curves for the four customers show that each customer has its unique
loading characteristic. The customers’ individual maximum kW demand occurs at
different times of the day. Customer #3 is the only customer who will have a high
load factor. A summary of individual loads is given in Table 2.1.

TABLE 2.1
Individual Customer Load Characteristics
Cust. #1 Cust. #2 Cust. #3 Cust. #4
Energy Usage (kWh) 58.57 36.46 95.64 42.75

Maximum kW Demand 6.18 6.82 4.93 7.05
Time of Max. kW Demand 13:15 11:30 6:45 20:30
Average kW Demand 2.44 1.52 3.98 1.78
Load Factor 0.40 0.22 0.81 0.25
These four customers demonstrate that there is great diversity between their loads.
2.3.1 Diversified Demand
It is assumed that the same distribution transformer serves the four customers dis-
cussed previously. The sum of the four 15 kW demands for each time interval is the
“diversified demand” for the group in that time interval, and in this case, the distri-
bution transformer. The 15-minute diversified kW demand of the transformer for the
FIGURE 2.6 Transformer diversified demand curve.
day is shown in Figure 2.6. Note in this figure how the demand curve is beginning
to smooth out. There are not as many significant changes as seen by some of the
individual customer curves.
2.3.2 Maximum Diversified Demand

The transformer demand curve of Figure 2.6 demonstrates how the combined cus-
tomer loads begin to smooth out the extreme changes of the individual loads. For the
transformer, the 15-minute kW demand exceeds 16 kW twice. The greater of these is
the “15-minute maximum diversified kW demand” of the transformer. It occurs at
17:30 and has a value of 16.16 kW. Note that this maximum demand does not occur
at the same time as any one of the individual demands nor is this maximum demand
the sum of the individual maximum demands.
2.3.3 Load Duration Curve

A “load duration curve” can be developed for the transformer serving the four cus-
tomers. Sorting in descending order, the kW demand of the transformer develops the
load duration curve shown in Figure 2.7.
The load duration curve plots the 15-minute kW demand versus the percent of
time; the transformer operates at or above the specific kW demand. For example, the
load duration curve shows the transformer operates with a 15-minute kW demand of
12 kW or greater than 22% of the time. This curve can be used to determine whether
a transformer needs to be replaced due to an overloading condition.
2.3.4 Maximum Non-coincident Demand

The “15-minute maximum non-coincident kW demand” for the day is the sum of
the individual customer’s 15-minute maximum kW demands. For the transformer in
question, the sum of the individual maximums is
kWmaximum non coincident demand 6.18 6.82 4.93 7.05 24.98 kW (2.4)
FIGURE 2.7 Transformer load duration curve.
2.3.5 Diversity Factor
By definition, diversity factor is the ratio of the maximum non-coincident demand
of a group of customers to the maximum diversified demand of the group. With
reference to the transformer serving four customers, the diversity factor for the four
customers would be
kWmaximum non coincident demand 24.98

Diversity Factor 1.5458 (2.5)
kWmaximum diversified demand 16.15
The idea behind the diversity factor is that when the maximum demands of the
customers are known, then the maximum diversified demand of a group of custom-
ers can be computed. There will be a different value of the diversity factor for
different numbers of customers. The previously computed value would apply to
four customers. If there are five customers, then a load survey would have to be set
up to determine the diversity factor for five customers. This process would have to
be repeated for all practical numbers of customers. Table 2.2 is an example of the
diversity factors for the number of customers ranging from one up to 70. The table
was developed from a different database than the four customers that have been
discussed previously.
A graph of the diversity factors is shown in Figure 2.8.
Note in Table 2.2 and Figure 2.8 that the value of the diversity factor has basically
leveled out when the number of customers has reached 70. This is an important
observation because it means, at least for the system from which these diversity fac-
tors were determined, that the diversity factor will remain constant at 3.20 from 70
customers and up. In other words, as viewed from the substation, the maximum
diversified demand of a feeder can be predicted by computing the total non-
coincident maximum demand of all of the customers served by the feeder and divid-
ing by 3.2.
TABLE 2.2
Diversity Factors
N DF N DF N DF N DF N DF N DF N DF
1 1.0 11 2.67 21 2.90 31 3.05 41 3.13 51 3.15 61 3.18

2 1.60 12 2.70 22 2.92 32 3.06 42 3.13 52 3.15 62 3.18
3 1.80 13 2.74 23 2.94 33 3.08 43 3.14 53 3.16 63 3.18
4 2.10 14 2.78 24 2.96 34 3.09 44 3.14 54 3.16 64 3.19
5 2.20 15 2.80 25 2.98 35 3.10 45 3.14 55 3.16 65 3.19
6 2.30 16 2.82 26 3.00 36 3.10 46 3.14 56 3.17 66 3.19
7 2.40 17 2.84 27 3.01 37 3.11 47 3.15 57 3.17 67 3.19
8 2.55 18 2.86 28 3.02 38 3.12 48 3.15 58 3.17 68 3.19
9 2.60 19 2.88 29 3.04 39 3.12 49 3.15 59 3.18 69 3.20
10 2.65 20 2.90 30 3.05 40 3.13 50 3.15 60 3.18 70 3.20
Note: DF = diversity factors
FIGURE 2.8 Diversity factors.
2.3.6 Demand Factor
The demand factor can be defined for an individual customer. For example, the
15-minute maximum kW demand of Customer #1 was found to be 6.18 kW. In order
to determine the demand factor, the total connected load of the customer needs to be
known. The total connected load will be the sum of the ratings of all of the electri-
cal devices at the customer’s location. Assume that this total comes to 35 kW, the
demand factor is computed to be
kWmaximum demand 6.18

=
Demand Factor = = 0.1766 (2.6)
kWtotal connected load 35
The demand factor gives an indication of the percentage of electrical devices that
are on when the maximum demand occurs. The demand factor can be computed for
an individual customer but not for a distribution transformer or the total feeder.
2.3.7 Utilization Factor
The utilization factor gives an indication of how well the capacity of an electrical
device is being utilized. For example, the transformer serving the four loads is rated
15 kVA. Using the 16.16 kW maximum diversified demand and assuming a power
factor of 0.9, the 15-minute maximum kVA demand on the transformer is computed
by dividing the 16.16 kW maximum kW demand by the power factor and would be
17.96 kVA. The utilization factor is computed to be
kVAmaximum demand 17.96

=
Utilization Factor = = 1.197 (2.7)
kVAtransformer rating 15
2.3.8 Load Diversity
Load diversity is defined as the difference between the non-coincident maximum
demand and the maximum diversified demand. For the transformer in question, the
load diversity is computed to be
Load Diversity KWnon conincident demand KWmaximum diversified demand

(2.8)
24.97 16.16 8.81 KW
2.4 FEEDER LOAD
The load that a feeder serves will display a smoothed-out demand curve as shown in
Figure 2.9.
FIGURE 2.9 Feeder demand curve.

The feeder demand curve does not display any of the abrupt changes in demand
of an individual customer demand curve or the semi-abrupt changes in the demand
curve of a transformer. The simple explanation for this is that with several hundred
customers served by the feeder, the odds are good that as one customer is turning off
a light bulb another customer will be turning a light bulb on. The feeder load, there-
fore, does not experience a jump as would be seen in the individual customer’s
demand curve.
2.4.1 Load Allocation
In the analysis of a distribution feeder “load,” data will have to be specified. The
data provided will depend upon how detailed the feeder is to be modeled and the
availability of customer load data. The most comprehensive model of a feeder will
represent every distribution transformer. When this is the case, the load allocated to
each transformer needs to be determined.
2.4.1.1 Application of Diversity Factors

The definition of the diversity factor is the ratio of the maximum non-coincident
demand to the maximum diversified demand. A table of diversity factors is shown in
Table 2.2. When such a table is available, then it is possible to determine the maxi-
mum diversified demand of a group of customers such as those served by a distribu-
tion transformer. That is, the maximum diversified demand can be computed by
kWmaximum non coincident demand

kWmaximum diversified demand (2.9)
DFnumber of customers
This maximum diversified demand becomes the allocated “load” for the
transformer.
2.4.1.2 Load Survey
Many times, the maximum demand of individual customers will be known either
from metering or from a knowledge of the energy (kWh) consumed by the customer.
Some utility companies will perform a load survey of similar customers in order to
determine the relationship between the energy consumption in kWh and the maxi-
mum kW demand. Such a load survey requires the installation of a demand meter at
each customer’s location. The meter can be the same type as is used to develop the
demand curves previously discussed, or it can be a simple meter that only records the
maximum demand during the period. At the end of the survey period, the maximum
demand vs. kWh for each customer can be plotted on a common graph. Linear regres-
sion is used to determine the equation of a straight line that gives the kW demand
as a function of kWh. The plot of points for 15 customers, along with the resulting
equation derived from a linear regression algorithm, is shown in Figure 2.10.
The straight-line equation derived is
kWmaximum demand 0.1058 0.005014 kWh (2.10)

FIGURE 2.10 kW demand vs. kWh for residential customers.
Knowing the maximum demand for each customer is the first step in developing a
table of diversity factors, as shown in Table 2.2. The next step is to perform a load
survey where the maximum diversified demand of groups of customers is metered.
This will involve selecting a series of locations where demand meters can be placed
that will record the maximum demand for groups of customers ranging from at least
two to 70. At each meter location, the maximum demand of all downstream custom-
ers must also be known. With that data, the diversity factor can be computed for the
given number of downstream customers.
Example 2.1: A single-phase lateral provides service to three

distribution transformers, as shown in Figure 2.11.
The energy in kWh consumed by each customer during a month is known. A load
survey has been conducted for customers in this class, and it has been found that
the customer 15-minute maximum kW demand is given by the equation
kWdemand 0.2 0.008 kWh
The kWh consumed by Customer #1 is 1,523 kWh. The 15-minute maximum kW

demand for Customer #1 is then computed as
FIGURE 2.11 Single-phase lateral.
kW1 0.2 0.008 1523 12.4 kW
The results of this calculation for the remainder of the customers are summarized
next by transformer.
Transformer T1
Customer #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
kWh 1,523 1,645 1,984 1,590 1,456

kW 12.4 13.4 16.1 12.9 11.9
Transformer T2
Customer #6 #7 #8 #9 #10 #11
kWh 1,235 1,587 1,698 1,745 2,015 1,765

kW 10.1 12.9 13.8 14.2 16.3 14.3
Transformer T3
Customer #12 #13 #14 #15 #16 #17 #18
kWh 2,098 1,856 2,058 2,265 2,135 1,985 2,103

kW 17.0 15.1 16.7 18.3 17.3 16.1 17.0
1. Determine for each transformer the 15-minute non-coincident maximum

kW demand, and using the Table of Diversity Factors in Table 2.2, deter-
mine the 15-minute maximum diversified kW demand.
kWmaximum non coincident demand 12.4 13.4 16.1 12.9 11.8 66.6 kW
T1 : kWmaximum non concideent demand
kWmaximum diversified demand 30.3 kW
DF5
kWmaximum non coincident demand 10.1 12.9 13.8 14.2 16.3 14.3
81.6 kW
T2 :
kWmaximum non cooncident demand
DF6
kWmaximum non coincident demand 17.0 15.0 16.7 18.3 17.3 16.1 17.0
117.4 kW
T3 :
kWmaximum non concident demand
DF7
Based upon the 15-minute maximum kW diversified demand on each

transformer and an assumed power factor of 0.9, the 15-minute maximum
kVA diversified demand on each transformer would be as follows:
30.2
=
kVAT1 maximum diversified demand = 33.6 kVA
.9
35.5
= = 39.4 kVA
kVAT 2 maximum diversified demand
.9
48.9
= = 54.4 kVA
kVAT 3 maximum diversified demand
.9
The kVA ratings selected for the three transformers would be 25 kVA, 37.5 kV,
and 50 kVA respectively. With those selections, only Transformer T1 would
experience a significant maximum kVA demand greater than its rating (135%).
2. Determine the 15-minute non-coincident maximum kW demand and
15-minute maximum diversified kW demand for each of the line segments.
Segment N1 to N2: The maximum non-coincident kW demand is the sum

of the maximum demands of all 18 customers.
kWmaximum non coincident demand 66.6 81.6 117.4 265.6 kW
The maximum diversified kW demand is computed by using the diversity

factor for 18 customers.
265.5
kWmaximum diversified =
demand = 92.8 KW
2.86
Segment N2 to N3: This line segment “sees” 13 customers. The non-coin-

cident maximum demand is the sum of Customers #6 through #18. The
diversity factor for 13 (2.74) is used to compute the maximum diversified
kW demand.
kWmaximum non coincident demand 81.6 117.4 199.0 kW

199.0
2.74
Segment N3 to N4: This line segment “sees” the same non-coincident

demand and diversified demand as that of Transformer T3.
kWmaximum non coincident demand 117.4 117.4 kW

199.0
2 .4
Example 2.1 demonstrates that Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) is not obeyed
when the maximum diversified demands are used as the “load” flowing through the
line segments and through the transformers. For example, at node N1, the maximum
diversified demand flowing down the line segment N1–N2 is 92.8 kW and the maxi-
mum diversified demand flowing through Transformer T1 is 30.3 kW. KCL would
then predict that the maximum diversified demand flowing down line segment N2–
N3 would be the difference of these or 62.5 kW. However, the calculations for the
maximum diversified demand in that segment were computed to be 72.6 kW. The
explanation for this is that the maximum diversified demands for the line segments
and transformers don’t necessarily occur at the same time. At the time that the line
segment N2–N3 is experiencing its maximum diversified demand, line segment N1–
N2 and Transformer T1 are not at their maximum values. All that can be said is that
at the time segment N2–N3 is experiencing its maximum diversified demand, the
difference between the actual demand on the line segment N1–N2 and the demand of
Transformer T1 will be 72.6 kW. There will be an infinite number of combinations of
line flow down N1–N2 and through Transformer T1 that will produce the maximum
diversified demand of 72.6 kW on line N2–N3.
2.4.1.3 Transformer Load Management

A transformer load management program is used by utilities to determine the load-
ing on distribution transformers based upon a knowledge of the kWh supplied by the
transformer during a peak loading month. The program is primarily used to deter-
mine when a distribution transformer needs to be changed out due to a projected
overloading condition. The results of the program can also be used to allocate loads
to transformers for feeder analysis purposes.
The transformer load management program relates the maximum diversified
demand of a distribution transformer to the total kWh supplied by the transformer
during a specific month. The usual relationship is the equation of a straight line. Such
an equation is determined from a load survey. This type of load survey meters the
maximum demand on the transformer in addition to the total energy in kWh of all of
the customers connected to the transformer. With the information available from sev-
eral sample transformers, a curve similar to that shown in Figure 2.10 can be devel-
oped, and the constants of the straight-line equation can then be computed. This
method has the advantage because the utility will have in the billing database the
kWh consumed by each customer every month. As long as the utility knows which
customers are connected to each transformer, by using the developed equation, the
maximum diversified demand (allocated load) on each transformer on a feeder can be
determined for each billing period.
2.4.1.4 Metered Feeder Maximum Demand

The major disadvantage of allocating load using the diversity factors is that most
utilities will not have a table of diversity factors. The process of developing such a
table is generally not cost beneficial. The major disadvantage of the transformer load
management method is that a database is required that specifies which transformers
serve which customers. Again, this database is not always available.
Allocating load based upon the metered readings in the substation requires the
least amount of data. Most feeders will have metering in the substation that will at
minimum give either the total three-phase maximum diversified kW or kVA demand
and/or the maximum current per phase during a month. The kVA ratings of all distri-
bution transformers are always known as feeders. The metered readings can be allo-
cated to each transformer based upon the transformer rating. An “allocation factor”
(AF) can be determined based upon the metered three-phase kW or kVA demand and
the total connected distribution transformer kVA.
kVAmetered demand (2.11)

AF =
kVAtotal kVA rating
where kVAtotal kVA rating = Sum of the kVA ratings of all distribution transformers.
The allocated load per transformer is then determined by
kVAtransformer demand AF kVAtransformer rating (2.12)
The transformer demand will be either kW or kVA depending upon the metered
quantity.
When the kW or kVA is metered by phase, then the load can be allocated by phase
where it will be necessary to know the phasing of each distribution transformer.
When the maximum current per phase is metered, the load allocated to each dis-
tribution transformer can be done by assuming nominal voltage at the substation and
then computing the resulting kVA. The load allocation will now follow the same
procedure as outlined earlier.
If there is no metered information on the reactive power or power factor of the
feeder, a power factor will have to be assumed for each transformer load.
Modern substations will have microprocessor-based metering that will provide
kW, kvar, kVA, power factor, and current per phase. With this data, the reactive power
can also be allocated. Since the metered data at the substation will include losses, an
iterative process will have to be followed so that the allocated load plus losses will
equal the metered readings.
Example 2.2: Assume that the metered maximum diversified kW

demand for the system of Example 2.1 is 92.9 kW. Allocate this load
according to the kVA ratings of the three transformers.
kVAtotal 25 37.5 50 112.5 kVA
92.9
=
AF = 0.8258
112.5
The allocated kW for each transformer becomes
T1: kW1 = 0.8258 · 25 = 20.64 kW,

T2: kW2 = 0.8258 · 37.5 = 30.97 kW,
T3: kW3 = 0.8258 · 50 = 41.29 kW
2.4.1.5 What Method to Use?

Four different methods have been presented for allocating load to distribution
transformers:
• Application of diversity factors

• Load survey
• Transformer load management
• Metered feeder maximum demand
Which method to use depends upon the purpose of the analysis. If the purpose of the
analysis is to determine as closely as possible the maximum demand on a distribu-
tion transformer, then either the diversity factor or the transformer load manage-
ment method can be used. Neither of these methods should be employed when the
analysis of the total feeder is to be performed. The problem is that using either of
those methods will result in a much larger maximum diversified demand at the sub-
station than actually exists. When the total feeder is to be analyzed, the only method
that gives good results is that of allocating load based upon the kVA ratings of the
transformers.
2.4.2 Voltage Drop Calculations Using Allocated Loads

The voltage drops down line segments, and through distribution, transformers are of
interest to the distribution engineer. Four different methods of allocating loads have
been presented. The various voltage drops can be computed using the loads allocated
by the three methods. For these studies, it is assumed that the allocated loads will be
modeled as constant real power and reactive power.
2.4.2.1 Application of Diversity Factors

The loads allocated to a line segment or a distribution transformer using diversity
factors are a function of the total number of customers “downstream” from the line
segment or distribution transformer. The application of the diversity factors was dem-
onstrated in Example 2.1. With a knowledge of the allocated loads flowing in the line
segments and through the transformers and the impedances, the voltage drops can be
computed. The assumption is that the allocated loads will be constant real power and
reactive power. In order to avoid an iterative solution, the voltage at the source end
is assumed and the voltage drops calculated from that point to the last transformer.
Example 2.3 demonstrates how the method of load allocation using diversity fac-
tors is applied. The same system and allocated loads from Example 2.1 are used in
Example 2.3.
2.4.2.2 Load Allocation Based Upon Transformer Ratings

When only the ratings of the distribution transformers are known, the feeder can
be allocated based upon the metered demand and the transformer kVA ratings.
This method was discussed in Section 2.3.3. Example 2.4 demonstrates this
method.
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BOOKS ON SCIENCE AND
INVENTION.
These are few, but lending library books should not be treatises,
they should only excite curiosity and give general information.
846. Star Lessons. By R. A. Proctor. (Chatto & Windus) 6s.
Substantial and real study.
847. Pictures of the Heavens. By C. Dyson. (Walter Smith) 3s.
Beginnings of astronomy.
848. Sun, Moon, and Stars. By Agnes Giberne. (Seeley) 5s.
849. Among the Stars. By Agnes Giberne. (Seeley) 5s.
Valuable introductions to astronomy, such as young people of any
intelligence ought to be induced to read.
850. Madam How and Lady Why. By Canon Kingsley. (Macmillan)
6s.
Unrivalled exposition of the earth we tread on.
851. The World’s Lumber Room. By Selina Gaye. (Cassell) 2s. 6d.
Interesting information about the various uses to which refuse
materials can be applied.
852. Engine-Driving Life. (Crosby Lockwood) 1s. 6d.
The true history of the training and the adventures met with on the
railroad by the brave men to whom so many lives are entrusted. It is
keenly interesting.
853. Stories of Invention. By E. Hale. (Nelson) 2s. 6d.
If a very American ‘setting’ be no objection, this gives a capital
account of inventors and inventions.
854. Nature’s Wonders. By the Rev. R. Newton, D.D.
855. Science Gleanings. (Nelson) Each 2s. 6d.
Collections of striking phenomena with their explanation.
856. Chips from the Earth’s Crust. (Nelson) 2s. 6d.
RELIGIOUS BOOKS.
Very few directly religious books are here suggested. It is not well
to give a very serious book in a chance way to a young creature
expecting amusement. And the best books are fit rather to make a
lengthened stay with the reader than to be handed on in the library.
Tracts for special purposes do not belong to the general class of
books in circulation, and those here set down are chiefly such as
give information on principles, rather than actually devotional books
or sermons.
857. Plain Words. By the Bishop of Bedford. (Wells Gardner
Darton, & Co.) 4 vols. 2s. each.
No words are wanted to praise this well-known book.
858. The Light of Conscience. (Rivingtons) 2s. 6d.
Useful as showing how to deal with oneself.
859. Church Doctrine and Bible Truths. (Bell & Daldy) 3s. 6d.
Excellent instruction.
860. Last Years of Our Lord’s Ministry. By Dean Hook. (Griffith,
Farran, & Co.) 5s.
Needs no praise.
861. Holy Living and Dying. By Bishop Jeremy Taylor.
(Rivingtons) 1s. each.
Still as true as ever.
862. Readings for the Aged. (Sackville College Sermons.) By the
Rev. J. M. Neale. (Masters) Complete set, 4 vols., 28s. 6d.
Discourses to the inmates of Sackville College, chiefly on
Blackletter Saints.
863. Plain Church Teaching. (Masters) 3s. and 4s.
Short and excellent readings on the Sundays of the year.
864. Tracts on Church Principles. (Masters) 1s. 6d.
865. Personal Religion. By Dean Goulburn. (Rivingtons) 3s. 6d.
Often makes a great impression.
866. The Pursuit of Holiness. By Dean Goulburn. (Rivingtons) 3s.
6d.
The sequel of the above.
867. Household Theology. By Rev. J. H. Blunt. (Rivingtons) 3s.
6d.
868. Twilight of Life. By the Rev. J. Ellerton. (Cassell)
One of the few books in large type for aged eyes.
869. Heart Chords. (Cassell) 1s.
There are a number of these little books, by different authors,
among them Bishops Boyd Carpenter and Ashton Oxenden. Useful
religious books; good gifts for thoughtful persons.
MAGAZINES.
It is very desirable to get good magazines taken in by the
parishioners. They are the most effectual means of occupying the
ground against hurtful publications, and serial stories running on
keep up the interest. If a shopkeeper can be made an agent, with a
small percentage, the affair will thrive, as children’s magazines may
be subscribed for at school.
870. Little One’s Own Picture Paper. (Dean) 1d.
The pictures are wonderfully good, so are the verses. Capital for
showing to the infant class at a Sunday school.
871. The Rosebud. (Clarke & Co.) 1d.
For very small children.
872. The Children’s Pictorial. (S.P.C.K.) 2d.
Full of chromolithographs; but the stories are not serial, and this
some children do not like.
873. The Prize. (Wells Gardner, Darton, & Co.) 1d.
This bears a highly coloured ‘picture,’ and is greatly liked.
874. The Child’s Companion. (R.T.S.) 1d.
Well illustrated, and with pretty stories and short religious lessons.
875. Chatterbox. (Wells Gardner, Darton, & Co.) Weekly, ½d.
Monthly, 3d.
Well illustrated and amusing; fit for young people somewhat older.
The information is capital.
876. Little Folks. (Cassell) 6d.
A somewhat superior article, with sensible tales, original
correspondence, and prize competitions. Matter fairly good.
877. My Sunday Friend. (Mowbray) 1d.
With the strongest Church tone of all these, and useful Sunday
questions. Stories good.
878. Sunshine. 1d.
Fairly good; but the Bible questions are too like riddles.
879. Boy’s Own Paper. (R.T.S.) 1d. weekly, 6d. monthly.
Capital, and full of adventurous tales.
880. Girl’s Own Paper. (R.T.S.) 1d. weekly, 6d. monthly.
Hardly equal to the Boy’s, but very much appreciated by girls in
their teens, whose wants it seems to satisfy in a sensible, innocent
way.
881. Dawn of Day. (S.P.C.K.) ½d.
Fit for older children and young people. Can be localised.
882. Atalanta. (Hatchards) 6d.
Especially for young girls, and proposing very useful subjects for
competition.
883. Penny Post. (Parker) 1d.
The eldest of all these, and still keeping up its reputation.
884. The Youth’s Companion.
An American weekly published by Perry, 41 Temple Place, Boston.
A subscription of 10s. per annum would bring it to England, and it
has some of the best reading for young folks that we know.
885. Parish Magazine. (Wells Gardner, Darton, & Co.) 1d.
The first of all to be localised. Always fairly good.
886. Banner of Faith. (Church Extension Society) 3s. 6d. per
volume.
With a strong Church tone. Very spirited. Can be localised.
887. The Gospeller. (Mowbray) 1d.
More decidedly religious reading. Can be localised.
888. The Leisure Hour. Monthly, 6d.; 7s. per volume.
A mixture of tales and information.
889. The Quiver. (Cassell) 6d.
Of the same character. Monthly, and for Sunday reading, and thus
containing articles on Holy Scripture.
890. Cassell’s Family Magazine. Monthly, 7d.
Of a more secular but wholesome character, with tales and
substantial information.
891. Good Words. (Isbister) 6d.
Commands the ablest writers and comes the nearest to literature.
Men are more likely to read it than the others. There is always a
religious article or two—‘unsectarian.’
892. The Net. (Bemrose & Sons) 1d.
Valuable as giving vivid accounts of missions.
893. The Gospel Missionary. (Bell) ½d.
Keeping up interest in missions.
894. The Coral Magazine. (Wells Gardner, Darton, & Co.) 1d.
On the part of the Church Missionary Society.
PENNY READINGS.
The foremost counsel to be given to those commencing Penny
Readings is to beware of exciting an expectation that all readings
and recitations shall be comic. It is probable that a considerable
proportion of the audience will enjoy what is adventurous or pathetic;
but if the lads, whose prime object is to make a noise, once get into
the habit of expecting that everything shall be the occasion of
laughing, they will consider themselves defrauded by anything else,
and spoil all chance of listening. Even if they come in a civilised
mood, a little excitement will set them off, and make them
unmanageable all the rest of the time, and habits will set in which will
drive the readers at last into mere buffoonery. Drollery is quite
expedient, but it should be only just at the end, as a bonne bouche,
when the uproariousness which it creates can speedily be worked off
out of doors, or else a race of young tyrants will be raised up who will
effectually prevent taste from being raised among the audience.
POETRY FOR READING OR RECITATION.

Poetry answers better than prose if well recited or read, and a
child is generally rapturously listened to if it can do the thing with
spirit and not like a lesson.
895. The Lifeboat, and Other Poems. By George R. Sims. (Fuller)
1s.
The first of these has been known to excite tears where the
audience had not been demoralised by overmuch of the comic.
896. The Platelayer. In May Procter’s Poems.
897. The Noble Mercer. By Jean Ingelow.
The story of Winstanley’s lighthouse at the Eddystone. Rather
long, but very effective.
898. Brough Bells. By Southey.
The legend of the bells given by John Brunskill to Brough.
899. The Bear and the Goblin. By the Rev. F. Dawson.
To be found in ‘Aunt Charlotte’s Evenings at Home.’ (Marcus
Ward) Rather long, but very amusing.
900. George Nidiver. From ‘Society and Solitude.’ (Emerson)
An heroic incident. Also to be found in ‘Aunt Charlotte’s Evenings
at Home.’
901. Paul Revere’s Ride. By Longfellow.
A spirited incident of the first American war.
902. Barbara Fritchie. By Whittier.
A heroine of the War of the Secession.
903. Sir Humphrey Gilbert. By Longfellow.
904. King Robert of Sicily. By Longfellow.
905. Loss of the ‘Birkenhead.’ By Sir F. Doyle.
906. George the Triller. By C. M. Yonge. From ‘Book of Golden
Deeds.’
The capture and rescue of the two princes of Saxony, ancestors of
the Prince Consort.
Some of Lockhart’s ‘Spanish Ballads’ would be liked in some
places, and to many the ‘Children in the Wood’ and others of the old
English ballads would be new.
907. Bells of Botreaux. By the Rev. R. Hawker.
The bells sunk in the bay just after the captain had pronounced the
safe voyage due to his own seamanship.
908. Sir Richard Grenville. By Lord Tennyson.
909. Song of the Shirt. By Hood.
910. Charge of the Light Brigade. By Sir F. Doyle.
Could not this be followed up by singing Tennyson’s Charge?
911. Ballads. By the Rev. F. Langbridge. (Cassell)
Some serious, some comic, well suited for the purpose.
COMIC RECITATIONS.
912. The Crocodile King. By Southey.
913. Pairing Time Anticipated. By Cowper.
914. The Distressed Travellers; or, Labour in Vain. By Cowper.
A dialogue. If not in his poems, in Southey’s ‘Life of Cowper;’ also
in ‘Aunt Charlotte’s Evenings at Home.’
915. Miss Kilmansegg and Her Golden Leg. By Hood.
If judiciously abridged, this will answer well.
916. The Walrus and the Carpenter. By Lewis Carroll. From
‘Through the Looking-Glass.’
917. The Elephant. In ‘Aunt Charlotte’s Evenings at Home.’
918. The Lady and the Pie. By Hannah More.
A clever and now forgotten fable on curiosity. To be found in H.
More’s works.
919. The ‘Anon, Anon, Sir,’ Scene. Shakespeare’s Henry IV., Part
I., Act 2, Sc. iv., as far as ‘Enter Vintner.’
Might be read or recited. Two persons visible and one out of sight
to call Francis.
READINGS.
920. Hurricane in the West Indies. In Marryat’s ‘Peter Simple.’
921. An Incident in the Pacific.
A wonderful volcanic adventure told in vol. i., p. 142, of ‘Nature
and Art,’ a magazine published in 1866 by Day and Son.
922. Wreck of the ‘Magpie.’ In ‘Book of Golden Deeds.’ (See No.
730.)
923. Mary’s Ark. By Bret Harte, in ‘The Luck of Roaring Camp,
and other Tales.’
A woman saved on a tree in a flood of the Mississippi.
924. Rab and his Friends. By Dr. John Browne. (Douglas) 6d.
In ‘Remains of Dr. J. Browne.’
925. The Sexton’s Hero. By Mrs. Gaskell. (See No. 656.)
926. Discovery of the Colorado. By Lady Verney. In ‘Real Stories
from Many Lands.’ No. 721.
927. Eric’s Grave.
928. Helmsman of Lake Erie.
These two, taken from Neale’s ‘Triumphs of the Cross,’ are also
published in one book, price 4d. (See No. 361.)
929. A Saltash Story. (F. M. P.) From the ‘Monthly Packet.’
930. A Night of Terror. From a Christmas Number of the ‘Monthly
Packet.’
931. Christmas Tale. By Hesba Stretton. 2d.
The miserly man who kept his hoards in his old trousers.
932. The Ghost at Fantford. By C. M. Yonge. In ‘Byewords.’
(Macmillan) No. 574.
933. Wanted, a Letter Carrier. From the ‘Monthly Packet,’
Christmas Number, 1871.
COMIC READINGS.
934. Daniel O’Rourke’s Journey to the Moon.
935. Legend of Knock Grafton.
936. Hill of the Fairy Calf.
937. The Wonderful Tune.
These four are in ‘Croker’s Fairy Legends,’ republished by Swan
Sonnenschein. Some of the stories in ‘Uncle Remus.’
938. Black Poodle. By F. Anstey. No. II. of ‘Longman’s Magazine.’
939. Tom Tumbletoes and the Cow. From the ‘Monthly Packet,’ V.
1st series. (Walter Smith)
940. A Yorkshire Butcher. By the Rev. Sabine Baring-Gould. In
‘Yorkshire Oddities,’ p. 139. (Hodges)
941. The Queen of the Dentists. By the Rev. S. Baring-Gould. In
‘Just One More Tale.’ (Skeffington) 3s. 6d.
942. Wow Wow. By the Rev. S. Baring-Gould. In ‘Just One More
Tale.’ (Skeffington) 3s. 6d.
943. The Two Bulls. By Mrs. Beecher Stowe. In ‘Old Town
Stories.’ (Sampson Low)
944. Calf Reared on Sawdust.
945. Been in the Omnibus.
946. The Old Sow.
947. The Bewitched Boots. All these four are in ‘The Boy with an
Idea.’ No. 138.
948. The Colonel’s Fall. By F. M. Peard. In ‘Princess Alethea.’
(Smith, Elder, & Co.)
A gentleman, who, finding his own house deserted on his return
from a journey, tries to get in by a window, falls into the water-butt,
and is taken for a burglar.
949. Pay your Debt; or, Jack Colquhoun.
950. The Enchanted Sledge.
Anyone who chances to possess the first year’s volume of
‘Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal,’ 1838, will find these two capital
stories, the one in No. 25, the other in No. 19. A good many years
later there was an excellent bit about a stork brought home from the
London Docks in a cab—about 1855.
951. The Abstraction. In ‘Hood’s Comic Annual for 1833.’
Many more readings may be found in these annuals by anyone
who can disinter them.
952. A Fearful Rebuke.
953. Through the Telescope.
These two are in ‘Queer People,’ vol. i. Translated from the
Swedish. (Allen)
954. The Baby with Two Grandfathers. From ‘Mary Barton.’ (See
No. 551.)
955. Lady Dumbleton’s Pig. Christmas Number ‘Monthly Packet.’
INDEX.
Abbey by the Sea, the, 66

Abbot, the, 434
Abstraction, the, 951
Across the Pampas, 732
Acts of the Deacons, 315
Address to Women, 635
Adventurous Voyage of the ‘Polly,’ the, 164
Afloat, 593
Against the Stream, 485
Agathos, 336
Alfgar the Dane, 382
Alice in Wonderland, 582
All the Russias, 686
Alone among the Zulus, 676
Alone in Crowds, 110
Ambition of Kate Hicks, 87
Among the Stars, 849
Andersen’s Fairy Tales, 578
‘Anon, Anon, Sir,’ Scene, 919
Anson’s Voyages, 733
Apples and Oranges, 840
Apple Tree, 15
Arabian Nights, 581
Armourer’s Prentices, 421
Around and about Old England, 737
Ascott Hope’s Tales, 134
Assyria, 322
Atalanta, 882
Aunt Charlotte’s Histories, 760-66
Aunt Judy’s Tales, 221
Aunt Judy’s Letters, 222
Aunt Kezia’s Will, 595
Aunt Sally’s History, 223
Australia, 715
Austria, 711
Autocrat of the Nursery, the, 204
Babylonia, 323
Babylonian Life and History, 330
Baby’s Album, 2
Baby’s Prayerbook, 60
Baby with Two Grandfathers, the, 954
Ballads, 911
Ballantyne’s Tales, 158
Banner of Faith, 886
Barbara Fritchie, 902
Bear and Forbear, 112
Bear, the, and the Goblin, 899
Bearing the Yoke, 616
Beautiful Face, the, 53, 356
Bede’s Charity, 621
Been in the Omnibus, 945
Beleaguered City, a, 360
Bells of Botreaux, 907
Benedicite, 270
Ben Sylvester’s Word, 55, 145
Betrothed, the, 390
Beyond the Himalayas, 171
Bewitched Boots, the, 947
Bilihild, 370
Biographies of Good Women, 803
Birds’ Nests and Eggs, 832
Bird Songs and Bird Pictures, 833
Birthday, 183
Bits of Talk on Home Matters, 644
Black and White, 660
Black Coppice, the, 632
Black Poodle, 938
Blind Man’s Holiday, 232
Blue Ribbons, the, 80, 503
Book of Golden Deeds, 730
Book of Worthies, 802
Botany Reading Books, 837
Boy Bishop, 409
Boys, 261
Boys and Girls, 201
Boy’s Own Paper, 879
Boy with an Idea, 138
Brave Dame Mary, 452
Brave Days of Old, 725
Brave Men of Eyam, 462
Bride Picotée, 523
Bright Farthing, 33
Broken Walls, the, 285
Brothers in Arms, 489
Brough Bells, 898
Bully Brindle, 19
Burnt Out, 594
By Fire and Sword, 502
By Northern Seas, 573
Byewords, 574
Caged Lion, the, 148, 410

Cairnforth and Sons, 524
Calf Reared on Sawdust, 944
Camp Fire and the Wigwam, the, 127
Camp of Refuge, 386
Camp on the Severn, 378
Carbridges, the, 532
Carry’s Rose, 237
Carved Cartoon, 84, 461
Castaways in the Wilds of Borneo, the, 173
Cassell’s Family Magazine, 890
Castle Blair, 224
Castle Builders, 256
Castle Dangerous, 398
Cat and her Cousins, 827
Catharine and Crawfurd Tait, 653
Cawnpore, 774
Champion of Odin, 384
Chaplet of Pearls, 497
Chapters on the Te Deum, 279
Charge of the Light Brigade, 910
Charles Harvey’s Difficulties, 269
Chats about Germany, 688
Chatterbox, 875
Cheap Jack, 45
Child Life in Chinese Homes, 701
Children of Africa, the, 702
Children of the Church, 252, 274
Children of the New Forest, 458

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Distribution System Modeling and

Analysis with MATLAB® and WindMil®

Chess Explained The c3 Sicilian 1st Edition Sam Collins

Starting Out The c3 Sicilian 1st Edition John Emms

Dynamic System Modelling and Analysis with MATLAB and

English Grammar Exercises with answers Part 4 Your

Dirty Devil 82 Street Vandals 4 1st Edition Heather

Ruthless Traitor (82 Street Vandals #3) 1st Edition

Environmental Data Analysis with MatLab or Python:

Professional Writing and Speaking 5th Edition William

Fifth edition published 2023

and by CRC Press

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2023 William H. Kersting, Robert J. Kerestes

First edition published by CRC Press 2001

Chapter 1 Introduction to Distribution Systems.................................................... 1

Chapter 2 The Nature of Loads............................................................................. 9

2.5 Individual Customer Loads with Electric Vehicles................... 29

Chapter 3 Balanced System Method of Analysis................................................ 37

Chapter 4 Series Impedance of Overhead and Underground Lines.................... 55

Chapter 5 Shunt Admittance of Overhead and Underground Lines.................... 93

Chapter 6 Distribution System Line Models..................................................... 111

Chapter 7 Voltage Regulation............................................................................ 151

Chapter 8 Three-Phase Transformer Models..................................................... 217

8.5 The Ungrounded Wye-Delta Step-Down Connection............ 236

Chapter 9 Load Models..................................................................................... 287

Chapter 10 Distribution Feeder Analysis............................................................. 345

Chapter 11 Center-Tapped Transformers and Secondaries.................................409

11.5 Putting it All Together............................................................ 454

Appendix A Conductor Data................................................................................ 469

Milsoft Utility Solutions

Unfortunately, there is a tendency on the part of the student/engineer to believe the

The Math Works, Inc.

Robert J. Kerestes, PhD, is an assistant professor of electrical and computer engi-

1. What is the maximum capacity?

FIGURE 1.1 Major power system components.

1.1 THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

FIGURE 1.2 Simple distribution substation.

three-phase units or three single-phase units connected in a standard con-

A more comprehensive substation layout is shown in Figure 1.3.

Circuit Breakers Closed: X, Y, 1, 3, 4, 6

FIGURE 1.3 Two transformer substation with breaker-and-a-half scheme.

1. Three-phase primary “main” feeder

The loading of a distribution feeder is inherently unbalanced because of the large

FIGURE 1.4 Simple distribution feeder.

1.4 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER MAP

1. Lines (overhead and underground)

1.5 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Overhead and underground spacings

a. Geometric Mean Radius (GMR) (feet)

5. Maximum Diversified Demand

2.2 INDIVIDUAL CUSTOMER LOAD

FIGURE 2.1 Customer demand curve.

FIGURE 2.2 24-hour demand curve for Customer #1.

during the period by Customer #1 is 58.96 kWh. The “15-minute average kW

Total Energy 58.96

2.3 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER LOADING

FIGURE 2.3 24-hour demand curve for Customer #2.

FIGURE 2.4 24-hour demand curve for Customer #3.

1.1 THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

1.4 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER MAP

1.5 DISTRIBUTION FEEDER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

2.2 INDIVIDUAL CUSTOMER LOAD

2.3 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER LOADING

2.3.2 Maximum Diversified Demand

2.3.3 Load Duration Curve

2.3.4 Maximum Non-coincident Demand

kWmaximum non coincident demand 24.98

Load Diversity KWnon conincident demand KWmaximum diversified demand

2.4.1.1 Application of Diversity Factors

kWmaximum non coincident demand

kWmaximum demand 0.1058 0.005014 kWh (2.10)

kWdemand 0.2 0.008 kWh

kW1 0.2 0.008 1523 12.4 kW

kWmaximum non coincident demand 66.6 81.6 117.4 265.6 kW

kWmaximum non coincident demand 81.6 117.4 199.0 kW

kWmaximum non coincident demand 117.4 117.4 kW

2.4.1.3 Transformer Load Management

2.4.1.4 Metered Feeder Maximum Demand

kVAtransformer demand AF kVAtransformer rating (2.12)

kVAtotal 25 37.5 50 112.5 kVA

2.4.1.5 What Method to Use?

2.4.2 Voltage Drop Calculations Using Allocated Loads

2.4.2.1 Application of Diversity Factors

2.4.2.2 Load Allocation Based Upon Transformer Ratings