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Multiphase Flows with
Droplets and Particles
Multiphase Flows with Droplets and Particles provides an organized, pedagogical
study of multiphase flows with particles and droplets. This revised edition presents
new information on particle interactions, particle collisions, thermophoresis and
Brownian movement, computational techniques and codes, and the treatment of
irregularly shaped particles. An entire chapter is devoted to the flow of nanoparticles
and applications of nanofluids.
FEATURES
• Discusses the modelling and analysis of nanoparticles.
• Covers all fundamental aspects of particle and droplet flows.
• Includes heat and mass transfer processes.
• Features new and updated sections throughout the text.
• Includes chapter exercises and a Solutions Manual for adopting instructors.
Designed to complement a graduate course in multiphase flows, the book can also
serve as a supplement in short courses for engineers or as a stand-alone reference for
engineers and scientists who work in this area.
Multiphase Flows with
Droplets and Particles
Third Edition
Efstathios E. Michaelides,
Martin Sommerfeld and
Berend van Wachem
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Designed cover image: Efstathios E. Michaelides.
Third edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487–2742
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2023 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write
and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
ISBN: 978-0-367-54431-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-54434-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-08927-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003089278
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents
Nomenclature......................................................................................................... xiii
Foreword .................................................................................................................xix
About the Authors...................................................................................................xxi
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... xxiii
Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1

1.1 Industrial Applications ................................................................ 3
1.1.1 Spray Drying .................................................................... 3
1.1.2 Materials Transport Systems ............................................ 5
1.1.2.1 Pneumatic Transport.......................................... 5
1.1.3 Slurry Transport ............................................................... 6
1.1.4 Manufacturing and Material Processing .......................... 7
1.1.4.1 Spray Forming ................................................... 7
1.1.4.2 Plasma Spray Coating ........................................ 8
1.1.4.3 Abrasive Water-Jet Cutting................................ 8
1.1.4.4 Synthesis of Nanophase Materials .................... 9
1.2 Energy Conversion and Propulsion ............................................10
1.2.1 Pulverized-Coal-Fired Furnaces .....................................10
1.2.2 Fluidized Beds .................................................................10
1.2.3 Solid Propellant Rockets .................................................12
1.3 Environmental Applications .......................................................12
1.3.1 Pollution Control .............................................................12
1.3.1.1 Cyclone Separators ...........................................12
1.3.1.2 Electrostatic Precipitators .................................14
1.3.1.3 Scrubbers ..........................................................16
1.3.2 Fire Suppression and Control ..........................................16
1.4 Bio-Medical Applications ...........................................................17
1.4.1 Dry Powder Inhalers........................................................17
1.4.2 Airway Deposition ......................................................... 20
1.5 Summary and Objectives of This Book .....................................21
References........................................................................................... 22
Chapter 2 Properties of Dispersed Phase Flows................................................. 25

2.1 The Continuum Hypothesis ....................................................... 25
2.2 Density and Volume Fraction of
Dispersed Flows......................................................................... 28
2.3 Inter-Particle Distance—Dilute and Dense Flows .....................31
2.4 Response Times, the Stokes Number, Collisions .......................33
2.4.1 The Stokes Number .........................................................35
2.4.2 Dilute Flows and Dense Flows ....................................... 36
v
vi Contents
2.5 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties ................................39

2.6 Phase Interactions—Coupling....................................................43
2.6.1 Mass Coupling.................................................................45
2.6.2 Momentum Coupling ..................................................... 46
2.6.3 Energy Coupling............................................................. 48
Summary .............................................................................................49
Note......................................................................................................49
References........................................................................................... 50
Problems ............................................................................................. 50
Chapter 3 Distributions and Statistics of Particles and Droplets ....................... 53

3.1 The “Size” of Particles ...............................................................53
3.1.1 Fractal Dimension ...........................................................55
3.2 Discrete Size Distributions.........................................................57
3.2.1 Frequency Distribution....................................................57
3.2.2 Cumulative Distribution..................................................59
3.3 Continuous Size Distributions ................................................... 60
3.4 Statistical Parameters .................................................................61
3.4.1 Mode, Mean, and Median................................................62
3.4.2 Variance and Standard Deviation................................... 64
3.5 Analytical Size Distributions .................................................... 64
3.5.1 Log-Normal Distribution................................................ 64
3.5.2 Upper-Limit Log-Normal Distribution .......................... 68
3.5.3 Square-Root Normal Distribution.................................. 68
3.5.4 Rosin-Rammler Distribution.......................................... 69
3.5.5 Nukiyama-Tanasawa Distribution...................................70
3.5.6 Log-Hyperbolic Distribution...........................................70
Summary ............................................................................................ 72
References........................................................................................... 72
Problems ............................................................................................. 73
Chapter 4 Forces on Single Particles and Drops ................................................ 79

4.1 Steady Drag on Spherical Particles and Drops ..........................79
4.1.1 Drag at Very Small Reynolds Numbers—
Creeping or Stokes Flow ................................................ 80
4.1.2 Steady Drag on Spherical at Finite Reynolds
Numbers ......................................................................... 82
4.1.2.1 The Flow Field Around the Solid
Sphere .............................................................. 82
4.1.2.2 Steady Drag on Solid Spheres ......................... 84
4.1.2.3 Steady Drag on Liquid Spheres ....................... 85
4.1.2.4 The Drag Factor, f............................................ 88
4.1.3 Steady Drag with Velocity Slip at the Interface............. 88
Contents vii
4.2 Compressibility and Rarefaction Effects................................... 90

4.2.1 The Cunningham Correction Factor .............................. 92
4.2.2 Effects of the Mach Number........................................... 93
4.3 Non-Spherical Particles ............................................................. 94
4.3.1 Particles of Regular Shapes............................................ 94
4.3.2 Particles with Irregular Shapes ...................................... 95
4.3.3 The Stokes or Hydrodynamic Diameter......................... 97
4.4 Effects of Flow Turbulence........................................................ 98
4.5 Blowing Effects.......................................................................... 98
4.6 Transverse (Lift) Forces Due to Particle Rotation and
Flow Shear ................................................................................100
4.6.1 The Magnus Force.........................................................100
4.6.2 The Saffman Force ........................................................101
4.7 Effects of Solid Boundaries ......................................................103
4.7.1 Effect of Enclosures .......................................................103
4.7.2 Effect of Solid Boundaries.............................................104
4.8 Electrical Forces .......................................................................106
4.8.1 The Zeta Potential .........................................................107
4.8.2 Electrophoresis ..............................................................108
4.9 Body Forces ..............................................................................109
4.9.1 Terminal Velocity ..........................................................109
4.9.2 Centrifuging .................................................................. 111
4.10 Brownian Movement ................................................................112
4.10.1 Brownian Diffusion .......................................................112
4.10.2 Thermophoresis ............................................................. 114
4.11 Transient Drag-Added Mass and History (Basset) Force......... 116
4.11.1 Creeping (Stokes) Flow (Rer << 1)................................ 116
4.11.2 Flow at Finite Reynolds Numbers................................. 118
4.12 Summary ..................................................................................119
References..........................................................................................119
Problems ............................................................................................124
Chapter 5 Particle-Fluid Interactions ............................................................... 127

5.1 Fundamental Multiphase Flow Equations................................127
5.1.1 Mass Conservation Equation ........................................128
5.1.2 Linear Momentum Equation for the i-th Phase.............128
5.1.3 Angular Momentum Equation ......................................128
5.1.4 Energy Equation ............................................................128
5.1.5 The Entropy Inequality .................................................129
5.1.6 Generalized Form of the Fundamental Equations ........129
5.2 Applications in Evaporation and Combustion—
Mass Coupling ..........................................................................129
5.2.1 Evaporation or Condensation ........................................130
5.2.2 The D-Square Law ........................................................132
viii Contents
5.2.3 Mass Transfer from Slurry Droplets .............................132

5.2.4 Combustion ....................................................................134
5.3 Linear Momentum Interactions................................................136
5.3.1 Momentum Interactions with Groups of
Particles .........................................................................137
5.4 Angular Momentum Interactions.............................................137
5.4.1 Transient Rotation .........................................................139
5.5 Energy Interactions—Heat Transfer ........................................140
5.5.1 Heat-Mass Transfer Similarity ......................................140
5.5.2 Steady Heat Transfer from Spheres...............................141
5.5.2.1 Solid Spheres ..................................................141
5.5.2.2 Viscous Spheres..............................................142
5.5.2.3 Mixed Convection...........................................143
5.5.2.4 Velocity Slip and Temperature Difference
(Temperature Slip) ..........................................144
5.5.2.5 Blowing Effects ...............................................145
5.5.2.6 Effects of Rotation ..........................................145
5.5.2.7 Effects of Flow Turbulence.............................146
5.5.3 Radiation........................................................................147
5.5.4 Dielectric Heating..........................................................148
5.5.5 Transient Heat Transfer .................................................149
5.5.6 Energy Interactions with Groups of Particles ...............151
5.6 Turbulence Modulation by Particles.........................................152
5.6.1 Experimental Studies ....................................................152
5.6.2 Turbulence Modulation Models ....................................154
References..........................................................................................155
Problems ............................................................................................157
Chapter 6 Particle-Particle Interactions.............................................................163

6.1 Binary Hard-Sphere Particle Collisions ...................................164
6.1.1 Binary Collision Detection............................................164
6.1.2 Impact Efficiency...........................................................167
6.1.3 Particle Velocity Change ...............................................170
6.1.4 Physical Effects of Inter-Particle Collisions ..................173
6.2 Soft-Sphere Particle Collision/Contact ....................................175
6.2.1 Elastic Deformation .......................................................176
6.2.2 Dissipation in the Normal Direction .............................178
6.2.3 Rotation .........................................................................179
6.2.4 Adhesion ........................................................................182
6.2.5 Dissipation in the Tangential Direction ........................182
6.2.6 Particle Coordinate Reference Frame ...........................183
6.2.7 Integration of the Equations of Motion .........................185
6.3 Agglomeration and Flocculation Modelling ............................186
6.3.1 Characteristics of Agglomerates ...................................188
6.3.2 Models of the Agglomeration Process ..........................192
References..........................................................................................199
Contents ix
Chapter 7 Particle-Wall Interactions ................................................................ 205

7.1 Momentum and Energy Exchanges......................................... 206
7.2 Wall Roughness Effects and Irregular Bouncing..................... 211
7.2.1 Modelling Approaches for Irregular Bouncing ............212
7.2.2 Wall Roughness Normal PDF Model............................214
7.3 Particle Deposition and Wall Adhesion....................................219
7.4 Wall Erosion by Particle Impact.............................................. 224
7.4.1 The Finnie Model ......................................................... 227
7.4.2 The Neilson and Gilchrist Model ................................. 228
7.4.3 The Chen Model ........................................................... 228
7.4.4 The Zhang Model ..........................................................229
7.4.5 The Oka et al. Model .....................................................229
References......................................................................................... 234
Chapter 8 Numerical Methods and Modelling Approaches ............................. 239

8.1 Summary of Numerical Methods for Single-Phase Flows.........239
8.2 Hierarchy of Numerical Methods for Multiphase Flows ........ 240
8.3 Particle-Scale Simulation Methods ..........................................245
8.3.1 Summary Resolved Rigid Particles...............................245
8.3.2 Lattice-Boltzmann Method .......................................... 248
8.3.2.1 Treatment of Solid-Fluid Boundaries .............251
8.3.2.2 Description of the Particle Motion .................253
8.3.2.3 Moving Solid-Fluid Boundaries .....................255
8.3.2.4 Solid Boundaries in Close Contact.................256
8.3.2.5 Examples of LBM Applications .....................257
8.3.3 Immersed Boundary Methods.......................................262
8.3.3.1 Fundamentals of the Immersed
Boundary Methods .........................................262
8.3.3.2 Applications of the Immersed
Boundary Methods ........................................ 266
8.4 Point-Particle DNS....................................................................267
8.4.1 Examples of Point-Particle DNS ...................................270
8.5 Point-Particle LES ....................................................................278
8.5.1 Examples of a Point-Particle LES .................................281
8.6 Euler/Euler or Multi-Fluid Approach.......................................283
8.6.1 Volume Averaging Over an Indicator Function ............283
8.6.2 Averaging Over an Ensemble of Particles.....................285
8.6.3 Probability Density Function ....................................... 288
8.6.4 The Boltzmann Equation...............................................289
8.6.5 The Eulerian-Eulerian Governing Equations .............. 290
8.6.6 Mixture Models ............................................................ 292
8.7 Hybrid Euler-Lagrange Approaches........................................ 294
8.7.1 RANS Continuous-Phase Equations............................ 296
8.7.2 Particle Tracking Concepts ...........................................298
8.7.3 Generation of Fluid Turbulent Velocities ..................... 300
8.7.4 Point-Mass Coupling Approaches.................................303
x Contents
8.7.5 Mesh Size Requirements in Two-Way Coupled

Euler-Lagrange Simulations ......................................... 307
8.7.6 Example Euler-Lagrange Simulations: Pneumatic
Conveying ...................................................................... 311
8.8 Applications of Numerical Methods to Fluidized
Bed Reactors ............................................................................. 316
8.8.1 Eulerian-Eulerian Prediction of Fluidized Beds ........... 318
Frictional Stress ............................................................. 318
Solving the Eulerian-Eulerian Equations .....................319
Boundary Conditions ....................................................319
Initial Conditions...........................................................320
Example Simulations.....................................................320
Results: Slugging Fluidized Beds .................................322
Results: Bubbling Fluidized Beds .................................322
Results: Bubble Injection ..............................................322
8.8.2 Eulerian-Lagrangian Predictions for Fluidized
Beds ...............................................................................322
CFD-DEM Model..........................................................325
8.8.3 Example of Simulations.................................................326
References..........................................................................................327
Chapter 9 Experimental Methods ..................................................................... 339

9.1 Light Scattering Fundamentals ................................................343
9.2 Sampling and Offline Methods .................................................350
9.2.1 Imaging Methods, Microscopy .....................................351
9.2.2 Sieving Analysis ............................................................352
9.2.3 Sedimentation Methods .................................................356
9.2.4 Cascade Impactor ..........................................................356
9.2.5 Electric Sensing Zone Method (Coulter principle) .........359
9.2.6 Laser-Diffraction Method ..............................................361
9.3 Online Integral Methods ......................................................... 364
9.3.1 Light Attenuation.......................................................... 364
9.3.2 Cross-Correlation Method ............................................ 366
9.4 Local Measurement Techniques ...............................................369
9.4.1 Isokinetic Sampling .......................................................369
9.4.2 Optical Fiber Probes ......................................................373
9.4.3 Light Scattering Instruments ........................................375
9.4.4 Laser-Doppler Anemometry .........................................379
9.4.5 Phase-Doppler Anemometry .........................................391
9.5 Imaging Techniques and PTV/PIV.......................................... 408
9.6 Summary ..................................................................................420
Note....................................................................................................422
References..........................................................................................422
Problems ............................................................................................427
Contents xi
Chapter 10 Nanoparticles and Nanofluids .......................................................... 431

10.1 Characteristics of Nanoparticles and Nanofluids .....................431
10.2 Effective Transport Properties of Nanofluids ...........................432
10.3 Effective Viscosity ....................................................................433
10.3.1 Experimental Data and Correlations .............................433
10.3.2 Non-Newtonian Behavior..............................................434
10.4 Effective Thermal Conductivity ...............................................435
10.4.1 Experimental Studies ....................................................435
10.4.2 Analytical Expressions ..................................................437
10.4.3 Mechanisms of Thermal Conductivity
Enhancement .................................................................437
10.5 Forced Convection ....................................................................438
10.6 Natural Convection .................................................................. 440
10.7 Boiling ......................................................................................441
10.7.1 Pool Boiling ...................................................................441
10.7.2 Convective Boiling ....................................................... 442
10.7.3 Critical Heat Flux ......................................................... 443
10.8 Effective Diffusivity and Mass Transfer.................................. 443
10.8.1 Analytical Results ........................................................ 444
10.8.2 Experimental Methods and Results ............................. 444
10.9 Specific Heat Capacity............................................................. 445
Summary .......................................................................................... 446
References......................................................................................... 446
Index .......................................................................................................................451
Nomenclature
This is a list of the commonly used symbols in this book. When certain subjects of
multiphase flows utilize their own nomenclature, the commonly used symbols are
used in the pertinent equations with a short description, immediately following.
LATIN SYMBOLS
a particle radius, radius of curvature [m]
A projected area [m 2], Hamaker constant [J]
Ai cross-sectional area at station i [m2]
Ac acceleration parameter [−]
Ar Archimedes number
B transfer number [−]
c speed of sound [m/s], particle circularity [−]
cd specific heat of dispersed phase [J/kg-K]
cp specific heat of continuous phase at constant pressure [J/kg-K]
C mass concentration [−]
CB coefficient for Basset force equation [−]
CD drag coefficient [−]
Cs thermal slip coefficient [−]
CS Smagorinsky coefficient [−]
CLR lift coefficient due to particle rotation [−]
Ct thermal exchange coefficient [−]
Cυm coefficient for virtual mass force equation [−]
Cμ coefficient for turbulence effective viscosity [−]
C ε1 coefficient for production of dissipation [−]
C ε2 coefficient for dissipation of dissipation [−]
C ε3 coefficient for particle production of dissipation [−]
df fringe spacing [m]
D Particle diameter [m]
DA area-equivalent sphere diameter [m]
DM median diameter [m]
DV volume-equivalent sphere diameter [m]
DT throat diameter [m]
D diffusivity [m2/s]
Dε diffusion of dissipation [kg/m · s3]
D average diameter [m]
D32 Sauter mean diameter [m]
e coefficient of restitution [−], charge on an electron [C]
E energy [J], Youngs modulus [Pa]
xiii
xiv Nomenclature
Ei electric field intensity [N/C]

E0 electric field strength [N/C]
f drag factor [−], friction factor [−], frequency [Hz]
fˆ focal length [m]
fi force per unit volume due to particles [N/m3]
f (D) continuous frequency distribution [−]
f (D) discrete frequency distribution [−]
F (D) discrete cumulative distribution [−]
F (D) continuous cumulative distribution [−]
Fd drag force [N]
Fi, F force vector [N]
FT thermophoretic force [N]
gi gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
g0 distribution function [−]
G(xi) filter function [−]
G relative velocity vector [m/s]
Ga Galileo number [−]
h specific enthalpy [J/kg]
h convective heat transfer coefficient [W/m 2K]
hL latent heat [J/kg]
hm mass transfer coefficient [m/s]
H heat of combustion [J/kg], shear modulus [Pa]
I moment of inertia [kg-m 2]
Ir relative turbulence intensity [−], radiation intensity [W/m 2]
J radiosity [W/m 2]
J impulsive force [N]
k stiffness [N/m], turbulence kinetic energy [m 2/s2]
′
keff effective thermal conductivity [W/mK]
k′ thermal conductivity [W/mK]
Ka absorption coefficient [−]
Ks scattering coefficient [−]
Kn Knudsen number [−]
Kwall wall drag multiplier
ℓ inter-particle spacing [m], Eulerian length scale [m]
l length scale [m]
L volume side dimension [m], characteristic length [m]
Lf fractal dimension
L mf mean free path of molecules [m]
m particle mass [kg], refractive index ratio [−]
Nomenclature xv
m mass flow rate [kg/s]

m” mass flux [kg/m 2s]
M molecular weight [kg/mole]
Ma Mach number [-]
n number density (m−3)
N total number [−]
NR spin factor [-]
Nu Nusselt number [−]
ni, n unit outward normal vector [−]
p pressure [Pa]
pA partial pressure of species A [Pa]
P perimeter [m]
Pij pressure strain tensor [Pa]
Ppl yield pressure [Pa]
Pr Prandtl number [−]
Pε production of dissipation [kg/ms3]
q charge [C]
q^. average heat transfer rate over surface [W/m 2]
qc heat flux through the continuous phase [W/m 2]
Q d heat transfer rate to particle [W]
Qs scattering efficiency factor [−]
r radial coordinate [m], particle radius [m]
ri radial vector [m]
Re Reynolds number [−]
Rer Reynolds number based on relative velocity [-]
ReG shear Reynolds number [−]
R ij volume-averaged Reynolds stress [m 2/s2]
RE Eulerian correlation function [−]
R xx cross-correlation function [−]
s source per unit volume
S surface area [m2]
St Stokes number [−], Stanton number [−]
Sh Sherwood number [−]
Sc Schmidt number [−]
t time [s]
T temperature [K]
Ti torque vector [N · m]
TL Lagrangian timescale [s]
u continuous phase velocity [m/s]
xvi Nomenclature
ui, u continuous phase velocity vector [m/s]

U free stream velocity [m/s], superficial velocity [m/s]
υ particle velocity [m/s]
υi , v particle velocity vector [m/s]
υcrit critical velocity [m/s]
υT terminal velocity [m/s]
V volume [m3]
wi velocity of gases at particle surface with respect to surface [m/s]
wi′ velocity of gases at particle surface with respect to droplet center [m/s]
W (υi, xi, t) phase space density [−]
Ẇ Work rate [W]
x wetness [−]
xi spatial coordinate [m]
Y Mass fraction of the dispersed phase [–]
z local loading [−]
Z overall loading [−]
GREEK SYMBOLS
α volume fraction [−]
αc thermal diffusivity of continuous phase [m 2/s]
β thermal expansion coefficient [1/K]
βV parameter for momentum coupling [Ns/m4]
γ flow shear [s-1]; dissipation of granular temperature [kg/ms3]; ratio of
specific heats [−]
ε emissivity [−]
εo permittivity [−]
ε dissipation [m 2/s3]
η damping coefficient, Kolmogorov length scale [m]
ηi impact efficiency [−]
Θ granular temperature [m 2/s2]
κ coefficient for conductivity of granular temperature [kg/ms]
λ mean free path [m], evaporation constant [m 2/s], burning rate [m 2/s];
λt viscosity ratio [−].
Thermal slip parameter []
μ mean value, viscosity [N · s/m 2]
μs solids phase shear viscosity [N · s/m 2]
µ viscosity ratio [−]
ν kinematic viscosity [m 2/s]
νs subgrid kinematic viscosity [m 2/s]
νT turbulent kinematic viscosity [m 2/s]
Ξ dimensionless distance related to boundary [-]
Nomenclature xvii
Π coupling parameter [−]

ρ density [kg/m3], Poisson ratio [−], charge density [C/m 2]
ρ bulk density [kg/m3]
σ standard deviation, capillary force [N/m], charge density [C/m 2], effec-
tive Schmidt number [−], Stephan-Boltzmann constant [W/m 2K4]
σ2 Variance
τ response time (s), solid stress [N/m 2]
τij shear stress tensor [Pa]
τη Kolmogorov timescale [s]
ɸ velocity ratio [−], cross-wise sphericity [−], potential function
ψ elevation angle in PDA [o]
Ψ sphericity [−]
φ,ϕ angle, scattering angle in PDA [o]
φB Brewster angle [o]
φR rainbow angle [o]
ωA mass fraction of species A [−]
Ω relative angular velocity vector [rad/s]
ω angular velocity vector [rad/s]
SUBSCRIPTS
c continuous phase, carrier phase
cl center line
C Collision
d dispersed phase, droplet phase
e effective
E Emitter
II Parallel
m pertains to mass; pertains to film coefficients
n Number
p pressure, computational particle
r radiation, receiver
R rotation
s particle surface
t Tangential
tp transverse, perpendicular
T thermophoresis
SS steady state
∞ far from the particle surface
xviii Nomenclature
OPERATORS
() time average
() volume average, superficial

〈〉 phase average, interstitial
()̃ mass average, filtered
͡
() number averaged
Foreword
Since the publication of the first and second editions of Multiphase Flow with
Droplets and Particles, in 1998 and 2012 respectively, there have been numerous
and important advances in the science and technology of dispersed multiphase
flows. The intent of the third edition is to include these advances, while retaining
the organized and pedagogical approach of the first two editions. All chapters have
been modified to reflect the new knowledge and applications in the field of multi-
phase flows. Chapter 1 was enhanced to include several examples of current and
emerging technologies. Chapters 2 and 3 have been revamped to include more rig-
orous approaches to the continuum hypothesis; the thermodynamic and transport
properties of the phases; and the characteristics of the dispersed phase, especially
their size characterization. The chapter on phase interactions—mass, momentum,
and energy—was split in two, Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, to better elucidate the sev-
eral types of forces that act on the two phases and to present the mass and energy
transfer in a holistic manner. Chapters 6 and 7 were expanded to include all the
modern research findings on the inter-particle and particle-wall interactions as well
as the analytical and numerical modelling of these interactions, including funda-
mental aspects of particle agglomeration and wall deposition with adhesion. Chapter
8 has been completely rewritten to include the significant progress and advances in
single-phase and multiphase numerical modelling of the last 15 years. All the impor-
tant numerical methods are introduced ranging from particle-resolved simulations
to point-mass-based approaches, as applied in engineering practice. The introduced
theory is underpinned by illustrative examples. With 42 original figures and more
than 230 references, this chapter is of the size of a research monograph. Chapter
9 was also revamped to include all the modern experimental methods and instru-
ments. This chapter offers a great deal of heuristics and practical suggestions for
reliable multiphase measurements. Chapter 10 was added—on nanofluids—to cover
the salient characteristics and properties of these dispersed mixtures of base fluids
with nano-size particles that are increasingly becoming important in several appli-
cations ranging from drug delivery to advanced energy conversion systems.
xix
About the Authors
Efstathios E. (Stathis) Michaelides, PhD, is currently the holder of W.A. (Tex)
Moncrief Chair of Engineering at Texas Christian University (TCU) and also
a Fellow of the Ralf Lowe Energy Institute at TCU. He is recognized as a lead-
ing scholar in the areas of multiphase flows and energy conversion, where he has
authored seven monographs. He has published more than 170 journal papers and has
contributed more than 250 presentations in national and international conferences.
He chaired the Fourth International Conference on Multiphase Flows (New Orleans
May 27 to June 1, 2001). He was awarded an honorary M.A. degree from Oxford
University (1983); the ASEE Centennial Award for Exceptional Contributions to the
Profession of Engineering (1993); the Lee H. Johnson award for Teaching Excellence
(1995); the Senior Fulbright Fellowship (1997); the ASME Freeman Scholar award
(2002); the Outstanding Researcher award at Tulane University (2003); the ASME
Outstanding Service award (2007); the ASME Fluids Engineering award (2014); the
ASME-FED Ninetieth Anniversary Medal (2016); and the ASME Edwin F. Church
Medal for “eminent service in increasing the value, importance and attractiveness
of mechanical engineering education.”
Martin Sommerfeld, Dr.-Ing., studied at the Technical University of Aachen,

where he received his doctorate in 1984. Thereafter, he conducted research at
the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan, with a
research fellowship obtained from the Japan Society for Promotion of Science and
the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. At the Institute of Fluid Mechanics of
the University of Erlangen, he headed a research group on two-phase flow from
1986 to 1994 and completed his habilitation. In October 1994 he was appointed as
Professor of Mechanical Process Engineering at the Martin-Luther-University of
Halle-Wittenberg. In 1997 he received the DECHEMA Award 1996 for his contri-
butions to multiphase flow measurements, modelling, and numerical prediction.
Since 2017 he is Professor at the Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg in the
Faculty Process and Systems Technology, leading the Institute Multiphase Flow
Systems. Professor Sommerfeld has organized a continuing series of workshops
on two-phase flow predictions, ASME symposia, the International Conference on
Multiphase Flow (ICMF 2007), and several other international conferences. For
15 years Professor Sommerfeld has organized jointly with ERCOFTAC the “Best
Practice Guidance Seminar CFD for Dispersed Multi-Phase Flows.” He has pub-
lished 220 journal publications and more than 210 conference papers as well as
40 contributions to monographs. His present research activities on multiphase
flows are related to modelling of particulate flows through experimental analy-
sis using modern optical methods and direct numerical simulation for extending
Euler/Lagrange numerical methods with applications range from particulate flows
in transport lines over spraying systems and reactive bubbly flows to particle-laden
flows in bio-medical systems.
xxi
xxii About the Authors
Berend van Wachem, PhD, is currently Chair of Mechanical Process Engineering

at the Otto-von-Guericke University in Magdeburg, Germany. His main research
areas comprise multiphase flow, particle technology, numerical methods, and com-
putational fluid dynamics. He has published more than 100 scientific journal papers
on these topics and has contributed to more than 150 presentations at conferences
on these topics. He is also the main developer of the software package that may
be accessed at www.multiflow.org, to predict the behavior of multiphase flows. He
holds a PhD degree from Delft University of Technology and was Professor at the
Imperial College London prior to moving to Magdeburg, Germany. In his free time,
he enjoys rowing, and he is the proud father of twin daughters.
Acknowledgments
First and foremost, the authors wish to acknowledge the enormous contribution of
the late Professor Clayton T. Crowe, who was the principal author in the first two
editions of the book. Professor Crowe had the vision to write the first version of
the book in a pedagogical way to inspire, educate, and train graduate students in
the area of multiphase flow. The authors also thank Ms. Kyra Lindholm and Mr.
Kendall Bartels of CRC for their continuous guidance and patience with the sub-
mission of the manuscript. Professor Michaelides acknowledges the support of the
W.A. (Tex) Moncrief Chair of Engineering at TCU, which enables him to undertake
such long-term projects and the assistance of several former students—particularly
of Professor Zhigang Feng of the University of Texas at San Antonio—who contrib-
uted to his group’s research on multiphase flows and taught him a great deal about
the flows of particles and drops.
Professor Sommerfeld acknowledges the research work of former PhD students
and postdocs (i.e. Dr. S. Blei, Dr. C.-U. Böttner, Dr. Y. Cui, Dipl.-Ing. M. Dietzel, Dr.
M. Ernst, Dr. C.-A. Ho, Dr. A. Hoelzer, Dr. J. Kussin, Dr. S. Lain, Dr. J. Lipowsky,
Dr. G.A. Novelletto, Dipl.-Ing. S. Schmalfuss, Dr. O. Sgrott, Dr. S. Sübing, and Dr.
M.A. Taborda), which is partly included in the book and is mostly based on finan-
cial support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), German Research
Foundation. Professor van Wachem would like to thank the numerous PhD students
that have graduated under his supervision and postdocs who have assisted with
building the knowledge of his research group and developed theories and codes over
the years, of which some of the results can be found in this book.
Last but not least, all the authors acknowledge the support of their families, who
patiently indulged their writing of this book.
Efstathios E. (Stathis) Michaelides

Martin Sommerfeld
Berend van Wachem
xxiii
1 Introduction
The flow of particles and droplets in fluids is a category of multiphase flows, often
involving multiple components. A component is a chemical species such as nitrogen,
oxygen, water, iron, carbon, or Freon-134a. A phase refers to the solid, liquid, and
vapor state of the matter. The flow of multicomponent, multiphase mixtures covers
a wide spectrum of applications and flow conditions with some examples of single
and multicomponent, multiphase flows listed in Table 1.1.
Although air is composed of several components, it is common practice to con-
sider the ambient air at temperatures below 2,000 K as a single component (79%
nitrogen and 21% oxygen) and assign to it unique thermodynamic (e.g. enthalpy,
entropy, specific heat capacity, etc.) and transport (e.g. viscosity, thermal conductiv-
ity, diffusivity, etc.) properties. Air is treated as a multicomponent mixture at higher
temperatures, where dissociation occurs, and at cryogenic temperatures, where
some of its constituent species may condense.
The flow of mixtures of liquids is also an important industrial application. For
example, water and supercritical carbon dioxide are often used to flush petroleum
from wells (secondary and tertiary oil recovery), a process that gives rise to a multi-
component single- or multiphase flow. If the two liquids are miscible (e.g. water and
ethyl alcohol), then the homogeneous mixture is commonly treated as a single-phase
with modified properties. If the liquids are immiscible (e.g. oil and water), then
the liquid cannot be regarded as homogeneous, and treatment of the flow problem
becomes much more complex. In this situation, one may have “globs,” or drops of oil
in the water, or (at high oil content) “globs,” or drops of water carried in a continuous
matrix of oil. The mixtures of two liquids are generally referred to as emulsions.
Single-component, multiphase flows are typically the flow of a liquid with its
vapor. The most common example is steam-water flows, which are found in a wide
variety of industries. Another example of single-component, multiphase flows are
refrigerants in a refrigeration system.
The flow of fluids of a single phase has occupied the attention of scientists and
engineers for many years. The equations for the motion and thermal properties of
single-phase fluids are well accepted (Navier-Stokes equations), and closed-form
TABLE 1.1
Examples of Single and Multicomponent, Multiphase Flows
Single component Multicomponent
Single-phase Water flow Combustion gases
Nitrogen flow Flow of oil-water emulsions
Multiphase Steam-water flow Air-water flow
Freon-Freon liquid-vapor flow Coal slurry flow
DOI: 10.1201/9781003089278-1 1
2 Multiphase Flows with Droplets and Particles
solutions for specific cases are well documented. A major difficulty is the model-
ling and quantification of turbulence and its influence on mass, momentum, and
energy transfer. The state-of-the art for multiphase flow models is considerably more
primitive in that the correct formulation of the governing equations is still subject to
debate. For this reason, the study of multiphase flows represents a challenging and
potentially fruitful area of endeavor for the scientist or engineer.
Multiphase flows can be subdivided into four categories: Gas-liquid, gas-solid,
liquid-solid, and three-phase flows. Examples of these four categories are shown in
Table 1.2. A gas-liquid flow can assume several different configurations. For exam-
ple, the motion of bubbles in a liquid, in which the liquid is the continuous phase is a
gas-liquid flow. On the other hand, the motion of liquid droplets in a gas is also a gas-
liquid flow. In this case, the gas is the continuous phase. Also, a separated flow, in
which the liquid moves along the bottom of a pipe and the gas along the top is also a
gas-liquid flow. In this situation, both phases are continuous. The first two examples,
bubbles in a liquid and droplets in a gas, are known as dispersed phase flows since
one phase is dispersed, and the other is continuous. By definition, one can pass from
one point to another in the continuous phase while remaining in the same medium.
One cannot pass from one droplet to another without going through the gas.
Gas-solid flows are usually considered to be a gas with dispersed and suspended
solid particles. This category includes pneumatic transport as well as fluidized
beds. Another example of a gas-solid flow is the motion of particles down a chute or
inclined plane. These are known as granular flows. Particle-particle and particle-wall
interactions are much more important than the forces due to the interstitial gas. If the
particles become motionless, the problem reduces to flow through a porous medium
in which the viscous force on the particle surfaces is the primary mechanism affect-
ing the gas flow. An example is a pebble-bed heat exchanger. It is not appropriate to
refer to flow in a porous medium as a gas-solid flow since the solid phase is not in
motion. Gas-solid flow is another example of a dispersed phase flow since the par-
ticles constitute the dispersed phase, and the gas is the continuous phase.
Liquid-solid flows consist of flows in which solid particles are carried by the
liquid and are referred to as slurry flows. Slurry flows cover a wide spectrum of
TABLE 1.2
Categories of Multiphase Flows
Gas-liquid flows Bubbly flows
Separated flows
Gas-droplet flows
Gas-solid flows Gas-particle flows
Pneumatic transport
Fluidized beds
Liquid-solid flows Slurry flows
Hydrotransport
Sediment transport
Three-phase flows Bubbles in a slurry flow
Droplets/particles in gaseous flows
Introduction 3
applications from the transport of coals and ores to the flow of mud. These flows can
also be classified as dispersed phase flows and are the focus of considerable interest
in engineering research. Once again it is not appropriate to refer to the motion of
liquid through a porous medium as a liquid-solid flow since the solid phase is not in
motion.
Three-phase flows are also encountered in engineering problems. For example,
bubbles in a slurry flow give rise to the presence of three phases flowing together.
There is little work reported in the literature on three-phase flows.
The subject of this book is the flow of particles or droplets in a fluid, specifically
the flow of particles and/or droplets in a conveying gas as well as particles in a con-
veying liquid. The other area of dispersed phase flows, namely, bubbly flows, will
not be addressed here. Particulate flows—a term that includes the flows of particles
and drops in fluids—has a wide application in industrial, energy generation, and
environmental processes: The removal of particulate material from exhaust gases
is essential to the control of pollutants generated by power plants fired by fossil
fuels. The efficient combustion of droplets and coal particles in a furnace depends
on the multiple interactions of particles or droplets with air. Some food produc-
tion depends on the drying of liquid droplets to powders in high-temperature gas
streams. The transport of powders in pipes is common to many chemical and pro-
cessing industries.
For many years, the design of systems with particles and droplets was based pri-
marily on empiricism. Since the 1980s, more sophisticated measurement techniques
have led to improved process control and evaluation of fundamental parameters.
Increased computational capability has enabled the development of numerical mod-
els that can be used to complement engineering system design. The improved under-
standing of this engineering subject is a rapidly growing field of technology, which
has far-reaching benefits in upgrading the operation and efficiency of processes,
in system optimization, and in supporting the development of new and innovative
approaches. A great deal more material in multiphase flows and the current status
of multiphase flow technology in industrial applications can be found in the second
edition of the Multiphase Flow Handbook (Michaelides et al., 2017).
1.1 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

The objective of this book is to provide a background in this important area of phys-
ics and engineering, to assist new researchers in the field, and to provide a resource
to those actively involved in the design and development of particulate systems.
In this chapter, examples of multiphase flows in industrial, energy conversion, and
environmental processes are outlined to illustrate the wide application of this tech-
nology and the field of science that supports it.
1.1.1 Spray Drying

Many products such as foods, detergents, and pharmaceuticals are produced using
spray drying (Masters, 1972). This is a process in which a liquid-solid mixture is
atomized as droplets that include the solid particles and is injected in a stream of hot
FIGURE 1.1 Countercurrent flow spray dryer.
gases. The droplets are dried, and their solid content forms a powder. The general
configuration of a countercurrent flow spray dryer is shown in Figure 1.1. A slurry
or concentrated mixture is introduced at the top of the dryer and atomized into
droplets. Hot gases are fed into the bottom with a swirl component and move upward
through the dryer. The droplets are dried as they fall through the hot rising gases to
form a powder, which is collected by precipitation at the bottom and removed as the
final product.
The gas-droplet (particle) flow within the dryer is very complex. The swirling
motion of the gases transports the particles toward the wall, and this may lead to
impingement and accumulation. The temperature distribution in the dryer will
depend on the local concentration of the droplets as they fall through the dryer. High
local concentrations will depress the local gas temperature and lead to less effective
drying. The result may be a non-uniformly dried product reducing product quality.
In practical driers, accumulation of the dried product on the wall is to be avoided
because of uncontrolled drying, material degradation, and the possibility of fire.
Also, in the case of food production, the product cannot become too hot to avoid
altering any proteins or other ingredients and jeopardizing its nutritional value or
its taste.
Even though spray drying technology has been continuously improved through
the years, it is still difficult to scale up models to prototype operation. It is also
difficult to determine, without actual testing, how modifying the design of a con-
ventional dryer will affect performance. There has been significant progress
Introduction 5
(Verdurmen et al., 2004, 2005) in the development of numerical and analytic tools
that adequately simulate the gas-droplet flow field in the dryer. Such models and
the pertinent analyses, which require sophisticated modelling techniques, could be
effectively used to improve the efficiency of current driers, optimize their design,
predict off-design performance, and serve as a tool for scale-up of promising bench-
scale designs to prototype operation.
1.1.2 MaterialS tranSport SySteMS

Materials are transported by either gases or liquids. The transport of materials by
air is known as pneumatic transport, while that by liquids (usually water) is known
as slurry transport. More information and comprehensive reviews of pneumatic
and slurry transport are given in the Multiphase Flow Handbook (Michaelides
et al., 2017).
1.1.2.1 Pneumatic Transport

Pneumatic transport is used widely in industry for the transport of cement, grains,
metal powders, ores, plastic pellets, coal, etc. The major advantage over a conveyer
belt is continuous operation, flexibility of location, and the ability to tap into the pipe
at arbitrary locations. Moreover, such conveying systems are completely closed,
and therefore fine particle emission is avoided during powder handling. Pneumatic
transport has been particularly useful in layouts where obstacles prohibit straight-
line transport or systems that require tapping the line (e.g. for sampling and quality
control) at arbitrary locations.
Flow patterns will depend on many factors, such as solids loading, Reynolds
number, and particle properties. Vertical pneumatic transport corresponds to gas
flow velocities exceeding the fast fluidization velocity. The following regimes that
are illustrated in Figure 1.2 have been identified for horizontal, gas-particle flows:
In homogeneous flow, the gas velocity is sufficiently high that the particles are well
mixed and maintained in a nearly homogeneous state by turbulent mixing, as illus-
trated in Figure 1.2a. As the gas velocity is reduced, the particles begin to settle out
and collect on the bottom of the pipe, as shown in Figure 1.2b. The velocity at which
deposition begins to occur in the pipe is called saltation velocity. After a solids layer
builds up, ripples begin to form due to the gas flow. These ripples resemble “dunes.”
As the solid particles continue to fill the pipe, there are alternate regions where parti-
cles have settled and where they are still in suspension, as shown in Figure 1.2c. This
is called slug flow. Finally, at even lower gas velocities, the solid particles completely
fill the pipe, and the flow of gas represents flow through a packed bed depicted by
Figure 1.2d. At this point, very few solids exit the pipeline.
Pneumatic conveying systems are generally designated as dilute- or dense-phase
transport. Dilute-phase transport is represented by Figure 1.2a. These systems nor-
mally operate on low-pressure differences with low solids loading and high velocity
(higher than the saltation velocity). This implies, even for dilute-phase conveying,
a high risk of wall erosion due to high-velocity particle impacts in conveying ele-
ments used for flow deflection or splitting, such as bends and T-sections. Dense-
phase transport is represented by Figure 1.2c, in which the pressure drop (pressure
FIGURE 1.2 Horizontal pneumatic transport.
loss) and the solids loading are higher. The lower velocity leads to less material
degradation and line erosion.
Many studies on pressure drop in pneumatic transport have been reported, but
there are considerable discrepancies in the reported data. The discrepancies are
primarily due to the different nature of the solid particles and the particle-wall
collisions, which are affected by the particles’ inertia, turbulence, particle shapes,
and wall roughness (Michaelides and Roy, 1987; Michaelides, 1987; Sommerfeld
and Lain, 2015). Extensive experience with the design, installation, and operation
of pneumatic transport systems has given rise to design criteria, which ensure
a functional system. In dense-phase transport, the pressure drop is proportional
to the square of the length of the slug, so various schemes have been devised to
achieve this end. Still, there are situations where extensive experience is insuf-
ficient. One such case is the transport of wet particles, for which little information
is available on the tendency of the particles to stick together, to accumulate on the
wall or in bends, and to plug the pipe. Even more fundamental, there is essentially
no information on the pressure drop associated with the conveying of the dif-
ferent types of wet solids. Hence, even simple conveying of particles comprises
numerous elementary particle-scale processes, which need to be considered, such
as fluid forces on non-spherical particles, inter-particle collisions and long-term
particle contacts, wall collisions associated with possible particle degradation,
erosion, and deposition.
1.1.3 Slurry tranSport

The transport of particles in liquids is identified as slurry flow (Shook and Roco,
1991). The term “hydrotransport” is also used for the transport of large particles like
rock or chunks of coal. The flow of mud is regarded as a slurry flow. Considerable
effort has been devoted to the development of coal-water slurries, which could be
substituted for fuel oils.
Introduction 7
As with pneumatic transport, slurries are classified as homogeneous, heteroge-

neous, moving bed, and stationary bed. Homogeneous slurries normally consist of
small particles, which are kept in suspension by the turbulence of the carrier fluid.
On the other hand, heterogeneous slurries are generally composed of coarser par-
ticles, which tend to settle on the bottom of the pipe. The velocity at which the par-
ticles settle out is the deposition velocity, which is equivalent to the saltation velocity
in pneumatic transport. Of course, because of particle settling, no slurry flow is
completely homogeneous. The rule of thumb is that the slurry is homogeneous if
the variation in particle concentration from the top to bottom of the pipe is less than
20%, but there are no well-established empirical rules that predict whether a slurry
will be homogeneous or not. The moving bed regime occurs when the particles
settle on the bottom of the pipe and move along as a bed. In this case, the flow rate
is considerably reduced because the bed moves more slowly than the fluid above the
bed. Finally, when the particles fill the duct and no further motion is possible, the
flow configuration becomes a stationary bed. This flow is now analogous to the flow
through a porous medium.
The fluid mechanics theory of liquid-solid flows is complex because of the parti-
cle-particle and fluid-particle interaction. Usually, the homogeneous slurry is treated
as a single-phase fluid with modified properties, which depend on solids loading.
Experience shows that the various correlations for pressure drop, which have been
developed for slurry flows can only be used with confidence for slurries with proper-
ties identical to those for which the correlations have been obtained. Extrapolation
of the correlations to other slurries may lead to significant errors in pressure drop
predictions.
1.1.4 Manufacturing anD Material proceSSing

The flow of droplets and particles in gases is important to many manufacturing and
material processing methods, a few of which are described next.
1.1.4.1 Spray Forming

An often-used process in the manufacturing industry is spray forming or spray cast-
ing. During this process, molten metals are atomized into fine droplets, transported by
a high-temperature carrier gas, and deposited on a substrate, as shown in Figure 1.3.
This casting technique has several advantages, including (a) the rapid solidification
of the small metal droplets generates a fine grain structure; (b) improved material
properties of the newly solidified and deposited material; (c) by moving the sub-
strate, it is possible to produce shapes close to the final product, which minimizes
material waste.
The importance of gas-particle flow is evident in spray forming. The state of the
droplet upon impact with the substrate is also important. A completely solidified
droplet will have to be melted to form a homogeneous deposit. A liquid droplet may
splatter, complicating the deposition pattern. Also, the energy associated with the
latent heat of the droplet will have to be removed through the substrate, and this
may slow the cooling of the material on the surface. The cooling rate of the droplets
depends on the droplet size and the local temperature in the spray. Droplets on the
FIGURE 1.3 Spray forming process.
edge of the spray will cool faster than those near the core. The understanding and
ability to predict the movement and thermal behavior of the droplets in the spray
is important to the continued development and optimization of the spray forming
process.
1.1.4.2 Plasma Spray Coating

Another important area of gas-particle flows in manufacturing is plasma coat-
ing. The typical plasma torch consists of a chamber where a plasma is produced.
Particles, introduced into the plasma flow, are melted and advected toward the sub-
strate, as shown in Figure 1.4. The heat transfer and drag on a particle in a plasma is
fundamental to the operation of the torch. At present, plasma torches are designed
primarily by experience and empirical data. The improvement of efficiency, opera-
tion in off-design conditions, optimization, and scale-up will follow the development
of improved multiphase flow models for particles in plasma.
1.1.4.3 Abrasive Water-Jet Cutting

The rapid and accurate cutting of various materials through the use of high-velocity
water jets with entrained abrasive materials is another application of multiphase
flows. A typical abrasive water jet is shown in Figure 1.5. Water issues through
a small orifice from a high-pressure source. Some systems operate at 60,000 psi
(400 MPa) with jet velocities exceeding 900 m/sec. The material is moved while
the jet remains stationary to cut out the desired shapes. The inclusion of an abrasive
Introduction 9
FIGURE 1.4 Plasma spray coating.
FIGURE 1.5 Abrasive water jet cutting.
material (usually garnet) in the jet enables cutting of hard materials, such as con-
crete and glass. The effectiveness of the abrasive water jet depends on the speed
with which the abrasive material impacts the surface. The particles of the abrasive
material are accelerated by the drag of the fluid, which is an intriguing multiphase
flow problem.
1.1.4.4 Synthesis of Nanophase Materials

An emerging area of multiphase flow applications in materials processing is the gen-
eration of nanophase materials and nanofluids. These materials have grain sizes less
than 200 nm and can be produced by the compaction of noncrystalline materials. One
approach that has been investigated to produce nanoclusters is gas phase synthesis.
A second technique is the injection of precursor materials into diffusion or premixed
flames, where the formed particle sizes are in the range 1 to 500 nanometers. The wide
range of sizes results from the lack of control of the steep thermal gradients. A third
approach is with thermal reactors, in which the precursor materials are introduced
into the furnace in the form of an aerosol. Chemical reactions occur as the multiphase
mixture passes through the furnace. The control of particle size is highly dependent
on the regulation of temperature and flow velocity. This represents an important appli-
cation of multiphase flows, in which thermal coupling between the gaseous and par-
ticulate phases is critical for the quality of the formed material. Spray pyrolysis is also
being used in connection with furnace reactors, in which a precursor is atomized and
advected through the furnace. The solvent evaporates and reactions occur between
the multitude of particles to form the desired material. The last approach is promising
because of the possibility of making multicomponent materials. It is important in this
approach to control the temperature, the velocity, and the residence time of the par-
ticles in the furnace, a challenging problem in multiphase flow technology.
1.2 ENERGY CONVERSION AND PROPULSION

There are many examples of droplet and particle flows in energy conversion and pro-
pulsion systems ranging from coal-fired or oil-fired furnaces to rocket propulsion.
A very important application in this area is the formation of sprays (atomization) as
well as the droplet interactions inside the spray, such as droplet breakup and inter-
droplet collisions. Moreover, the wall interaction of sprays is an important elemen-
tary process, causing further atomization and enhancing evaporation.
1.2.1 pulverizeD-coal-fireD furnaceS

Furnaces fired by pulverized coal operate by blowing a coal particle-air mixture
from the corner of a furnace, as shown in Figure 1.6. The corner-fired furnace pro-
duces a swirling flow in the furnace, which enhances mixing and the combustion
reactions. When the particles enter the furnace, the radiative and convective heat
transfer heats the coal particles, and the volatiles (mostly methane) are released.
These gases serve as the primary fuel for combustion. Ultimately, the remaining
char burns, but at a lower rate. Obviously, the effective mixing of the volatiles and
the gas is important for efficient combustion with minimum pollutant production.
The gas-particle flow and heat transfer in the furnace is complex because of the
interaction of heat transfer, combustion reactions, and particle dynamics.
1.2.2 fluiDizeD BeDS

The fluidized bed is another example of an important industrial operation involving
multiphase flows. A fluidized bed consists of a vertical cylinder containing particles
where gas is introduced through the holes of the distributor in the bottom of the cyl-
inder, as shown in Figure 1.7. The gas rising through the bed fluidizes and suspends
Introduction 11
FIGURE 1.6 Corner-fired furnace with pulverized coal.
FIGURE 1.7 Fluidized bed.
most of the particles. At a given flow rate, “bubbles”—regions of low particle den-
sity—appear in the fluidized bed and rise through the bed, thus intensifying the
mixing within the bed. Fluidized beds are used for many chemical processes, such
as coal gasification, combustion, liquefaction, as well as the disposal of organic,
biological, and toxic wastes.
FIGURE 1.8 Solid propellant rocket motor.
Currently the design and operation of a fluidized bed is the result of many years
of experience in building, modifying, and testing to achieve the best performance
possible. The mechanics of the multiphase flow in a fluidized bed has been, and
continues to be, a challenge to the scientist and practicing engineer. Some have cho-
sen to treat this flow as a homogeneous fluid with a modified viscosity and thermal
conductivity. Others have modeled the problem using the discrete particle approach,
in which the motion of each particle is considered. The former approach depends on
developing appropriate relationships for the transport properties of the particulate
phase. The latter approach requires extensive computer capability to include a suffi-
cient number of particles to simulate the heterogeneous system (Michaelides, 2013).
Even though the numerical models for multiphase flow in a fluidized bed appear
promising, there are still many issues that have to be included, such as the cohesive-
ness of particles, the sticking probability of wet particles, as well as particle-wall
interactions.
1.2.3 SoliD propellant rocketS

An example of a gas-particle flow in a propulsion system is the solid propellant rocket
shown in Figure 1.8. The fuel of solid propellant rocket can be aluminum powder, or
another solid powder. When the fine powder particles burn, small droplets—about a
micrometer in diameter—are produced and advected out the nozzle in the exhaust
gases. The presence of these particles lowers the specific impulse of the rocket.
The principles of gas-particle flows and mass transfer are used to design nozzles to
achieve the best specific impulse possible within the design constraints of the system.
1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS

1.3.1 pollution control
The removal of particles and droplets from industrial effluents is a very important
application of gas-particle and droplet flows (Jorgensen and Johnsen, 1981). Several
devices are used to separate particles or droplets from gases.
1.3.1.1 Cyclone Separators

If the particles are sufficiently large (greater than 50 microns), a settling chamber
can be used in which the condensed phase simply drops out of the flowing gas and is
Introduction 13
FIGURE 1.9 Cyclone separator.
collected. For very fine particles (less than 50 microns), the cyclone separator, which
is schematically shown in Figure 1.9, is used. The gas-particle flow enters the device
in a tangential direction at the top of the separator. The resulting vortex motion and
the centrifugal force in the separator causes the particles to migrate toward the wall.
Gravity and secondary flows drive the particles to the bottom of the cyclone, where
they are collected in a bin. The gases converge toward the center and form a vortex
flow, which exits through a pipe at the top of the cyclone body. The performance
of the cyclone is quantified by the particle “cut size”—the particle diameter above
which all the particles are collected. This value may be obtained through a simple
model based on comparisons of the centrifugal force with the inward directed radial
drag force at the imaginary surface of a cylinder extending between outlet pipe
and cyclone bottom. Years of experience in cyclone separator design have resulted
in “standard” designs that, under normal operating conditions, have predictable
performance. Numerical modelling and other analytical approaches are needed to
design cyclones for special applications, such as hot-gas cleanup. Particle behavior
in cyclone separators is strongly affected by wall collisions, inter-particle collisions,
and possible agglomeration. Figure 1.10 shows the results of a numerical simulation
using the Euler/Lagrange approach, which considers four different modelling levels.
A snapshot of the near-wall particle concentration is shown exhibiting the typical
spiral downward transport of the particle in strands or ropes. Two-way coupling
(2-WC) implied passive transport of the particles and four-way coupling includes
the influence of the particle phase on the fluid flow. The right two graphs are results
obtained by different particle agglomeration models (sphere model implies that new
agglomerates are treated as volume equivalent spheres, and history models account
FIGURE 1.10 Distribution of particle concentration within the cyclone body near the walls,
obtained by numerical Euler/Lagrange simulations.
for the temporal evolution of porosity during the agglomeration process). It is obvi-
ous that the near wall particle concentration and the rope development is completely
different in the four modelling cases (Sgrott et al., 2019).
1.3.1.2 Electrostatic Precipitators

The particles issuing from the furnaces of fossil fuel power plants are on the order of
a micron in diameter. To filter out the particles in these applications, an electrostatic
precipitator is generally used. The top view of a conventional electrostatic precipi-
tator is shown in Figure 1.11. High voltage (tens of kilovolts) applied to the wires
creates a corona discharge (mostly a negative corona is used) whereby electrons are
emitted. The surrounding gas molecules are ionized by the so-called impact ioniza-
tion. The ions travel along the electric lines of force to the particles, accumulate on
the particle surface, and electrically charge the particles. This interaction between
ions and particles occurs through convective (field charging) or diffusional trans-
port, depending on the particle size (for particles larger about 0.2 μm field charging
is dominant). The resulting negatively charged particles are transported toward the
positively charged wall by Coulomb forces and deposited on the wall. A porous dust
cake grows on the collection plates to several centimeters thickness. Periodically,
the plates are vibrated (rapped), and the filter cake falls downward by gravity into a
collection bin.
The fluid mechanics of the electrostatic precipitator are quite complex mainly due
to the coupling between fluid flow and electric field as illustrated in the three parts
of Figure 1.12 (from Böttner and Sommerfeld, 2003). The particle-fluid interaction
Introduction 15
FIGURE 1.11 Schematic diagram of an electrostatic precipitator.
FIGURE 1.12 Numerically simulated flow field (coupled flow and electric field) and particle
motion through an electrostatic precipitator (a) flow field through the channel in the initial
part showing streamlines and electric field strength as gray scale; (b) trajectories of particles
with diameters between 0.9 and 1.5 μm; (c) trajectories of particles with diameters between
12 and 20 μm. The inflow velocity is 0.5 m/s, the applied voltage 60 kV, negative corona,
initial particle charge 66% of full charge.
obviously influences the particle concentration and the charge density. These, in
turn, affect the electric field. Flow turbulence is also introduced by the structural
ribs in the system and the corona discharge. The effects of turbulence are visible in
the calculated particle trajectories (parts b and c), where the smaller particles exhibit
stronger fluctuations. The larger particles are faster separated due to their higher
level of charging, as shown in part c of the figure.
1.3.1.3 Scrubbers
Another pollution control device is the wet gas scrubber, which is designed to
remove particulate as well as gaseous pollutants. Scrubbers come in many configu-
rations and the venturi scrubber, shown in Figure 1.13, represents one of the simple
designs. Liquid (atomized by the airstream) or droplets are introduced upstream of
the venturi or in the narrow throat, and then the particles carried in the flue gas are
captured by the droplets. The process of particle-droplet collisions is very important
at this stage. The collision rate depends mainly on the droplet and particle concen-
trations, as well as the relative velocity between them. During this interaction, the
impact efficiency is important since the particles are normally much smaller than
the droplets and may bypass the droplet with the relative flow yielding no collision.
Therefore, the size ratio needs to be properly adapted in order to provide sufficiently
high collision rates. The droplets, being much larger than the particles, can be more
easily separated from the flow.
Sulfur dioxide gas is also removed from the combustion products in coal power
plants by using a “shower” of water droplets mixed with lime. The sulfur dioxide
is absorbed on the surface of the droplets and reacts with the lime to form CaSO3,
which is a solid. The droplets are collected in tanks by precipitation, and then the
solid CaSO3 particles also precipitate in the aqueous solution and are removed. The
remaining water is reused to generate droplets in the scrubber.
1.3.2 fire SuppreSSion anD control

Fire suppression systems in buildings usually consist of nozzles located in ceilings
that are activated in the event of a fire, as shown in Figure 1.14. Usually, the high
temperatures produced by the fire melt a wax seal in the nozzle, and this allows the
water to flow. The suppression systems are designed to deliver the amount of water
FIGURE 1.13 Schematic diagram of a venturi scrubber.

Introduction 17
FIGURE 1.14 Ceiling sprinkler fire suppression system.
flux per unit area (required delivery density) to extinguish the fire. This design cri-
terion is generally established by experiment. The phenomena associated with the
spray are complex. As the droplets are projected toward the fire, they are evaporated
by the hot gases and may not penetrate to reach the location of the fire. The evapo-
rating droplets also cool the gases and reduce the radiative thermal feedback to the
flame. Modelling fire suppression by droplets is an active area of research.
1.4 BIO-MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

Forms and regimes of multiphase flows are also met in biological and medical
applications. Most important are the airflow in the respiratory system and the blood
flow in the cardiovascular system. The flow of red blood cells in the human arteries
is rather complex due to the high number density of platelets, their biconcave shape,
and their size with respect to the arterial capillaries (red blood cell dimensions:
diameter about 7–8 µm and their thickness is about 2.5 µm). Particles entering the
human respiratory system are typically relatively small with respect to the airway
dimensions. However, both the blood vessels as well as the airways are flexible and
may deform.
1.4.1 Dry powDer inhalerS

Inhaler devices are used for drug delivery directly to the human lungs and airways
in the therapy of asthma and other chronicle pulmonary diseases. Three main types
of inhaler devices are currently in use: (a) the pressurized metered dose inhaler
(pMDI); (b) the dry powder inhaler (DPI); and (c) the soft mist inhaler (SMI) oper-
ating with a pressurized spray. Dry powder inhalers are low-cost, cheap, and flex-
ible devices, which are easy to use for delivering particulate drugs directly to the
lung. However, in DPI applications, only about 30%–50% of the loaded dose reaches
deep into the lung and is effectively deposited. The active pharmaceutical ingredi-
ent (API) particles that can be administered via dry powder inhalers have to exhibit
aerodynamic particle diameters in the size range up to about 5 μm, as only particles
of this size range can reach the tiny airways of the deep lung. The performance and
efficiency of DPIs is strongly related to the way of drug delivery and the API formu-
lations being used (Daniher and Zhu, 2008).
There are three kinds of dry powder inhalers that are classified based on the
drug powder delivery, namely, single-dose inhalers, multi-unit dose inhalers, and
reservoir-based systems. In the case of single-dose inhalers, the required amount of
API is loaded into capsules or blisters, which then, before the inhalation, are placed
into the inhaler and then pricked by needles or broken in order to release the drug
formulation. Very specific ways of drug powder delivery is done for multi-unit-dose
devices by a rotating disk or multiple blisters. Finally, reservoir inhaler types have
a powder storage with hundreds of doses. Just prior to inhalation, one dose is trans-
ported into a small pre-chamber, wherefrom the powder dose is withdrawn by the
breathing airstream (Daniher and Zhu, 2008).
The most frequently found drug formulations in dry powder inhalers are carrier-
based systems (i.e. the drug powder is blended with larger carrier particles in a
mixer, normally with carrier diameters between about 50 µm to 200 µm, so that the
fine drug particles are homogeneously distributed on the carrier surface). On the
other hand, a fine API powder may be used directly.
The inhaler should perform in such a way that the drugs are detached from the
carrier, or if drug agglomerates exist, they are destroyed (also called aerosolization).
These processes essentially determine the inhaler efficiency, characterized by the
fine particle fraction (FPF) being eventually delivered to the lung airways. Hence,
in order to deliver a high amount of fine drug particles, a proper balancing of the
adhesive forces between carrier and drug particles and the removal forces during
the inhalation process is necessary. This also applies to the adhesion among drug
particles in situations where they form clusters and agglomerates. Thus, adhesive
interactions between API particles and between carrier particles and API play a key
role in these kind of formulations (Cui et al., 2014; Zellnitz et al., 2015).
The flow structure inside inhalers is mostly very complex and highly turbulent
depending on the design, and there are numerous designs available on the market
(Islam and Cleary, 2012). The typical maximum inhalation flow rate is about 70 L/
min, depending on the health conditions and the age of the patient. Aerosolization
of the drugs may be realized by fluid stresses induced by the breathing airflow or
collisions with device walls. The fluid dynamic detachment of drug powder from a
carrier (or the breakage of agglomerates) in the very complex airflow of inhalers is
realized by acceleration/deceleration of the clusters (i.e. inertial forces), flow shear
gradients, and turbulent stresses (Telko and Hickey, 2005). Drug detachment or
agglomerate breakage during wall impact is mainly caused by inertial effects,
which depend on impact velocity and angle (Yang et al., 2015; Ariane et al., 2018).
Introduction 19
If aerosolization does not take place, the drug particles sticking on the carrier
surface or existing in agglomerated form will deposit together in the mouth and
throat region.
The deposition of fine drug powder on the inhaler walls may constitute a problem
and reduce the emitted fine particle dose. For this reason, and for the understanding
of the processes within inhalers as a basis for optimization, CFD (computational
fluid dynamics) has been applied to dry powder inhalers in the last fifteen years.
A typical capsule-based swirl-type inhaler is shown in Figure 1.15 together
with a steady-state RANS (Reynolds-Averaged-Navier-Stokes) solution of the
complex flow field within the inhaler at a flow rate of 70 L/min (Sommerfeld
et al., 2019). In this single-dose inhaler, the capsule with the required dose of
API is initially placed in the capsule chamber and, just before breathing, is
pricked from the side faces with needles to allow drug release. When breathing
starts, the flow enters from the outside through two tangential inlets into the
swirl chamber, inducing a strongly swirling flow that can easily reach 50 m/s.
With this flow, the capsule is lifted and begins to rotate, releasing the powder
through the holes in the caps of the capsule. These particles will, depending on
their size, frequently collide with the walls (Sommerfeld et al., 2019) and are
carried through the grid and the mouthpiece, eventually entering the oral cavity
and lung airways of a human. The grid causes particle-wall collisions inducing
dispersion and daps the swirling motion to avoid particle-wall collisions in the
mouthpiece and have a pressure recovery. Consequently, the flow in inhalers is
very complex, and particle transport is affected by numerous elementary pro-
cesses, including wall collisions, inter-particle collisions, de-agglomeration, and
a possible wall deposition.
FIGURE 1.15 Configuration of a typical capsule-based swirl-type inhaler, brand name

Cyclohaler ® (left), with a typical flow field at 70 L/min (right).
1.4.2 airway DepoSition

The understanding of fine particle transport and deposition in the upper respira-
tory tract of the lung is important for aerosolized delivery of drug powders as well
as unwanted exposure to environmental aerosols. Moreover, the developed airflow
within the lung is rather complex and strongly time dependent. In addition, the air-
way walls expand and contract during inhalation and exhalation, respectively. The
temporal variation of inhalation and exhalation flow rate, as well as the continuous
variation of the airway cross-section (due to the continuous branching) is naturally
coupled with transitions from turbulent to laminar flow and vice versa. The major
parts of the human lung system, which are shown in Figure 1.16, are the extra-
thoracic region with the nasal and oral cavities and the pharynx; and the tracheo-
bronchial region with the trachea, the bronchi, and the bronchioles, which are also
called conduction zone. Finally, there is the alveolar region, also named pulmonary
FIGURE 1.16 Anatomical regions of the complete human pulmonary system and airway
generation model.
Introduction 21
region. Additionally, in Figure 1.16, the generation number is specified, indicating

the number of branching. The particles entering the lung airways during an inhala-
tion process are typically less than about 10 μm, but those reaching deep into the
lung are smaller than 5 μm. The location of deposition depends on the particle size
and the local flow conditions, that is, laminar or turbulent. The mechanisms for
particle deposition are numerous, namely, inertia or impaction, interception, sedi-
mentation (gravity effect), and Brownian diffusion. In the extrathoracic region and
the upper airways, up to the bronchus region, particle inertia and interception are
the dominant mechanism. In the pulmonary region with narrow airway passages
and low Reynolds numbers, Brownian diffusion is the most relevant mechanism for
deposition (Hussain et al., 2011). Due to the sticky mucus layer, the particles will
always stick to the lung walls.
Fine particle transport in lung airways is governed by the drag force with slip
correction, the shear-induced lift forces, and the additional wall effects in drag and
lift (Sommerfeld et al., 2021). Another issue influencing aerosol transport is the
humid environment in the lung system. Hence, liquid droplets may be subject to
evaporation/condensation and solid particles will swell (i.e. increase their size) upon
absorption of water vapor.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is an efficient analysis tool for fine particle
deposition in lungs. The Euler/Lagrange approach, which is explained in detail on
Chapter 8 (Sommerfeld et al., 2008), is the most common choice to simulate the air-
flow and aerosol transport in the human airways (Kolanjiyil and Kleinstreuer, 2016;
Longest et al., 2019; Islam et al., 2020) since it can provide high resolution and size-
dependent information of localized deposition. A complete inhalation period is of
course an unsteady process and, therefore, numerically very expensive. Most of the
studies are done for distinct typical flow rates. Direct numerical simulations (DNS)
is rarely applied and only usable for small sections of the airway system. More
common to analyze aerosol lung deposition are large eddy simulations (LES) and
RANS (Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes) approaches in combination with various
available turbulence closures (Koullapis et al., 2016; Islam et al., 2020; Sommerfeld
et al., 2021).
In doing such numerical computations with simplifications in the boundary con-
ditions, such as stationary flow and rigid geometry (i.e. no flexible airways), one
has to make first the choice for the region of interest, which is determined by the
numerical method applied and the objective of the planned studies. This is also a
consequence of medical imaging resolution and computational cost constraints. It
should be noted that lung geometries are very much person specific and also depend
on the health condition of the person.
1.5 SUMMARY AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS BOOK

There are many other applications of the flow of particles and droplets in fluids that
have not been addressed here. Those discussed in the previous sections illustrate the
technological significance of this important area of fluid mechanics.
The objective of this book is to present the fundamental concepts and approaches
to address fluid particle flows. Chapter 2 provides important definitions to
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APPENDIX A
PROTOCOL SIGNED FEBRUARY 23, 1904
Article I
For the purpose of maintaining a permanent and solid friendship
between Japan and Korea, and firmly establishing peace in the Far
East, the Imperial Government of Korea shall place full confidence in
the Imperial Government of Japan and adopt the advice of the latter
in regard to improvements in administration.
Article II
The Imperial Government of Japan shall in a spirit of firm
friendship ensure the safety and repose of the Imperial House of
Korea.
Article III
The Imperial Government of Japan definitely guarantees the
independence and territorial integrity of the Korean Empire.
Article IV
In case the welfare of the Imperial House of Korea or the territorial
integrity of Korea is endangered by aggression of a third Power or
internal disturbances, the Imperial Government of Japan shall
immediately take such necessary measures as the circumstances
require; and in such cases the Imperial Government of Korea shall
give full facilities to promote the action of the Imperial Japanese
Government.
The Imperial Government of Japan may, for the attainment of the
above-mentioned object, occupy, when the circumstances require it,
such places as may be necessary from strategical points of view.
Article V
The Governments of the two countries shall not in future, without
mutual consent, conclude with a third Power such an arrangement
as may be contrary to the principles of the present Protocol.
Article VI
Details in connection with the present Protocol shall be arranged
as the circumstances may require between the Representative of
Japan and the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs of Korea.
APPENDIX B
PROTOCOL SIGNED AUGUST 22, 1904
Article I
The Korean Government shall engage as Financial Adviser to the
Korean Government, a Japanese subject recommended by the
Japanese Government, and all matters concerning finance shall be
dealt with after his counsel being taken.
Article II
The Korean Government shall engage as diplomatic adviser to the
Department of Foreign Affairs, a foreigner recommended by the
Japanese Government, and all important matters concerning foreign
relations shall be dealt with after his counsel being taken.
Article III
The Korean Government shall previously consult the Japanese
Government in concluding treaties and conventions with foreign
Powers, and in dealing with other important diplomatic affairs, such
as the grant of concessions to, or contracts with, foreigners.
APPENDIX C
CONVENTION OF JULY 24, 1907
The Governments of Japan and Korea, with a view to the early

attainment of the prosperity and strength of Korea, and to the speedy
promotion of the welfare of the Korean people, have agreed upon
and concluded the following stipulations:—
Article I.—The Government of Korea shall follow the

direction of the Resident-General in connection with the
reform of the administration.
Article II.—The Government of Korea shall not enact any
law or ordinance, or carry out any important administrative
measure, except with the previous approval of the Resident-
General.
Article III.—The judicial affairs of Korea shall be kept
distinct from the ordinary administrative affairs.
Article IV.—No appointment or dismissal of Korean
officials of the higher grade shall be made without the consent
of the Resident-General.
Article V.—The Government of Korea shall appoint to
official positions under it such Japanese as may be
recommended by the Resident-General.
Article VI.—The Government of Korea shall not engage
any foreigner without the consent of the Resident-General.
Article VII.—The first clause of the Agreement between
Japan and Korea, signed on the 22d day of the 8th month of
the 37th year of Meiji, is herewith abrogated.
In faith whereof, the undersigned, duly authorized by their
respective Governments, have signed this agreement and
affixed their seals thereto.
(L. S.) Marquis Hirobumi Ito,
H. I. J. M’s. Resident-General.
The 24th day of the 7th month of the 40th year of Meiji.
(L. S.) Yi Wan-yong,
H. I. K. M’s. Minister, President of State.
The 24th day of the 7th month of the 11th year of Kwang-
mu.
[The clause in the Protocol of August, 1904, which is declared

abrogated by the seventh article of the new Convention, apparently
refers to the promise of the Korean Government to engage a
Japanese subject as their official Financial Adviser. It was, of course,
rendered unnecessary by the new Convention.]
APPENDIX D
SUMMARY OF THE MOST RECENT MEASURES
FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF THE KOREAN
GOVERNMENT
The revised Organic Regulations of the Korean Government,

published by an extra of the Official Gazette (December 23, 1907),
cover the five Administrative Departments for Home Affairs, Finance,
Justice, Education, and Agriculture, Commerce and Industry. As for
the Cabinet and War Office, they had not as yet reported any
changes introduced in their Regulations. In addition to the particular
Organic Regulations for each department there are Regulations
common to all the Departments, the War Office not being excepted.
The latter Regulations consist of 21 articles which outline the
responsibility and duty of the Ministers, Vice-Ministers, and other
officials, and fix the date for the enforcement of all the revised
Regulations for January 1, 1908. Regulations for the organization of
the different offices under the Departments of Home, Finance, and
Justice were promulgated at the same time, including the Provincial
Governor’s Office, Metropolitan Police Office and Customs Office.
To give a brief epitome of the Regulations for each administrative
department: The Home Office is to contain three bureaus for local
affairs—Police, Engineering, and Hygienics, with a Director for each.
The rest of the staff consists of 12 secretaries, 5 commissioners, 5
engineering experts, 3 translators, 62 clerks, 10 police sergeants, 5
assistant engineering experts and a number of policemen. The
Finance Department contains the three bureaus of Revenue,
Accounts, and Managing Finance, each with a Director. Thirteen
secretaries, 7 commissioners, 2 translators, and 100 clerks
constitute the staff of this Department. The Department of Justice will
have bureaus for Civil and Criminal Affairs, and each bureau is
controlled by a Director. The regular staff of this department
comprises 9 secretaries, 4 commissioners, 3 translators, and 40
clerks. In the Department of Education there are bureaus for School
Affairs and for Edition and Compilation, with a Director each. The
regular staff includes 7 secretaries, 4 commissioners, 3 engineering
experts, 28 clerks, and 6 assistant engineering experts. The
Department of Agriculture, Commerce and Industry will be divided
into five bureaus—namely, Agriculture, Commercial and Industrial,
Forestry, Mining, and Marine Products; and each bureau has a
Director at its head. The regular staff of this Department includes 8
secretaries, 5 commissioners, 15 technical experts, 1 translator, 49
clerks, and 60 assistant technical experts.
In addition, each Department has a Minister’s Chamber, and a
private secretary will be appointed to each Minister of State.
The Regulations for the Financial Department provide for the
creation of a Temporary Bureau for investigation of the national
resources, with a staff consisting of a Director, a secretary, 3
commissioners, and 5 technical experts.
More detailed regulations for the different offices under these
departments are to be issued later.
The most recent advices from Korea report that the rioting, arson,
and murder, headed by the disbanded Korean soldiers, is greatly
diminished, and that the country is reverting to its normal condition
so far as deeds of disorder and violence are concerned. The visit of
the Crown Prince of Japan greatly gratified the pride and appeased
the fears of the Imperial family and Yang-bans of Korea. Before
leaving Seoul, Prince Ito laid the corner-stone of the new building of
the Young Men’s Christian Association in that city. The Crown Prince
of Korea, the son of Lady Om, whose guardianship Prince Ito has
taken upon himself, accompanied by Ito, arrived in Tokyo, where he
is to be placed in the Peers School, and was received with
distinguished honors both by the Imperial Family of Japan and by the
populace. The reports also show that the trade relations have had a
significant increase between the two countries; but the most
significant item is this: the exports of Korean products, which are for
the most part rice and beans, exceed the imports from Japan by
some 3,000,000 yen. The establishment of friendly relations between
the two countries appears, therefore, to be moving forward rapidly;
and the political and economical redemption of the peninsula
appears to have been successfully begun. The first and, of
necessity, most doubtful and difficult in the stages of the Passing of
the Old Korea may therefore be said to have been already
accomplished.
FOOTNOTES
[1] For the following description of Seoul, besides my own
observations, I am chiefly indebted to a series of articles
published during our stay there by Dr. G. Heber Jones in the
Seoul Press.
[2] This may seem incredible, but it is a fact that, as late as the
spring of 1907, even a basket of fruit could not be sent to the
Emperor with the confidence that the eunuchs and palace
servants would not steal it all. At every garden-party the dishes
and even the chairs had to be carefully watched.
[3] It is now proper to say, since his own abdication and the
Convention of July, 1907, have followed, that the Korean Emperor
after repeated denials, confessed at the time to a faithful foreign
friend (not a Japanese) that he had given to Mr. Hulbert a large
sum of money to execute a certain commission the nature of
which he kept secret. In spite of this friend’s importunate urging
and vivid representation of what the consequences of the act
might be to himself and to his family, His Majesty refused to
telegraph a recall of the commission. He did, however, so far yield
to the same pleading as to agree not to furnish a further sum of
money which had been asked in behalf of the influence of another
“foreign friend,” the editor of the most violently anti-Japanese
newspaper.
[4] This document probably emanated from the same press in
Seoul—conducted by a subject of Japan’s friendly ally, Great
Britain—from which came the lying bulletin that afterward caused
so much bloodshed on the morning of Friday, July 19th. It is a
comfort to know that this same editor has since been indicted by
his own Government for the crime of stirring up sedition,
condemned to give bonds, and threatened with deportation if his
offences are repeated.
[5] Hulbert, The History of Korea, I, p. 368.
[6] Japan, I, p. 69 f.
[7] See The History of the Empire of Japan, (volume prepared
for the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago, 1903), p. 38 f.
[8] Ibid., p. 47.
[9] The History of the Empire of Japan, p. 278 f.
[10] Ibid., p. 280.
[11] See Griffis, The Hermit Nation, p. 159.
[12] See The History of the Empire of Japan, p. 304.
[13] Japan, IV, p. 207.
[14] See The History of the Empire of Japan, p. 403 ff.
[15] This is on the authority of Mr. D. W. Stevens, whose
acquaintance with the facts is most accurate and full.
[16] China’s Intercourse with Korea from the XVth Century to
1895, p. 1 f.
[17] Foreign Relations of the United States, 1871, p. 112.
[18] Quoted from the paper referred to above.
[19] For this account, as here given verbatim, I am indebted to
the Hon. D. W. Stevens, who was at the time of my visit, “Adviser
to the Korean Council of State and Counsellor of the Resident-
General.”
[20] The list of these reforms is given in the volume of the U. S.
Foreign Relations, containing the report sent to the United States
by Minister Sill, September 24, 1894.
[21] International Law and Diplomacy of the Russo-Chinese
War, p. 43 f.
[22] Hershey, International Law and Diplomacy of the Russo-
Chinese War, p. 44 f.
[23] Ibid., p. 45 f. See also the account of Dr. K. Asakawa, The
Russo-Japanese Conflict, p. 263 ff.
[24] So Mr. Whigham, in his admirable book on Manchuria and
Korea. (London, Isbiter & Company), p. 123.
[25] The Passing of Korea, p. 167.
[26] See on this and allied points, the lecture delivered by Mr.
Rockhill, at the United States Naval War College, Newport,
August 5, 1904.
[27] The Passing of Korea, p. 210 f.
[28] Manchuria and Korea, p. 119.
[29] See Appendix A for its text.
[30] See Appendix B.
[31] War and Neutrality in the Far East, p. 216 f.
[32] See especially Hulbert, The Passing of Korea, p. 464 f.
[33] The narrative which follows may be trusted to correct most
of these misstatements. But among them, some of the more
important may here be categorically contradicted. Such are, for
example, the statements that armed force was used; that General
Hasegawa half drew his sword to intimidate Mr. Han; that
Hagiwara seized the latter with the aid of gendarmes and police;
that the Minister of Agriculture continued to hold out; that he and
Minister Pak, during the conference, withdrew from the Japanese
Legation and betook themselves to the Palace, denouncing the
compact (something no one acquainted with the geographical
relations of the two places would be likely to assert with a sincere
belief); that the Emperor ordered the consenting Ministers to be
assassinated; that Japanese troops patrolled the streets all night,
etc., etc. One curiously characteristic error of Mr. Hulbert is
involved in the statement, published in one of the papers of the
United States, which makes his commission by the Korean
Emperor to lodge an appeal with President Roosevelt the cause
of hastening the Japanese Government in their iniquitous coup
d’état. The truth is that the Japanese Government had made all
the preparations for Marquis Ito’s departure, and the plan
afterward carried out had been carefully formulated, weeks before
it was known that Mr. Hulbert was going to the United States. The
Marquis was only waiting the return of Baron Komura to Japan
before leaving for Korea. No thought whatever was at any time
given to Mr. Hulbert. It is, in general, late now to say that the
efforts of those “friends of Korea,” who have taken the Korean ex-
Emperor’s money while holding out to him the hope of foreign
intervention, have done him and his country, rather than Japan,
an injury impossible to repair.
[34] In order to understand the following negotiations and all
similar transactions conducted in characteristic Korean style, it
should be remembered that delay, however reasonable it may
seem or really be, is in fact utilized for purposes not of reflection
and judicious planning for future emergencies, but the rather for
arranging intrigues, securing apparent chances of escape from
the really inevitable, with the result of an increasing unsettlement
of the Imperial mind.
[35] He was preparing to go when the Minister of the
Household called with a message requesting the Marquis to
postpone the conclusion of the Treaty two or three days.
[36] None of the party gathered in the council chamber saw Mr.
Han after that. It seems from the accounts subsequently given by
Palace officials that a little later Mr. Han went upstairs still deeply
agitated. His evident purpose was to gain access to the Emperor,
which, as he had not requested an audience, was a flagrant
violation of etiquette from the Korean point of view. But the poor
man in his confusion turned the wrong way and stumbled into
Lady Om’s quarters. Some of the officials led him to a small
retiring room, where he spent the night. The next morning it was
officially announced that he had been dismissed from office in
disgrace and would be severely punished. Marquis Ito
immediately begged that the Emperor would pardon him, and, in
deference to this request, Mr. Han was permitted to go into
retirement with no other punishment than the loss of his office.
The whole proceeding was one of those things which apparently
can happen only in Korea and not excite any one’s special
wonder. No one seemed to know precisely why the Minister was
punished. He was amiable, not very strong mentally, but well-
meaning and of comparatively good repute; he had done his best
to carry out the Emperor’s wishes as he understood them, and,
having failed, as was inevitable, his grief was the best proof
possible of his sincerity; and one would think it might have excited
sufficient pity to preclude resentment. However, it should be
added that the sincerity manifest in Mr. Han’s grief did not extend
to his memory or his powers of narration. At least that is an
inference which one may draw from certain published accounts of
these occurrences—Mr. Han having seemingly been the fountain-
head of the information.
[37] The Marquis’ reasons for refusing hardly need explanation.
Japan had already secured some measure of control over the
internal administration of Korea by previous arrangements. The
acceptance of the proposed amendment would have been
virtually an abrogation of these arrangements, notably of the most
important portion of the Protocols of February 23 and August 22.
To that, of course, the Marquis could not agree. Besides this, the
control of Korea’s foreign relations necessarily required some
measure of control and guidance over the administration of her
internal affairs. The relations between external and internal
affairs, their frequent interdependence, is so intimate, that it would
have been a grave mistake to assume the obligations which the
one imposed without the power to guard against complications
which might follow from maladministration of the other. As the
case stands, the insertion of the word “primarily,” while soothing
Korean susceptibilities, does not affect the control of the
Protectorate in any material respect.
[38] The following facts with regard to the possession of the
Imperial seal of Korea and its affixing to this important document,
are given on the authority of Mr. D. W. Stevens. They are a
complete refutation of the charges which have been made
regarding this part of the entire transaction. It was the
unavoidable delay in bringing the seal to the Palace which gave
rise to these extraordinary stories. “What actually happened,”
says Mr. Stevens, “was this. While the treaty was being copied,
Mr. Pak went to the telephone and directed the clerk in charge of
the seal at the Foreign Office to bring it to the Palace. After some
delay he went again to the telephone and repeated the order. At
the time the only two persons in the office were the clerk in
charge of the seal and Mr. Numano, my Japanese assistant. Both
were just then reading in the room where the clerk slept and
where the seal was kept. The telephone bell rang, and the clerk
who answered it informed Mr. Numano that Mr. Pak had ordered
the seal to be brought to the Palace. He was putting on his street
clothing preparatory to obeying the order when the Chief of the
Diplomatic Bureau of the Foreign Office came into the room and
asked the clerk where he was going. The clerk informed him,
whereupon he went to the telephone and called up Mr. Pak. He
implored the latter not to agree to the Treaty and, finally, receiving
Mr. Pak’s peremptory order to cease interfering, threw himself
down upon the clerk’s bed in great grief. After this, there was no
further interruption from any quarter, and the seal was taken
quietly to the Palace.”
It throws light upon the control and use of this seal to observe
that, when in the summer of 1907 he was committed to the
responsibility for the Commission to The Hague Conference by
the fact that the commissioners were ready to prove their Imperial
authorization by showing the Imperial seal, His Majesty did not
admit this as evidence in proof of their claim. Nevertheless, there
is no doubt that this use of his seal was also with his knowledge
and permission. And, now, in connection with the various details
inaugurated under the new Treaty which followed this violation of
the Treaty of November, 1905, we are told that henceforth the
Imperial seal will be kept in a safe especially prepared for it, and
carefully protected from intrusion.
[39] It is a significant fact that this memorial which is here
followed very closely—and in the most important places even
literally—has received no attention from the hostile critics of
Japan. It would seem as though neither Mr. Hulbert nor Mr. Story
is aware of the existence of such a memorial. This is the more
remarkable in the case of the former, because he was for years
resident in Seoul, was familiar with the Korean language, and was
gathering material for his written account of the affair while upon
the ground.
[40] It will, therefore, clearly appear that no one acquainted with
this memorial can honestly place any confidence in His Majesty’s
subsequent denials of the significance of these facts. Shall we not
also be obliged to add, that no one who is acquainted with the
memorial is entitled to the confidence of any one else, if he puts
confidence in the denials of the Emperor. Amazement at the
audacity of the falsehoods which have been told with regard to
this historically important transaction would seem to be the fitting
attitude of mind.
[41] This part of the memorial agrees closely with the
statements in the first part of the chapter, as to what was then
said.
[42] The purpose of this significant Memorial, we repeat, is self-
evident. The Ministers, who had agreed to the Treaty by the
Emperor’s commands and with his concurrence and approval,
were being attacked as traitors. The Emperor himself was secretly
favoring the attack and endeavoring to create the impression that
he had not agreed to the Treaty, but that it was the work of the
recreant Cabinet without his approval. The Memorial forced him
to abandon that position once and for all. As before stated, it was
officially promulgated with the Imperial sanction, and should have
ended all controversy at once. In any country but Korea, and with
any but the class of writers whom these incidents have
developed, that would have been its result.
[43] An amusing illustration of the ex-Emperor’s way of filling
his privy purse is found in the following authentic incident. At one
time the large sum of 270,000 yen was wanted in cash to pay a
bill for silks and jades which, it was alleged, had been purchased
in China for Lady Om. When the request was made to exhibit the
precious goods which had cost so enormous a sum, and which
were going to make so large an unexpected drain upon
insufficient revenues, the show of materials was entirely
unsatisfactory. But, if not the goods, at least the bill itself could be
produced. A bill was then brought to light, with the items made out
in due form, but by a Chinese firm of merchants in Seoul instead
of in China. The Chinese Consul-General, on being inquired of,
replied that there was indeed such a reputable Chinese firm in the
city; and he desired to have the matter further investigated lest
the credit and business honor of his countrymen might suffer by
connection of this sort with His Majesty’s efforts to obtain ready
money. Investigation elicited the fact that a certain Court official
had visited this firm and inquired how much such and such things
would cost, if purchased in Shanghai. But no goods had been
delivered or even actually ordered!
[44] See Hulbert, The History of Korea, II, p. 61 f.
[45] The History of Korea, I, p. 339.
[46] See Hulbert, The History of Korea, II, p. 54.
[47] Hulbert, The Passing of Korea, pp. 50, 58.
[48] The Passing of Korea, p. 67.
[49] The Passing of Korea, pp. 38, 41.
[50] Ibid., p. 43.
[51] See the account of the “Baby War” and “Breast Hunters,”
The History of Korea, II., p. 245.
[52] The Passing of Korea, pp. 311, 319, 369.
[53] Ibid., p. 283.
[54] Ibid., p. 247.
[55] Whigham, Manchuria and Korea, p. 185.
[56] See a pamphlet bearing this title as an “Authorized
Translation of Official Documents published by the Resident-
General, in Seoul, January, 1907,” p. 7.
[57] During all my visit in Korea it was commonly reported by
those intimate at Court that the Crown Prince was an imbecile
both in body and in mind. But in his boyhood he was rather more
than ordinarily bright, and his mother, the murdered Queen, was
the most clever and brilliant Korean woman of her time. It is not
strange, then, that since his accession to the throne and in view
of his obviously sensible way of yielding to good advice from
others, in spite of the evil influence of his father, the impression
has been made that he might have been feigning imbecility in
order to escape plots to assassinate him, which were formed in
the interests of a rival claimant to the throne.
[58] Issue of Saturday, March 16, 1907.
[59] So the report on the “State of the Progress of the
Reorganization of the Finances of Korea, March, 1907.”
[60] Administrative Reforms in Korea, p. 18.
[61] A cho is nearly 2½ acres.
[62] See Administrative Reforms in Korea, p. 19.
[63] State of the Progress of the Reorganization of the
Finances of Korea, March, 1907, p. 20.
[64] Administrative Reforms in Korea, p. 15.
[65] It should be noted in this connection that this appointment
is one of the very few which, like that of the Resident-General,
proceed directly from the Emperor of Japan himself.
[66] Summary of the Financial Affairs of Korea, p. 5.
[67] In interpreting this it should be remembered that the
Japanese sen is equal in value to one-half a cent in American
gold, or about one farthing in English currency. 100 sen = 1 yen,
and 1,000 rin = 1 yen.
[68] “There had been,” says Mr. D. W. Stevens, “some criticism
because such a law was considered necessary; and Japanese
legal procedure was accused of being defective, on this account,
by certain foreign critics. But in the late seventies the British Court
at Yokohama released a man who had been detected
counterfeiting Japanese money, on the ground that there was no
British law under which to punish him, and that Japanese law
against counterfeiting did not apply to British subjects in Japan.
And the highest British courts have held that a contract to
smuggle goods into a foreign country is a valid contract as
between British subjects in Great Britain.” The entire matter is
dwelt upon at such length because it illustrates so well the
inability of the Koreans for “independent” management of their
own internal affairs, and also the animus and propriety of much of
the anti-Japanese criticism.
[69] The quotations are from the pamphlet, Administrative
Reforms in Korea, p. 11 f.
[70] See Summary of the Financial Affairs of Korea, p. 5.
[71] See the incidents—which are of a sort to be almost
indefinitely multiplied—on page 285 f.
[72] Dr. Allen, then American Consul-General, in a report upon
Educational Institutions and Methods in Korea, 1898.
[73] See Administrative Reforms in Korea, p. 4 f.
[74] Official Minutes of the Korean Mission Conference, 1906,
p. 41.
[75] Korean Review, of February, 1904.
[76] It is significant to notice in this connection that previous to
his several commissions from the Korean Emperor, this writer
held a quite different view from that which he afterward advocated
with regard to the underlying principle of all the recent relations
between the two countries. In the same article he says: “The
present chaotic state of the national finances and of popular
discontent, show something of what Russian influence has
accomplished in Korea; and the people are coming to realize the
fact. They are passionately attached to the theory of national
‘independence.’ We say theory advisedly. This word
‘independence’ is a sort of fetich to which they bow, but they think
that independence means liberation from outside control alone,
forgetting that genuine independence means likewise a liberation
from evil influences within, and that liberty, so far from being carte
blanche to do as one pleases, is in truth the apotheosis of law.”
[77] Among the many falsehoods told by the Koreans and their
“Foreign Friends,” in their endeavors to excite pity for themselves,
and, possibly, interference with the Japanese Administration in
Korea, none is more ridiculous than that the latter were reviving
the use of torture. It should be borne in mind that, previous to the
Convention of July, 1907, which followed upon the promulgation
of this and other more important false charges by the
commissioners to The Hague Conference, the Japanese
Residency-General’s power did not extend to the interference with
the execution of the Korean law upon Korean criminals.
Preliminary examination by beating with a stick was then legal;
according to credible current report it was practiced upon the
vice-Minister of Education, when, during my visit to Korea, he was
accused of having contributed money toward effecting the
assassination of the Ministry (see p. 51). All this is quite different
from the retort which might be made to critics from the United
States to remember the practice of “water-cure” in the Philippines,
etc.
[78] Quoted, as are the following paragraphs bearing quotation
marks, from the pamphlet prepared under the supervision of the
Resident-General, and published in Seoul, January, 1907, on
Administrative Reforms in Korea. [These quotations are made
exactly, and without attempt to change the language in
accordance with our use of legal terms.]
[79] The following incident illustrates the habitual behavior of
the Korean Daily News, edited by Mr. Bethell, in both an English
and a native edition. Dr. Jones, one of the most faithful and useful
of the Missionary body in Korea, had previously incurred the bitter
enmity of this paper by publicly announcing (see p. 61 f.) the
intention to assist the Resident-General in his plans, so far as his
own work as a missionary permitted, for the up-raising of Korea.
At the time when the Korean troops, in a wholly unprovoked way,
fired upon the crowd in the streets of Seoul, Dr. Jones published
in the Seoul Press an account of what he himself saw. The
account was not accompanied by any harsh criticism of the
conduct of the troops. But “shortly afterwards a Korean attached
to the vernacular paper visited him and, attacking him fiercely,
denounced him as an enemy of Korea. This was followed by a
savage attack in the Korean edition of the News, giving an
entirely false account of what Dr. Jones had done and said. It was
in fact an invitation to murder.” Dr. Jones at once appealed to the
American Consul-General and he to the British. The editor was
forced to retract and apologize, but this by no means
compensated for the damage his article had done.
[80] This fact has been clearly proven by papers found on the
body of Yi-Sei-chik, when he was afterward arrested and detained
at headquarters, as well as by his personal statements.
[81] This serious charge was made by the writer and published
to a friendly nation, on the basis of no personal knowledge, not to
say careful investigation, and after casual conversation with a
small number of witnesses who belong to the class peculiarly
liable to be deceived both as to facts and as to causes of such
alleged incidents.
[82] Deplorable, on account of its effect, direct and indirect,
upon the Koreans, upon Marquis Ito’s efforts at reform, and upon
the missionary cause in Japan as well as Korea.
[83] It has been asserted that the value of the land staked off by
the Japanese military authorities near Seoul was 6,000,000 yen.
As the result of a “painstaking and impartial investigation” it was
found that, at the highest market price, this land would not have
brought more than 750,000 to 1,000,000 yen. The Korean way in
such matters is well illustrated by the experience of the Young
Men’s Christian Association in Seoul, who, when one small piece
of land was needed to complete their site, were obliged to invoke
an official order preventing the sale to any other party; and even
then paid a price probably two or three times its true market
value. Compare also what is said, p. 98 f., about the Pyeng-yang
affair.
[84] What is the state of the case in certain portions of the West
is truthfully told in the following paragraph quoted from a popular
journal: “In the matter of cheating Indians and acquiring public
lands in ways which bear all the ethical aspects of theft, there is
no public or private morality either in Oklahoma or any other of
those Western States where Indians and public lands continue to
exist.”
[85] On one occasion the British and Chinese Ministers jointly
urged the payment of indemnity in the case of two Chinamen, one
a British protégé, who had been injured in a fight with tax-
collecting officials at a place to which Chinese junks were in the
habit of resorting. The British protégé had died of his wounds,
both he and his companion having been confined after the fight in
the magistrate’s yamen. The Korean local officials contended that
only one person had been killed—namely, the wounded
Chinaman. When confronted with the fact that, according to their
own report, there was a dead Chinaman in the yamen the
morning after, they replied that this man was not in the fracas at
all; he had merely crawled into the yamen during the night, and
had died of some unknown disease. The picture of this shrewd
Celestial going to the yamen to die, apparently for the purpose of
fraudulently foisting an incriminating corpus delicti upon the
innocent Korean official, did not appeal to the British Minister, and
he got his indemnity.
[86] See “The Japanese in Korea,” Extracts from The Korean
Review, p. 46 f.
[87] The Far East (London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1901), p. 337 f.
[88] Korea (Chas. Scribner’s Sons, 1904), pp. 128 f.; 274 f.
Perhaps the underlying reason for much of Mr. Hamilton’s rather
vituperative criticism of affairs in Korea may be found in Chapter
XII, where Japanese, American, and British merchants, and Lord
Salisbury are all severely taken to task because too much of
Korea’s trade is falling into other than English hands.
[89] According to the testimony of travellers in the interior of
Korea, it is extremely difficult to get any food, accommodation, or
service, even when desirous of paying the highest prices, on
account of the experience with their own travelling officials, who
never expect to pay for anything exacted from the country people.
[90] It furnished Mr. Hulbert and Mr. Bethell, however, with a
striking instance of the way in which the Japanese are robbing the
Koreans.
[91] An occurrence, which might easily have become a much
celebrated instance of a Japanese attempt at robbery and
oppression of the Koreans, came to the writer’s notice in a private
but entirely trustworthy way. One of the ex-Emperor’s real foreign
friends was sent for some time ago and found His Majesty in a
state of intense alarm and excitement over a plot of the
Residency-General which had just been made known to him. A
certain foreigner had authorized the story that the Japanese
authorities were trying to purchase three houses owned by a
Chinese and situated just opposite the Palace, with a view to tear
them down and erect barracks for the Japanese soldiers on the
spot. The price offered by the Japanese was 60,000 yen; but if
His Majesty would furnish 65,000 yen, this friendly foreigner
would buy the property for him, and so defeat the nefarious
project of the Japanese. The Emperor wished at once to borrow
the money. It was suggested, however, that His Majesty should
allow inquiry to be made before parting with so much of his privy
purse. Whereupon, the following conversation was held between
the Chinese owner and the person to whom the Emperor looked
to procure for him the needed sum:
“I understand the three houses you own are offered for sale.”
“Well, I do not particularly wish to sell them; but that
Frenchman, Mr. ⸺, has been here and wanted to get them. He
said he wished to put up a large store in their place.”
“How much do you ask for the houses?”
“They are worth 13,000 yen; but if any one will take all three of
them, he may have them for 12,000 yen in cash.”

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Multiphase Flows with Droplets and

Particles 3rd Edition Efstathios E.

Multiphase Flow Handbook 2nd Edition Efstathios E

Exergy Analysis for Energy Conversion Systems 1st

Transport Phenomena in Multiphase Flows 2nd Edition

Multiphase Flows in Microfluidics Fundamentals and

Bubbles, Drops, and Particles in Non-Newtonian Fluids

Droplets and Sprays Simple Models of Complex Processes

Computational Multiphase Geomechanics 1st Edition Fusao

Handbook of Multiphase Flow Science and Technology Guan

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 Properties of Dispersed Phase Flows................................................. 25

2.5 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties ................................39

Chapter 3 Distributions and Statistics of Particles and Droplets ....................... 53

Chapter 4 Forces on Single Particles and Drops ................................................ 79

4.2 Compressibility and Rarefaction Effects................................... 90

Chapter 5 Particle-Fluid Interactions ............................................................... 127

5.2.3 Mass Transfer from Slurry Droplets .............................132

Chapter 6 Particle-Particle Interactions.............................................................163

Chapter 7 Particle-Wall Interactions ................................................................ 205

Chapter 8 Numerical Methods and Modelling Approaches ............................. 239

8.7.5 Mesh Size Requirements in Two-Way Coupled

Chapter 9 Experimental Methods ..................................................................... 339

Chapter 10 Nanoparticles and Nanofluids .......................................................... 431

Ei electric field intensity [N/C]

m mass flow rate [kg/s]

ui, u continuous phase velocity vector [m/s]

Π coupling parameter [−]

() volume average, superficial

Martin Sommerfeld, Dr.-Ing., studied at the Technical University of Aachen,

Berend van Wachem, PhD, is currently Chair of Mechanical Process Engineering

Efstathios E. (Stathis) Michaelides

1.1 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

1.1.1 Spray Drying

FIGURE 1.1 Countercurrent flow spray dryer.

1.1.2 MaterialS tranSport SySteMS

1.1.2.1 Pneumatic Transport

FIGURE 1.2 Horizontal pneumatic transport.

1.1.3 Slurry tranSport

As with pneumatic transport, slurries are classified as homogeneous, heteroge-

1.1.4 Manufacturing anD Material proceSSing

1.1.4.1 Spray Forming

FIGURE 1.3 Spray forming process.

1.1.4.2 Plasma Spray Coating

1.1.4.3 Abrasive Water-Jet Cutting

FIGURE 1.4 Plasma spray coating.

FIGURE 1.5 Abrasive water jet cutting.

1.1.4.4 Synthesis of Nanophase Materials

1.2 ENERGY CONVERSION AND PROPULSION

1.2.1 pulverizeD-coal-fireD furnaceS

1.2.2 fluiDizeD BeDS

FIGURE 1.6 Corner-fired furnace with pulverized coal.

FIGURE 1.7 Fluidized bed.

FIGURE 1.8 Solid propellant rocket motor.

1.2.3 SoliD propellant rocketS

1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS

1.3.1.1 Cyclone Separators