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NEW AGE
HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING
A M CHANDRA
HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING
HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING
A M CHANDRA
Professor of Civil Engineering
Arba Minch University, Ethiopia
Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering
Geomatics Engineering Section
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

LONDON • NEW DELHI • NAIROBI
•
Copyright © 2020 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
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Preface
This text is an attempt to present various aspects of Highways Engineering in a most lucid manner.
It covers the syllabi of highway engineering prescribed by most of the Indian universities for the
undergraduate courses. The students as well as the practicing engineers engaged in the construction of
highways in the country would find the text useful to acquire knowledge required in the field of highway
engineering.
The whole subject matter has been presented in nineteen chapters. Chapter 1 presents the
Introduction of the subject. Chapter 2 deals with the Highway Planning. Planning of a given task or
project is the most important step which has to be done first to execute a work successfully. After
finalizing the terminal points for a highway to be provided, the best alignment considering all technical,
economic, and social aspects is chosen out of different possible alignments. This part has been covered in
Chapter 3. Before constructing a highway, it is essential to design all the elements of highway from
engineering point of view for safe, comfortable, and economical journey. This requires the knowledge
of highway pavements design discussed in Chapter 4. The traffic engineering aspects are given in
Chapter 5. Chapter 6 deals with the highway materials and testing, the knowledge of which is essential
for the construction of a durable road. Various types of roads used in different conditions are low-cost
roads, bituminous roads, cement concrete roads, hill roads, and other types of pavements are covered
in Chapters 7 to 12. The highway drainage, discussed in Chapter 13, is an important factor of all
types of roads to keep them in good condition and durable. The road side amenities are basically to
provide a pleasant, comfortable, and safe journey to the road users and it is covered in Chapter 14.
Some of the other related matters to the highway construction, such as construction equipment and
plants, maintenance works for highways, economics and finances involved and estimates are presented
in Chapters 15 to 18. This text introduces for the first time the Chapter-19 on the Intelligent Transport
System (ITS) which is an essential requirementfor making smart cities in our country.
Each chapter contains selected questions at the end of the chapter and also the solutions of some of
the illustrative problems have been presented wherever required,at the end of the chapter,to introduce
the students and designers to the actual field problems.
Throughout the text various standards and recommendations of the different organizations of
Central Government of the country for the planning and design of different types of roads have been
followed. The author gratefully acknowledges the authors of technical publications in various journals
v
vi Highway Engineering
and other publications for their liberal use in preparing this text in the interest of the subject matter and
feels that the text would serve the purpose of a standard text book. The author also expresses his thanks
to Dr Raju Ramesh Reddy, Professor, Arba Minch University, for providing some input on Intelligent
Transport System.
This text being the first edition, some errors might have been left unnoticed and the author would
sincerely welcome the constructive suggestions in improving the text in its subsequent editions.
Arba Minch, Ethiopia
Arba Minch, Ethiopia A. M. Chandra
Acknowledgement
The author expresses his deep sense of gratitude to Dr Alemayehu Chufamo, Scientific Director,
Institute of Technology, Arba Minch University, Ethiopia, for his inspiration and for providing all
necessary help in completing this text without which it would have not been possible to bring out this
text in the present form. The author is extremely grateful to him.
A. M. Chandra
Contents
Preface v
Acknowledgement vi
1. Highway Engineering 1–6
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Modes of Transportation 1
1.2 Branches of Transportation Engineering 2
1.3 Characteristics of Road Transport 3
1.4 Advantages of Roads 3
1.5 Requirements of an Ideal Road 3
1.6 History of Road Construction 4
2. Highway Planning 7–17
2.0 Introduction 7
2.1 Planning Requirements 7
2.2 Classification of Roads 13
2.3 Road Patterns 14
3. Highway Surveys and Alignment 18–31
3.0 Introduction 18
3.1 Alignment Controlling Factors 18
3.2 Steps for Final Alignment 21
3.3 Requirement of Surveying Instruments 28
3.4 Highway Re-alignment 29
4. Highway Geometric Design 32–134
4.0 Introduction 32
4.1 Factors Governing the Geometrical Design Standards 33
4.2 Elements of Highway Geometrics 34
4.3 Road Structure 34
4.4 Pavement Structure Characteristics 36
4.5 Width of Pavement 37
4.6 Traffic Separators or Medians 39
4.7 Kerbs 39
4.8 Road Margins 40
4.9 Formation or Roadway Width 41
vii
viii Highway Engineering
4.10 Right-of-Way 41
4.11 Camber 45
4.12 Design Speed 47
4.13 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) 49
4.14 Crossing Sight Distance (CSD) 53
4.15 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) 53
4.16 Overtaking Zones 57
4.17 Sight Distance at Intersections 57
4.18 Road Gradient 58
4.19 Grade Compensation on Horizontal Curves 60
4.20 Superelevation 60
4.21 Horizontal Curves 67
4.22 Transition Curve 77
4.23 Vertical Curves 84
4.24 Road Intersections (Junctions) 93
5. Traffic Engineering 135–185
5.0 Introduction 135
5.1 Definition of Traffic Engineering 135
5.2 Objects of Traffic Engineering 135
5.3 Traffic Characteristics 136
5.4 Road User Characteristics 136
5.5 Vehicular Characteristics 137
5.6 Traffic Survey 140
5.7 Passenger Car Unit (PCU) 149
5.8 Road Accidents 152
5.9 Measures to Prevent Road Accidents 157
5.10 Parking 158
5.11 Highway Lighting 161
5.12 Road Intersections and their Design 166
5.13 Traffic Operations 166
5.14 Traffic and Transportation Planning 172
Illustrative Examples 173
Questions 182
6. Highway Pavements Design 186–226
6.1 Types of Pavement 187
6.2 Highways in India 188
6.3 Road Structure 188
Contents ix
6.4 Flexible Pavements 189

6.5 Rigid Pavements 189
6.6 Semi-Rigid Pavements 189
6.7 Design of Pavements 190
6.8 Design of Bituminous Paving Mixes 191
6.9 Design of Flexible Pavements 194
6.10 Design of Rigid Pavements 200
7. Highway Materials and Testing 227–248
7.1 Aggregate Used in Road Construction 227
7.2 Requisites of a Good Road Aggregate 229
7.3 Tests for Road Aggregates 230
7.4 Bituminous Mateials 239
8. Low-Cost Roads 249–278
8.1 Classification of Low-Cost Roads 249
8.2 Dust Prevention in Low-Cost Roads 257
8.3 Soil Stabilized Roads 257
8.4 Considerations for Soil Stabilization 265
8.5 Soil Survey 267
8.6 Soil Classification Systems 271
Questions 277
9. Bituminous Roads 279–300
9.1 Use of Bituminous Materials in Bituminous Roads 281
9.2 Types of Bituminous Pavements 284
9.3 Construction Methods of Bituminous Roads 289
Questions 299
10. Cement Concrete Roads 301–324
10.1 Comparison between Cement Concrete Roads and Bituminous Concrete Roads 302
10.2 Methods of Construction of Cement Concrete Road 303
10.3 Construction Procedure 306
10.4 Concreting Under Extreme Weather Conditions Including Rainy Season 309
10.5 Plants and Equipment 310
10.6 Joints in Cement Concrete Roads 312
10.7 Arrangement of Transverse Joints 316
x Highway Engineering
10.8 Joint Fillers and Sealing Compounds 318

10.9 Design of Dowel Bars 319
10.10 Other Forms of Cement Concrete Roads 319
11. Hill Roads 325–348
11.1 Considerations for Hill Road Construction 326
11.2 Hill Roads Planning—Basic Principles 327
11.3 Collection of Basic Data Through Surveying for Alignment 328
11.4 Fixing Road Alignment in Hills 328
11.5 Surveying in Remote Areas 331
11.6 Geometrics of Hill Roads 332
11.7 Protective Works for Hill Roads 341
11.8 Drainage in Hill Roads 342
11.9 Maintenance of Hill Roads 344
11.10 Pedestrian Crossing Bridges 346
Questions 348
12. Other Types of Pavements 349–358
12.1 Other Types of Pavements 349
12.2 General Methods of Construction of other Types of Pavements 350
13. Highway Drainage 359–380
13.1 Significance of Highway Drainage 359
13.2 Requirements of Highway Drainage System 360
13.3 Sources of Water Entering the Road Structure 360
13.4 Highway Drainage Systems 361
13.5 Surface Drainage 361
13.6 Sub-Surface Drainage 369
13.7 Road Construction in Waterlogged Area 374
Questions 379
14. Roadside Amenities 381–386
14.1 Roadside Development 381
14.2 Street Alignment, Proportion, and Balance 382
14.3 Roadside Arboriculture 382
14.4 Erosion Control 384
Contents xi
14.5 Street Lighting 385

14.6 Roadside Equipment 385
14.7 Construction Materials and Practices 385
14.8 Advertisement Control 385
15. Highway Construction Equipment and Plants 387–399
15.1 Earthwork 387
15.2 Embankment 391
15.3 Construction of Embankments 393
15.4 Preparation of Subgrade 393
15.5 Soil Compaction 394
15.6 Equipment for Bituminous Roads 395
15.7 Equipment for Cement Concrete Roads 399
15.8 Construction of Some Other Roads 399
16. Highway Maintenance 400–414
16.1 Causes of Pavement Failure 400
16.2 Classification of Maintenance Works 400
16.3 Pavement Failures 401
16.4 Maintenance of Different Types of Roads 406
16.5 Pavement Evaluation 412
16.6 Strengthening the Existing Pavements 412
16.7 Principle of Road Improvements 413
17. Highway Economics and Finances 415–428
17.1 Highway User Benefits 416
17.2 Principles of Economic Analysis 417
17.3 Application of Economic Analysis to Highways 418
17.4 Methods of Economic Analysis 419
17.5 Highway Vehicle Operation Cost 421
17.6 Highway Costs and Consequences 422
17.7 Computation of Annual Highway Cost 424
17.8 Highway Finance and Administration 426
18. Highway Estimates 429–435
18.1 Rough-Cost Estimate 429
18.2 Detailed Estimate 431
xii Highway Engineering
19. Intelligent Transportation Systems 436–445

19.1 Functions of ITS 436
19.2 Advantages of Its Applications 437
19.3 ITS Working and Applications 437
19.4 Benefits of ITS 437
19.5 Services Offered by the ITS 438
19.6 Intelligent Transportation Technologies 440
19.7 ITS Applications 441
19.8 ITS in Mysore City 442
19.9 ITS in Korea 443
Appendix–I 446
Appendix–II 447
Appendix–III 448
Appendix–IV 449
Appendix–V 450
Bibliography 451
Index 459
CHAPTER 1
Highway Engineering
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The key factor to development of any modern society is communication. The communication may
be of information, commodity, or human being. The communication of information keeps the society
activities going in a particular region for planning and management. Transportation of commodities
produced is needed at production, distribution and consumption stages. Transportation of human being
is required for the exchange of ideas in decision making and for personal reasons. Also to maintain the
law and order in a certain region, transportation of police force is required. To defend the territory of
a country against the aggression and to guard the borders with foreign territories, the defence forces
require an efficient transport system.
Inadequate transportation facilities retard the process of socio-economic development of the country.
Adequate transportation system indicates directly the level of social and economic development of the
country. Therefore, for the rapid overall growth and development of a country, it is essential to have an
efficient and latest modern transportation system.
1.1 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

Human being is surrounded by three basic mediums, viz., land, water, and air, and all these mediums are
used for transportation. By utilizing these mediums, the following four modes of transportation have
been developed:
i. Roadways or highways,
ii. Railways,
iii. Waterways,
iv. Airways, and
v. Other modes.
1.1.1 Roadways or Highways

The roadways or the highways not only include the modern highway system but also the city streets,
feeder roads, and rural roads catering for a wide range of road vehicles and pedestrians. The road
transportation is the only mode which gives maximum service to almost all sectors of activities requiring
1
2 Highway Engineering
transport. It provides maximum flexibility in terms of travel with reference to route, direction, time, and
speed of travel, etc., through various modes of road vehicles. Door to door service is only possible
by road transport. It also provides a feeder system for other modes of transportation and not only to
supplement them but also to provide independent facility for road travel by a well-planned network of
roads throughout the country.
1.1.2 Railways
Railways were primarily developed for long distance transportation and urban travel. Later its expansion
was done to feed the rural population too. The transportation along the railway lines by railways
between the stations is economical for both the passengers and goods, particularly for long distances.
The railway tracks serve as arteries for transportation by land and roads, they also serve as feeder system
for transportation to the interior parts and to intermediate localities between the railway stations. The
energy requirement to haul unit load through unit distance by railway is only a fraction of that required
by road, and therefore, it is advantageous to transport bulk goods by the available railway facilities.
1.1.3 Waterways
Waterways include oceans, rivers, canals, and lakes for the movement of ships and boats. Transportation
by water is the slowest among all modes of transportation; but this mode needs minimum energy to haul
unit load through unit distance, and therefore, it is the cheapest among all the modes of transportation of
huge quantity of goods. This mode of transportation is only possible between the ports on the sea routes
or along the rivers and canals where inland transportation facilities are available.
1.1.4 Airways
The transportation by air is one of the fastest and most expensive modes of transportation. It is a best
mode of transportation of perishable goods which need least time in transportation from one place to
another. It also provides comfort to the passengers apart from saving transportation time between the
airports.
1.1.5 Other Modes

The other modes of transportation have been developed on the basis of the types of goods or material
to be transported. The pipe lines are used for the transportation of water and other fluids including even
solid particles. Elevators, Belt conveyors, Cable cars, Aerial ropeways, Trams and Monorails are also
functioning as minor transportation system.
Since each mode of transportation has widely varying characteristics, it is essential to have proper
coordination between different modes of transportation system. A healthy competition between different
modes should be encouraged for their effective use.
1.2 BRANCHES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Transportation engineering deals with the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of the
transportation facility. The airport and other facilities for the operation of aircrafts come under the
Highway Engineering 3
Airport Engineering. The Dock and Harbor Engineering includes the development of terminal facilities
for ships and boats, their harboring, and repairs, etc. The design and laying of railway tracks and yards,
and their maintenance, and safety and control of train movements are covered under the Railway
Engineering. The planning, design, construction and maintenance of roads and roadway facilities to
cater to the needs of road traffic are dealt in Highway or Road Engineering.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT

Some important characteristics of road transport can be summarized as below:
i. All types of vehicles such as animal driven carts, cycles, rickshaws, cars, and trucks can use it.
ii. It is the nearest mode of transport for people or public.
iii. It is the only mode of transport which serves the remotest isolated villages.
iv. It offers the flexibility of changes in direction of travel as per need, comfort, and convenience.
v. Overall investment in construction and maintenance of road transport is small compared to
other modes of transportation.
vi. Because the road vehicles can directly reach near to the point of destination, it saves time of
travel especially for short distances.
vii. For some human being, most pleasant and memorable moments of their life are passed on
roads.
1.4 ADVANTAGES OF ROADS

A well-arranged network of road system has the following advantages over the other modes of transport:
i. They are essential for economic prosperity and overall development of the country.
ii. They are essential from the defence and military point of view of the country.
iii. They are helpful in maintaining law and order by easy movement of police force.
iv. They provide easy movement of traffic from one place to another.
v. They help in the growth of trade and other economic activities in and outside the villages and
towns.
vi. They are comparatively cheaper and convenient mode of transport in many cases.
vii. They establish good commercial links between cities.
viii. They serve as a tool for all forms of developments whether industrial, agricultural, or trade.
ix. They also serve as feeder lines for railways, waterways, and airways, and thus, help in the
development of these modes of transport.
1.5 REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL ROAD

The following are some of the requirements in respect of designs for an ideal road:
i. It should be free from submergence for all time safe movement.
ii. It should have easy gradient.

iii. Intelligently erected traffic signs should be provided for safety of the pedestrians and
passengers.
iv. The road users must be provided with various amenities along the road, such as sufficient
lighting, watering, fuelling stations, shady avenues, grass verges, parking facilities, restaurants,
etc.
v. It should have properly designed curves, good alignment, directness, and visibility.
vi. It should have adequate foundation depth for efficiently distributing the traffic load over
sufficient area of formation.
vii. The width of the road should be sufficient and camber or cross fall of surface should be as per
requirement.
viii. The road surface should have the following characteristics:
a. Economical in construction and low maintenance cost.
b. Even and smooth but not slippery.
c. Hard, durable, and uniform wear.
d. Neither dusty nor muddy.
e. Offering least resistance to traffic, etc.
f. Impervious and impermeable to rain water.
1.6 HISTORY OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION

There is little information available about the different construction material used during different
periods of history in India. The usual road construction materials were stones mostly undressed form for
Shoulder
Sloping 5 cm thick layer of
Side drain wearing small stones
surface
30 cm
8 cm thick
layer of broken
stones
Kerb stone
stores
17 cm thick layer of large
foundation stones
2.70 m
Fig. 1.1. Tresaguet construction
major roads. Most of the other roads used to be simply kucha roads. Most of the required amenities for
roads in towns were usually provided. Methods of compaction and technique of providing drainage in
Highway Engineering 5
the form of camber and side drains were not known until the development of Tresaguet construction of
roads in the late 18th century (Fig. 1.1) by a French engineer Pierre Tresaguet.
It is understood that the ancient roads built by the Romans were remarkable for their straightness
and bold inception. The Appian Way which was built by the Romans in 312 B.C. extended over a length
of about 580 km, and was known to be one of the earliest and best constructed roads of those times. A
typical cross-section of Roman roads is shown in Fig. 1.2.
15–20 cm large size
25–40 cm small size blocks of stones
broken stone in
lime motor
25–40 cm large
size broken stones
Vertical in lime mortar
kerb
stones
20–25 cm
10-20 cm hard stratum of soil
Fig. 1.2. Roman road
Telford’s road construction suggested by Thomos Telford (1757–1834) was based on providing
heavy foundation stones above the soil subgrade to achieve firmness of road base. He also suggested
having a definite cross-slope at top surface of pavement by varying the thickness of foundation stones
shown in the typical cross-section of Telford’s construction (Fig. 1.3).
First layer of
broken stones
Second layer of Top sloping
small broken stones wearning surfaces
19 cm
Broken
stones
22 cm
17 cm
1.8 m 2.7 m
Foundation stones Horizontal formation
Fig. 1.3. Telford construction
John Macadam (1456-1836), a Scotish engineer, suggested a road construction design which was
more scientific. He realized that the stress due to wheel load of traffic gets decreased at the lower level
layers of the road, and hence, it was not necessary to provide large foundation stones. To take care of
the percolated water, he suggested the cross-slope for the subgrade also. A typical cross-section of the
Macadam’s road construction is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Top layer of broken
Second layer of stones (25 mm,
smaller broken stones maximum size)
25 cm
First layer of larger
broken stones
4.50 m
Cambered
formation
Fig. 1.4. Macadam construction
QUESTIONS
1.1 Write a short note on the necessity of roads in the development of a country.
1.2 What are the modes of transportation? Briefly discuss each.
1.3 Discuss the characteristics of road transport.
1.4 How the roads help in the growth of economic prosperity and overall development of a country.
1.5 Discuss the requirements of an ideal road.
1.6 Briefly discuss the historical development of road construction.
1.7 Briefly discuss any two of the following:
a. Roman road
b. Tresaguet road
c. Telford construction
d. Macadam construction.
1.8 Write a short note on any one of the following (refer to Appendices):
a. Jayakar Committee recommendations.
b. Central Road Fund.
c. Indian Road Congress.
d. Nagpur Conference.
e. National Highway Act.
f. Central Road Research Institute.
CHAPTER 2
Highway Planning
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The object of highway planning is to provide a highway system which could give maximum transportation
at minimum cost. It requires a well-defined program to collect data and analyze the existing conditions.
It may also include the analysis to plan for the future requirements. The collected data through various
surveys aims at related studies for determining the present state of the whole rural road system and plan
for future development region-wise which includes the estimation of the ultimate cost of owning and
maintaining the economically necessary improved system; with an objective that a definite economically
integrated transportation system may be established and the future of the highway transportation may
be protected from the hazards inherent in a short-sighted and shifting public policy. One very important
fact that has been established by these studies in the realization that needs of urban and rural areas
though different, are still integrated.
2.1 PLANNING REQUIREMENTS

The modern highway planning includes the following:
i. To collect and tabulate the information about the existing transportation system in the area.
ii. To determine the general inter-relation of all branches of the transportation system and their
effect on each other.
iii. To access the adequacy of the existing transport facilities as per present needs, and the
improvements and extension of these facilities for the anticipated future needs for a certain
period.
iv. To determine the methods of financing these projects and the periods over which the
construction work can be spread.
v. To estimate the cost of the construction and maintenance.
vi. To find out the agency to which the construction and maintenance may be handed over for
execution.
The planning study is carried out under the following heads:
i. Road inventory study,
ii. Traffic studies,
7
iii. Economic planning studies, and

iv. Financial planning studies.
2.1.1 Road Inventory Studies

The road inventory is prepared by collecting all data about the existing road. Detailed information about
the existing roads is essential for the preparation of maps, compilation of statistics about the mileage of
the various types of highways, the various types of structures and such other data, evaluation of needs of
a highway by comparing it with the revised standards and a periodic evaluation of the adequacy of the
highways in the system. The inventory records may be in the form of general maps, plans, and profile
sheets and written documents.
The items included in the road inventory are such as:
a. Clear demarcation of different States from the roadway point of view.
b. Man-made and natural features adjacent to roads such as buildings, land-lines, fencing,
monuments, bench marks, water courses, etc.
c. Description of road geometrics such as roadway width, right-of-way width, sight distances,
curves radii, gradients, road camber, etc.
d. Information about the structural details of the pavements, surface types, and pavement design,
cross-sections, and soil characteristics.
e. Road conditions, i.e., surface condition, drainage and driving qualities, etc.
f. Information about the type of drainage structures, their locations, number of spans, lateral
clearance, distance between roadway surface and stream bed, width of structures, vertical
clearance, load-capacity, condition of structures, adequacy of waterway, and approach
alignment.
g. Information about rail-road crossings, their names, number of rail tracks, gradient of the
highway at approaches, angle of crossing, propriety of sight-distance, and curvature near it, if
any.
h. Land-use, agricultural and other potential productivity.
i. Classification of the highway and its service to the community.
j. Traffic volume, speeds, and accident experience on the road.
k. Maintenance cost of the highway.
A series of maps are prepared from the above information for planning purposes. In a central
planning office, all information collected through the agencies, such as State Public Departments,
Municipalities and Corporations, are pooled up for planning on a natural basis. The various information
are collected as per standards prepared by a central body such as Ministry of Transport in India. The
collected information is updated using occasional field checks at an interval of say 10 years.
Highway Planning 9
2.1.2 Traffic Studies

Since the mode of road transport has been changing in India slowly from animals and bullock carts to
motor vehicles it is, therefore, important that the future trends in the development of traffic are assessed
properly. This aspect of road transport is taken into consideration at the planning stage. In the planning
process, considerable information on the fundamental characteristics of traffic flow, the behavior and
desire of the driver, and traffic capabilities of highway facilities is essential. The following provide
fundamental data required for the planning as well as for geometric and structural design:
a. Volume,
b. Classification,
c. Size,
d. Weight,
e. Speed, and
f. Lateral placement of vehicles.
A comprehensive traffic survey which may be split into rural and urban traffic studies as below,
provide for system selection, route location, and design, cost-benefit analysis, justification and priority
determination, etc. It also helps organize and administer the decision taken on the subject as also to
employ suitable personnel for the execution of the work. This also splits into Rural and Urban Traffic
studies as below:
Rural Traffic Studies

Rural traffic studies mainly consist of determination of traffic volume, types of vehicles operating on
the highways, the speed of vehicle, their directional distribution, load carried by them, and the number
and frequency of accidents.
The Motor Vehicle Volume Studies can be carried out on hourly basis at selected key stations either
by manual method or by automatic counting. The collected information is sufficient to determine the
hourly, daily, weekly, and yearly distribution of traffic trends and can be used to determine the necessity of
widening the road, data for roadway planning, maintenance, evaluation of accident rate of total volume,
the relationship to traffic of day and night accidents, and necessity of providing alternate facilities. Flow
maps can also be prepared from the above studies which form the basis for further planning.
The Classification Counts of vehicles as to the type and size is essential to set standards for use in
geometric design. Such information is collected by manual counting at selected stations.
The Origin and Distribution Study (O and D study) is required to be done to determine the directional
distribution of vehicles for assessing the change in traffic volumes as the highways approach cities. In
the case of rural roads, such a study supplies information to determine the proper expansion of the
roadway system in the area, and the priorities for construction. A study carried out at Cordon Stations
outside the city limits helps in the determination of the necessity or otherwise of a bye-pass which
would allow the out-station vehicles to pass on to it and thus relieve congestion on the city roads which
would serve local traffic only. The method of such studies has been discussed in the Chapter-5 on Traffic
Engineering.
The Loadmeter Studies involve the establishment of temporary weight stations at sufficient number
of points to give representative results for load carried by trucks and other heavy commercial vehicles.
These stations should be away from the permanent weighing stations which are sometimes established
to enforce the law. Data may be collected on the classification of vehicle type, State of registration, Make
and body type, rated capacity and gross weight, type of fuel used, size and ply of tires, dimensions of
the vehicles, weight both when empty and loaded, axle-load, origin and destination, trip length, private
or public, etc. The work of different types of data collection can be done simultaneously by keeping the
Loadmeter stations and O and D study stations same.
A very important part of traffic studies in rural areas is conducted through Accident Studies. Regular
maintenance of accident records is of great importance in chalking out traffic safety programs, in
watching the effectiveness of each program, and in mobilizing public opinion for careful driving, etc.,
also in preparing spot maps showing high accident frequency places, and in carrying out before and
after studies.
Speed Studies in highway planning are essential to determine the speed trends, the distribution and
fluctuation in different areas, etc. Such studies require good weather conditions on straight portions of
roads, and in open areas with no roadside developments. The study should be done periodically and it
should give information about the requirements of the fast moving vehicles and help in determining the
design-speed on which depends most of the elements of geometric design.
Urban Traffic Studies

The traffic study is made for highway planning within the city limits integrating it with rural planning.
As such, a variety of traffic surveys are essential in order to properly plan the city streets and to control
the traffic. In addition to the traffic studies, the O and D studies and speed studies, there is a need for
cordon counts, the pedestrian study, road congestion or speed and delay study, roadway capacity, road
user’s psychology, and parking problem studies, etc.
2.1.3 Economic Planning Studies

Proper planning of highways requires study of the economic status and developments in the region.
Collection of information regarding the dispersal and location of the cities, towns, and villages classified
on population basis, the location of existing industries and natural sources of materials, the trend of
future development, the classification of the area as agricultural, semi-agricultural and non-agricultural,
the location of the marketing centers and goods sold, number of permanent and temporary shops and
stalls, the hours of their opening and closing, number of people going to attend these business centers as
customers , their mode of transportation, etc., becomes important.
The information collected through the economic studies determines the zones of supply and demand
as also the areas of primary and secondary commercial influence and as such helps in proper layout of
the roads, upgrading of the surfaces where heavy traffic is expected on existing roads by either providing
better modes of transportation or by providing alternate routes based upon the needs of the area.
Highway Planning 11
The planning of roads in a particular region largely depends on the population of the region, its
mobility and future trends, which are based on the economic life of the area. The centralized amenities
in respect of services, social activities, and employment opportunities in the cities attract the rural
population to the cities resulting into the strained economic life of the cities. Therefore, there will be a
greater and rapid demand for better transportation facilities in the cities, which may not be possible to
cope with. This situation results in the deterioration of the transportation problem in the city areas.
2.1.4 Financial Planning Studies

To cover the information on the financial aspects of planning, the financial planning studies are
conducted. For a wise fiscal planning, it is essential to determine continuously the financial needs, costs,
and benefits of improvements, allotment of funds for maximum benefit and compilation of statistics for
the income and expenditure on the various highway facilities. This may also include the studies to find
out the agency which should pay for the betterment of the highway system. It may ultimately lead to the
enactment of a law to realize the funds from beneficiaries.
These studies may be sub-divided into the following:
a. Basic Statistics: For the road finance, the basic statistics on various duties and taxes includes:
i. Rates of import duty on motor vehicle and motor spirit,
ii. The gross amount of customs-revenue on the of vehicles and accessories,
iii. Revenue from excise duty on tires,
iv. Central government revenue from motor spirit,
v. Revenues from motor taxes in various States,
vi. Registration fees realized by State governments,
vii. Sales tax on motor vehicles, accessories, and motor spirit, and
viii. Local taxes, etc.
The basic statistics by the Ministry of Transport, Road Wing, Government of India, over a
number of years provides a comparison of trends in the allocation of funds to the several
highway improvements. The future planning of the highways is based on the information
regarding the statement of the total income from various taxes and its allocation for various
projects both by the Central and the State governments.
b. Motor Vehicle Use Studies: Such studies assist in the formulation of a plan especially for city
areas that would help in the determination as to where the highway funds should be used to
give the largest number of motorists the maximum benefit for the taxes they pay and to provide
for the most essential needs on all classes of roads and streets. The information is obtained by
interviewing a selected sample of urban and rural drivers of various types of vehicles.
The information can be tabulated or can be presented in the form of diagrams as shown in
Figs. 2.1 and 2.2.
Major district roads (13.2 %)
Minor district roads (12.0 %)

State highways (22.3 %)
Village roads (4.5 %)
National highways (48 %)
Fig. 2.1. Motor-vehicle use (classified according to the types of highways in a particular area)
Kilometers travelled by vehicle

40 Trips made by vehicle
Percentage of trips of travel
30
20
10
0
To and Related Medical Educatio- Pleasure
from work business purposes Shopping Others
nal, civic
Vacations trips Others
and
Earning Living Family Business religious Social and Recreation
Purpose of trip
Fig. 2.2. Motor-vehicle trips and travel classified by major purposes of trip
c. Road Life Studies: The road life studies are carried out to determine the life of roadway
elements which determines the amount and cost of replacements required each year in future
for each road. Through such studies, the facts concerning the life of various types of highways,
construction and maintenance cost and salvage values of road elements, etc., are collected.
The history of each section of road is maintained with complete design, construction and
maintenance dates. The information about the salvage value of various elements is added
thereafter.
d. Road Fund Allocation Studies: The roadway fund allocation studies include the determination
of properties for the allocation of funds to various projects. Besides, the demands of traffic, the
economic development in the area and the service to be rendered by a facility to the community,
factors like the political influence and strategic needs also affect the fixation of property. For
deciding the properties, from the engineering point of view, the method of sufficiency rating is
used.
Highway Planning 13
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

For the planning of highways in a country or region, it is necessary to include all kinds of roads in the
area. Therefore, it is essential to know the different kinds of roads and how they are classified.
2.2.1 Types of Road

Basically there can be the following two types of roads:
a. All weather roads which are open for use in all weather conditions throughout the year except
at major river crossings where interruption to traffic is permissible up to a certain extent of time.
b. Fair-weather roads which depend on the weather conditions during different seasons of the
year. On such roads the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon season at causeways where
streams may overflow across the road.
The roads are also named on the basis of carriageway or the type of road pavement as below:
a. Paved roads are those roads which are provided with hard pavement course with at least a
water bound macadam (WBM) layer.
b. Unpaved roads are the roads which are not provided with hard pavement course of at least a
WBM layer. The earth roads and gravel roads come under this category of roads.
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, the roads types are categorized as:
a. Surfaced roads are provided with bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.
b. Un-surfaced roads are not provided with bituminous or concrete surfacing.
The surface roads with bituminous surfacing are also called black-topped roads.
2.2.2 Method of Classification of Roads

The roads are generally classified on the following basis:
i. Traffic volume,
ii. Load transported or tonnage, and
iii. Location and function.
The different agencies have classified the roads arbitrarily on the basis of traffic volume or
tonnage, and accordingly the roads have been classified as heavy, medium, and light traffic roads. The
classification based on location and function appears to be more acceptable for a country as they have
been defined more clearly. The Nagpur Road Plan classified the roads in India on location and function
criteria into the following five categories:
i. National Highways (NH),
ii. State Highways (SH),
iii. Major District Roads (MDR),
iv. Other District Roads (ODR), and
v. Village Roads (VR).
The National Highways assigned an unique number are the main highways of the country running
through the length and breadth of India, connecting major ports, foreign highways, State capitals, and
large industrial and tourist centers including the roads required for strategic movements of defense of
India.
The State Highways are arterial roads of a State, connecting up with the National Highways of
adjacent States, district headquarters, and important cities within the State. The Major District Roads
are important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets, and connecting those
with each other or with the main Highways. The Other District Roads are roads serving rural areas of
production and providing them with outlet to market centers, Taluk headquarters, block development
headquarters or other main roads. The Village Roads are the roads connecting villages or groups of
villages with each other to the nearest road of a higher category.
2.2.3 Modified classification of Road System (by Third Road Development

Plan 1981–2001)
According to the modified classification system, the roads classified by the Nagpur Road Plan, the roads
are classified under three classification heads as:
i. Primary System,
ii. Secondary System, and
iii. Tertiary System.
The primary system includes the National Highways and Expressways which have superior facilities
and design standards, are meant for the routes having very high volume of fast moving traffics. The
expressways are provided with divided carriageways, controlled access, grade separation at cross-roads,
and fencing. The responsibility of maintenance of the expressways lies on the Central Government or
State Government depending on who owns them.
The Secondary system of roads consists of two categories of roads as the State Highways and the
Major District Roads, and the Tertiary system consists of the rural roads which includes Other District
Roads and the Village Roads.
2.3 ROAD PATTERNS

The road pattern generally depends on the type of area for which roads are being provided. The various
road patterns are classified as follows:
i. Rectangular or Block pattern,
ii. Radial or Star and Block pattern,
iii. Radial or Star and Circular pattern,
iv. Radial or Star and Grid pattern,
v. Hexagonal pattern, and
vi. Minimum Travel pattern.
Highway Planning 15
The choice of pattern very much depends on the locality, the layout of different towns, villages,
industrial and production centers, and the choice of the planning engineer. Each pattern has its own
advantages and disadvantages.
The rectangular or block pattern of roads (Fig. 2.3) has been used in Chandigarh for city roads. This
pattern is not considered convenient from traffic operation point of view. Fig. 2.4 shows the radial or star
and block pattern of the road net work.
Built up area
Central business
area
Main road
Fig. 2.3. Rectangular or block pattern
Rectangular
pattern
Central business
area
Radial roads
Fig. 2.4. Radial or star and block pattern
Figs. 2.5 and 2.6 show radial or star and grid pattern and hexagonal pattern, respectively.
Radial roads
Central business
Ring road area
Fig. 2.5 Radial or star and circular pattern
Business area
d
Gri
Radial roads
Fig. 2.6. Radial or star and grid pattern
Fig. 2.7. Hexagonal pattern

Highway Planning 17
QUESTIONS
2.1 What do you mean by Highway Planning?
2.2 Explain the necessity and objective of highway planning.
2.3 What are the various methods of road classification?
2.4 Briefly outline the main features of various road patterns in common use. Explain with sketch
the radial or star and grid pattern.
2.5 Briefly discuss the requirements for road planning.
2.6 What are Loadmeter studies? Explain it briefly.
2.7 What do you understand by road life studies?
CHAPTER 3
Highway Surveys and Alignment
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Once the planning stage is over, the terminal points between which a highway of a specific standard has
to be located are decided in consultation with the planners and administrators. To give a specific shape
to the proposal, the work is assigned to a highway engineer. The engineer’s first task is to locate the best
and most economical alignment of the highway on the ground by considering various factors such as
engineering, economic, social, and political, responsible for selection of the best alignment. The most
essential requirements of any highway are:
i. The route should be short,
ii. The construction and maintenance should be easy,
iii. It should provide a safe driving, and
iv. It should be economical in construction as well as in maintenance.
It is desirable to have a short (or shortest) alignment between the two terminal stations. A shortest
alignment is a straight alignment but due to various considerations there are always deviations from
the shortest route. Also the alignment should be such that there are minimum problems in construction
and maintenance of the road. The alignment should also be such that it has easy gradients and curves
to make the driving of vehicles easy. The stability of road where there are natural slopes, embankments
and cut-slopes, and foundation of embankments, must also be looked into so that the road is safe
for construction and maintenance from the economic considerations of the total cost of construction
including the maintenance and vehicle operations.
3.1 ALIGNMENT CONTROLLING FACTORS

An alignment can seldom fulfill all the requirements simultaneously, and therefore, a judicious choice
has to be found out considering all the factors and compromising with some of them. In general, the
following are some of the factors which control the road alignment:
i. Obligatory points,
ii. Traffic,
iii. Geometric design,
iv. Economics, and
v. Other considerations.
18
Highway Surveys and Alignment 19
In the hilly areas, the road alignment is affected by the following factors:
i. Stability,
ii. Drainage,
iii. Geometric standards, and
iv. Resisting lengths.
3.1.1 Obligatory Points

The obligatory points govern the road alignment and they are divided into two categories as
a. the points through which the alignment must pass and
b. the points through which the alignment should not pass.
The various examples of the first category may a bridge site, intermediate town, a mountain pass, or
a quarry. To avoid a hill or high bridges, the various alternatives could be to cut tunnel, to go round the
hills, or to deviate until a suitable hill pass becomes available.
The road bridges across a river can be located only at a place where the river has a straight and
permanent path, and where the bridge abutment and piers can be properly located. While selecting an
alignment, the road curves should be avoided near the bridge site and also skew crossing should be
avoided as far as possible.
Between the two terminal stations there could be some important intermediate towns, villages, or
other places which must be connected through the proposed road. This would require the deviation in
straight alignment. Sometimes help of link roads may also be considered to avoid excessive deviation
of the road.
There are some obligatory points of second category through which the road should not pass, and
make it necessary to deviate from the proposed shortest alignment. These obligatory points may be
very costly structures, religious places, unsuitable land, etc. In India, the religious places like temples,
mosques, churches, graveyards,, or tombs are protected by the law from being acquired for any purpose.
If a costly structure is acquired, a very heavy compensation is to be given which shall increase the cost
of construction of the road. The unsuitable land like marshy, peaty, and water logged areas should be
avoided by deviating the alignment; otherwise the construction of road on such lands is also going to
increase the cost.
3.1.2 Traffic
The traffic has its own requirements on a particular type of road. The origin and destination study should
be carried out in the area and the desire line showing the trend of the traffic flow should be drawn. The
new road alignment should take into account the desire line, traffic flow pattern, and future trends.
3.1.3 Geometric Design

The factors such as gradient, radius of curve, and sight distance which are considered in geometric
design of highways, also govern the final alignment of the road. The road should have, as far as possible,
flat or less than the ruling or design gradient. To achieve this, sometimes it may be necessary to deviate
the alignment in view of the design speed, maximum allowable superelevation, and coefficient of lateral
friction. It may be necessary to make adjustment in horizontal alignment of the road keeping in view
the minimum radius of horizontal curves and transition curves. The final alignment should be such that
the obstruction to intervisibility does not cause restrictions to the sight distance requirements for safe
driving.
3.1.4 Economy
The alignment finalized considering all aspects should also be economical keeping in view the initial
cost, maintenance cost, and vehicle operation cost. The alignment should also be such that there is a
balance in cutting and filling of earthwork to decease the cost of construction.
3.1.5 Other Considerations

There are various other factors which govern the alignment of a road such as:
i. Drainage consideration,
ii. Hydrological factors,
iii. Political considerations,
iv. Monotony in driving to avoid accidents, and
v. Foreign territory.
3.1.6 Special Considerations in Hilly Terrain

The special considerations such as stability, drainage, geometric standards of hill roads, and resisting
length require special attention when a road is aligned in hilly terrain. A common problem in hill is
the land slide, and therefore, such areas where land slide usually takes place, a special care should be
taken. Also there would be too much cutting and filling which would cause steepening of existing slopes
affecting the stability.
In hilly areas, numerous hill-side drains should be provided for adequate drainage facility by
providing cross-drainage structures which are expensive, and therefore, attempt should be made to keep
them a minimum to reduce the cost of construction of the road.
The geometric design of hilly roads is governed by the gradient, curves, and speed. These factors
consequently influence the sight distance, radius of curves, and other related features. The route should
enable the ruling gradient to be attained in most of the length, minimizing steep gradients, hair-pin
bends, and needless rise and fall.
The resisting length of a road is defined as the total work to be done to move the loads along the
route taking the horizontal length, the actual difference in levels between two stations, and the sum of
the effective rise and fall in excess of floating gradient. The resisting length of the alignment should be
kept as low as possible. Thus ineffective rise and excessive fall should be kept to a minimum.
3.2 STEPS FOR FINAL ALIGNMENT

To finalize the alignment of a highway, a topographic map of the area is the first requirement. The
other requirements to help in finalizing the alignment are aerial photographs, soil survey, data about
flood frequency and flood level, etc. To finalize an alignment, the engineering surveys are to be carried
out in four stages. The first three stages consider all possible alternative alignments keeping in view
the various requirements of highway alignment. The fourth stage includes the detailed survey of the
selected alignment including soil survey.
The four stages of engineering surveys are:
i. Reconnaissance,
ii. Preliminary surveys,
iii. Final location and detailed survey, and
iv. Soil survey.
3.2.1 Reconnaissance
The reconnaissance is a kind of survey of the region to examine a relatively large area between the
terminal points for the purpose of determining broad corridors through which the alignment may pass.
These corridors may be sufficiently wide, being defined on either side by the terrain which is inaccessible
due to high cliffs or steep falls, or unsuitable for other reasons. Sometimes features like wide rivers,
lakes, swamps or adverse topography may limit any route to a series of bands having restricted width.
Reconnaissance survey is primarily carried out to gather the first hand information about the general
topography, physical features, and land-use of the area on which generally depends the alignment
gradients, sight distances, cross-sections, and other design elements. In flat areas, topography may not
alone affect the location but it might affect certain design elements such as the drainage. On the other
hand in hilly areas, where the terrain is rugged, the location is mainly governed by the above mentioned
factors.
The second phase of the reconnaissance survey is devoted to the inspection of each band to determine
the most feasible routes based on certain fundamental criteria that have significant effect on its location.
For reconnaissance survey, the following are very helpful:
i. Available topographic maps of Survey of India with 15 m or 30 m contour interval. By careful
study, the main features like rivers, hills, valleys, etc., shown in the topographic map, it is
possible to have an idea of several possible routes and further details of these may be studied
later at the site.
ii. Available large scale aerial photographs of the area help in determining all details with respect
to reconnaissance, preliminary survey, and final location survey, and in certain cases even
the preparation of estimates can also be worked out from the aerial photographs. The extent
of ground surveys would be limited to supply the necessary ground control, filling up any
missing details, and checking up the interpreted results as regards to the type of the soil and
material available in the area. Use of aerial photographs avoids many of field works reducing
the whole work mainly to office works, and considerably saving in time, money, and man-
power. Another advantage is that the work can be done under ideal conditions and without
any interference from political sources. It depends on the highway agencies whether to use the
aerial photographs for reconnaissance work only or to include rest of the ground survey work
also using large scale aerial photographs putting them in the form of composite maps called as
mosaics, and leaving very little ground survey work at the final location survey stage.
For a better and more accurate study, sometimes stereo pair of aerial photographs are studied under
instrument known as stereoscope. Such studies require trained personnel.
As far as the highway location is concerned, the work on photographs may be divided into four
stages.
Stage-1
Reconnaissance survey of the entire area as a whole between the terminal points using small-scale aerial
stereo photographs and stereoscope. It includes determination of controls of topography and land-use,
and location of feasible route bands on the photographs.
Stage-2
Reconnaissance of all feasible route bands is conducted by stereoscopic examination of large-scale
aerial photographs of each route band. The details of topography and land-use are determined, and the
location and comparison of all feasible routes on the photographs are done to select the best route.
Stage-3
This includes the preliminary survey of the best route and interpretation of available material, soil, and
drainage conditions, etc., by the method of photointerpretation.
Stage-4
In this stage the location of the highway on the ground guided by the preliminary location made in the
third stage is performed. It also includes preparation of the design-data from aerial photographs using
photogrammetric methods.
In selection of routes during reconnaissance, the following are considered:
i. Basic Criteria
a. Minimum design standards: The minimum design standards regarding alignment and
gradients, etc., are fixed prior to the start of the work. Any one of the feasible routes that
economically fits these standards would be suitable.
b. Grading and Earthwork: A line which generally follows the contours of the area would be
cheaper than the one that cuts the natural ground slopes. The type of material encountered
may be another major factor on the cost of earthwork. The solid rock excavation needs
blasting which adds to the more cost than the ordinary earthwork.
c. Foundation condition: At the reconnaissance stage the complete foundation study for the
location of the drainage structures is not feasible, but the preliminary information needed
can be obtained through the general condition of the area. For example, the presence of
marshes and boggy areas are unsuitable for foundation of structures. Also if the sub-grade
soil is poor, the construction cost may go up.
d. Geological conditions: The suitability of the area and any subsequent problem that may
arise can be revealed by the casual study of the geology of the area. Always, the alignment
should pass through the area having sound rocks, and the areas having sedimentary rocks
which are generally the cause of landslides should be avoided or the road should be
located in such a way that the rocks are dipping towards the hillside. Earthquake faults,
especially the live faults should be suitably taken care of for the major structures.
The general study of the geology of the area would also indicate the availability of
construction material required for the road and other structures, and the location of
quarries within reasonable haul-distance which may reduce the overall construction cost.
e. Drainage: Detailed drainage studies at this stage may not be possible and also may not be
as useful but a general idea about the drainage condition of the area is necessary so as to
ascertain the likely drainage problems both surface and sub-surface, and also the type and
number of drainage structures needed for an all-weather road.
f. Right-of-way: A major factor contributing enormously to the cost of highway is the right-
of-way. The cost may go up to 70% of the construction cost in developed areas due
to acquisition of land for the right-of way. Therefore, it is desirable to investigate the
possibility of shifting the alignment from developed to undeveloped areas for reducing
the cost considerably. For the future expansion of the road for expressways and freeways,
etc., the adjoining property have to be acquired which tremendously increase the cost of
construction. While finalizing the alignment this factor should also be looked into.
g. Effect of population: The location of highway must consider the future trends of
development of society adjoining to it including services to the community in respect of
the schools, religious centers, public buildings, business centers, industrial areas, farms, etc.
h. Traffic characteristics: Careful analysis of comparative traffic service rendered by each
alternative route under study must be made at the reconnaissance stage. It is essential
to evaluate how best a particular route would fit in with the traffic requirements of an
area. The volume of traffic on a particular route can be evaluated by making origin and
destination surveys. The geometric design of a road depends on the physical characteristics
of the vehicles. Therefore, it is also essential to assess whether the physical situation of
that route would be able to accommodate the necessary required geometric design. It
requires examination of all types of vehicles, select general class groups and establish
representative size vehicles within each class for design purpose.
i. Financing: The route selection also depends largely on the availability of funds. If the total
fund required to construct a highway is not available at a time, then the stage construction
has to be implemented and it may take a number of years to complete the work. In such
case, it is preferable to select a route where the improvements would bring it up to the
required standards during the period over which the plan is spread, rather than selecting
an alternative which needs all the construction right at the beginning before the traffic
could use it and thus incurring heavy expenditure. In case the expenditure has to spread
over a period of years, it is essential to study each alternative and evaluate its use at every
stage of construction keeping in view the available funds.
j. Maintenance costs: A scientific approach to the route selection would be to take into
consideration the maintenance cost envisaged every year. The routes having extraordinary
costs such as removing snow during winter and repairing any landslides, etc., should be
avoided because they will have recurring heavy maintenance costs and also inconvenience
to the users. This problem becomes more serious especially in hilly areas where the only
means of transport is by road and its blockade means cutting off the area from the outside
world.
ii. Available Data
Quality of reconnaissance study would vary directly with the extent of knowledge and
information collected for locating the highway in the area. A lot of information about the area
can be gathered from the available topographic maps and aerial photographs of the area which
can be acquired at reasonable costs from the Survey of India, Dehradun (UK).
Geological and soil maps for some part of the country are also available. The geological
conditions and soil types obtained from these maps can be quite helpful in giving information
about drainage conditions.
iii. Field Studies
Reconnaissance for selection of a most desirable route includes also actual field studies without
which the decision on the final alignments may be doubtful. A careful review as verification
of the observations made from the maps and photographs is done by actual field study. For
field studies, help of a helicopter or light airplane may be employed, and in some cases actual
field visits are done. After the alternate routes have been worked out and the areas have been
restricted to small bands, the information has to be collected carefully for each alternative.
The surveying instruments such as hand level, Abney level, compass, etc., are used to collect
information about the natural slopes, the existing gradients, elevation of critical summits, and
stream-crossings for the verification of information collected through maps and photographs
by interpretation.
3.2.2 Preliminary and Final Surveys

The preliminary survey is conducted to obtain sufficient data along the route selected as a result of the
reconnaissance for final location. It requires running an accurate primary traverse, usually called the
P-line or Base line along the selected route and similar traversed also along the secondary or alternate
routes, if any. Generally the open traverse is used which cannot be adjusted as a closed traverse, and
therefore, to ensure some standards of accuracy certain precautions in measurements of distances and
angles are necessary. For the highways in rural areas, an accuracy of 1:3000 in urban areas 1:5000
should be observed. For preliminary surveys, the photogrammetric methods may be used to complete
the work in a shorter time and also in a more effective manner.
Sometimes in exceptionally rugged and hilly areas, a profile along the P-line is run with occasional
important cross-sections. Some agencies prefer more detailed work at the preliminary stage by recording
levels along the P-line at 20 to 30 m intervals. The levels are also recorded at the points where the
levels change suddenly. Generally the profile is drawn at some scale on which the map is to be finally
produced. For drawing profile, the following horizontal and vertical scales are adopted:
Horizontal scale 1:1000 to 1: 2000
Vertical scale 1:100 to 1:200
Profile of all intersecting roads, rail-roads, and stream crossings up to 300 m on either side of
the P-line are also drawn since their levels affect the final location. After fixing the P-line, important
topographical features such as rock-outcrops, faults, bad soil, marshes, lakes, streams, drainage
conditions, landslide possibilities, quarries, gravel pits, any other features which may affect the final
location and design of the highway, are also recorded.
All information collected by preliminary survey is shown in a map called Preliminary Survey
Map, also known as the Basic Map. The basic map shows the bearings of various traverse lines, the
distances, the deflection angles, corner ties, and other salient features along the alignment. It also shows
the topographical features discussed in the above paragraph as well as the other man-made features such
as roads, bridges, building, railway lines, etc.
The center-line or the final base line transferred to the ground should follow as closely as possible
the line drawn on the preliminary map conforming to the major and minor control points. Usually stakes
at 30 m interval are established on the center-line. The entire survey work especially on curves must be
done with utmost care employing the best survey practices. Center-line control can be established by
carefully referencing the points of curvature, point of tangency, setting out bench marks at close intervals
and at places free from disturbances during construction so that their positions can be relocated easily
by measurements of ties computed from the P-line. Direction of property lines, distances of property
corners and location of buildings, fences and other improvements must be made accurately since the
acquisition of the right-of-way and future settlement of disputes arising there from shall depend on the
position of these features vis-a-vis the centre line of the road.
Sometimes, the detailed level work has to be done in the final location survey if it was not carried out
in preliminary survey. The leveling data should be as precise as possible for accurate establishment of
the grade lines, calculation of earthwork quantities, and design of drainage structures, etc. For leveling
works including along the center-line, the bench marks established by the Survey of India throughout
the country, should be used. The temporary bench marks as reference points should be established along
the alignment at an interval of 300 m in plain areas and at closer intervals in hilly terrain. Also the bench
marks should be established on a line parallel to the proposed center-line at a distance of about 100 m
from it, with a view to avoid any disturbance while different phases of construction are going on.
For calculation of earthwork and other quantities, and establishment of grade line, the detailed
cross-sections of about 25 m on either side of the center-line and at stations every 20 or 30 m apart,
depending on the type of terrain along it, should be taken. Cross-sections should also be taken at all
intermediate points where the sudden changes in elevation occur. The cross-sections also help in the
design of the drainage structures. From the leveling data, profile should be drawn along the center-
line, rail-road crossings, and stream crossings. While taking the cross-sections, important topographical
features such as property lines, fences, buildings, rail and road intersections, water courses, bridges, soil
data, land-use, etc., at least within the right-of-way, should be recorded.
3.2.3 Soil Survey

In the recent years, the soil survey has become a part of highway alignment location. During the
detailed survey operations, the soil samples along the center-line of the route at an interval of about
100 m should also be collected with the help of borings taken to a depth of 3 m for determining the type
of soil, the gradation of particles, and its natural water content, etc., to help in designing the road cross-
section, its base, and the pavement type, etc. The bore-hole data also helps in drawing the soil-profile.
For soil survey hand-operated or mechanically operated auger of 10 to 12 cm diameter is generally
used to obtain disturbed soil-samples. Undisturbed soil-samples may also be taken by other methods if
needed. Other details of soil survey are discussed in Sec. 8.5
3.2.4 Preparation of Plans

The engineering drawings of the project include Highway Plans. Highway Plan consists of preparation
of plans, profiles, and cross-sections, etc., of the highway for recording complete information regarding
the exact location of the alignment and also the details of quantities of material, etc., for construction.
The data after necessary investigations and field location are sent to the design office where it is suitably
processed in regard to the geometric design, drainage structures, and pavement type, etc. The upper
portion of the drawing sheet of the Highway Plan is utilized for drawing the plan-view and the lower
half for showing the profile. The cross-sections are usually shown on a different drawing sheet. The
details of the plans, profile, and cross-sections are discussed below:
Plans
The plans drawn to a horizontal scale of 1:1000 to 2000 should carefully show the following:
a. The horizontal alignment with the right-of-way and all necessary existing topographical
features, such as roads and rail-roads crossings, buildings, streams, fences, drainage-structures, etc.
b. Complete information regarding bearings of all tangents, degree of curvature, the points of
tangency, and points of intersection of all curves, etc., for easy establishment of the center-
line.
c. The positions and elevations of all bench marks.
d. Any other information that may affect the execution of the project.
Profile
The profile is drawn usually on the same horizontal scale as that of the plans, but the vertical scale for
showing the elevations of the original ground surface is exaggerated 5 to 10 times. The profile should
show the following:
a. The elevations of the original ground surface along the roadway center-line.
b. The vertical alignment or the grade line for the proposed road together with the vertical curves
at the points of change in grades so as to form a continuous profile. This shall include the
percentage grades, the lengths of the vertical curves, the terminal points of the curves together
with the elevations of the points where change in grades occur.
c. The H.F.L. line of the region.
The plan and profile both show the details of various drainage channels, existing structures, etc.
Cross-sections
Depending on the terrain conditions, the cross-sections along the center-line are generally prepared at
20 to 30 m intervals on a separate sheet. The cross-sections are also drawn at intermediate points where
found necessary. Certain other details, as follows, are also worked out to obtain complete design:
a. The computation of earthwork and excavation quantities.
b. Detailed design for the various drainage crossings.
c. Preparation of site maps of road and rail-road crossings.
d. Preparation of abstract of quantities and finally the detailing of the construction methods and
specifications to be followed, etc.
To make minute details more conspicuous for construction, the drawings of bridges and culverts,
and the site maps, etc., are drawn to a larger scale.
The Land Acquisition Plans and Schedules are also usually prepared from the survey drawings for
land acquisition details. These plans show all general details such as buildings, wells, nature of gardens,
and other details required for assessing the values. The scale adopted for such plans may be 1:4000 or less.
The Land Plans for Quarries should also be prepared for acquiring the construction materials for
the construction of the highway. The size and scale of such maps may be similar to those for land
acquisition.
3.2.5 Bridge Location

The selection of sites for long-span bridges should be taken up while deciding the final alignment. This
may be a governing factor because a suitable site for the bridge should be at right-angles to the center-
line of the stream at the narrowest point allowing preferably a straight and level approach. The site
should be selected before the final alignment of the road on either side of such a crossing. The bridges of
relatively short span should be located conforming to the general alignment of the highway previously
determined, as far as possible. The design of such short-span bridges can be done later to fit into the
alignment as required under certain set of conditions.
3.2.6 Estimates
The project estimates consists of general abstract of cost and detailed estimates for each major head. If
the project work is proposed to be executed in stages, the estimate for each stage should be prepared
separately.
3.2.7 Project Report

The project report which is an important part of the project document, should consist of the following:
i. General details of the project and its importance.
ii. Important features of the road including selection of the route alignment, traffic, etc.
iii. Road design and specifications.
iv. Drainage facilities and cross-drainage structures.
v. Materials, labor, and equipments.
vi. Rates.
vii. Stage-wise construction programming.
viii. Other miscellaneous items such as diversion roads, road-side amenities, rest houses, etc.
ix. Conclusion giving reasons why the proposed route is finally recommended.
3.3 REQUIREMENT OF SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

Various surveying instruments are required to be used depending on the nature of survey. For
reconnaissance survey, less precise instruments or approximate instruments may be employed whereas
for final location survey the precise instruments should be used.
3.3.1 Instruments for Reconnaissance Survey

For conducting a reconnaissance survey under normal conditions, generally the following instruments
are used:
a. Abney level: For reading angles of slope or gradients of the ground up to 10′.
b. Aneroid barometer: For determining the relative heights of various points. For accurate
works, it is desired to use two aneroid barometers together or a combination of aneroid
barometer and mercury barometer.
c. Pedometer: For measuring the distance traversed by a person.
d. Prismatic compass: For obtaining the magnetic bearings of the lines.
e. Binocular or telescope: For observing far away objects.
If the area is vast and a rapid reconnaissance is required, especially when the terrain is difficult, the
photogrammetric method of aerial survey may be employed.
3.3.2 Instruments for Preliminary Survey

The instruments employed for preliminary survey depends on the character of the terrain. The most
commonly used instruments for this purpose are Dumpy level, plane table, prismatic compass, and
tacheometer.
The aerial photographic survey is found to be much convenient and suitable for preliminary survey
especially when the distance and area to be covered are vast. The method of photointerpretation by
examining the stereo pairs of photographs under stereoscope, may be employed to obtain various details
such as soil conditions, drainage requirements, geological characteristics, etc.
3.3.3 Instruments for Location Survey

The location survey is carried out to fix up the actual center-line of the highway, therefore, the precise
level, steel tape, and theodolite should be used. Now the total station instruments and GPS are available
which are most precise instruments and replace all these instruments, and also store the data and perform
many computations to produce desired quantities for fast and accurate location works.
3.4 HIGHWAY RE-ALIGNMENT

Some of the existing highways of the country suffer from serious drawbacks for accommodating modern
and increased traffic conditions. They have the following defects:
i. Single lanes of traffic,
ii. Sharp horizontal curves,
iii. Steep gradients,
iv. Inadequate site distances,
v. Lack of road-side amenities, etc.
The term highway re-alignment is used for modification of the existing alignment to improve the
highway conditions in respect of its performance by removing the above defects. The re-alignment
project of the existing highway to meet out the requirements of the modern traffic prove quite satisfactory
and economical compared to the replacing the existing alignment with a new one.
3.4.1 Re-alignment Works

To remove the defects in the existing highway, the re-alignment projects generally include the following
works:
a. Construction of a bypass road to deviate the traffic passing through the congested areas of
town or city.
b. Construction of over-bridges or under-bridges to provide grade separated intersections or to
avoid railway crossings.
c. Improvement in design elements of the horizontal alignment such as elimination of reverse
curves and undesirable zigzags, shifting of curves, etc.
d. Improvement in the design elements of the vertical alignment such as correcting the undesirable
rises and falls, changing the vertical curves, etc.
e. Modifications for meeting out the defense requirements.
f. Raising the level of highway length subjected to flooding or water-logging during monsoons.
g. Replacement or reconstruction of weak and narrow bridges and culverts.
3.4.2 Guiding Rules for Re-alignment

The basic guiding rule of the re-alignment is that it should be fairly convenient and economical. In view
of this guiding rule, the following general guiding principles may be observed:
a. Entire alignment: The re-alignment project should be taken up for the whole alignment and not
part of it. The defects in the design elements for horizontal as well as vertical directions should
be carried out for the restricted part of the entire alignment.
b. Major bridges: The decision of constructing a major bridge should be taken after careful detail
study of the characteristics of the river.
c. Over-bridges and under-bridges: If the gates of the railway crossings are frequently closed
due to heavy railway traffic, then only over-bridges or under-bridge should be constructed.
d. Through-traffic: The construction of a bypass road should only be favored if the town or city
through which the highway passes has substantially developed and if the traffic terminating at
town or city is quite small compared to the traffic going ahead.
e. Water-logging: The affected part of highway by water-logging during monsoon should be
clearly marked and raised before strengthening or widening pavement section.
3.4.3 Procedure of Re-alignment Projects

The re-alignment projects follow more or less the same procedure as that of a new project. In re-
alignment projects there is more emphasis on the existing conditions and alternatives available so that
the improvements of defects are carried out in the most beneficial and economical manner.
A comprehensive re-alignment project report accompanied by various drawings showing the final
alignment is submitted for approval by the competent authority before commencing the re-alignment
project.
QUESTIONS
3.1 What is highway alignment? Explain the essential requirements which are considered as
guiding principles for an ideal highway alignment.
3.2 Discuss briefly the important factors which control the highway alignment.
3.3 What are the special considerations which must be observed for hill-road alignment?
3.4 Discuss the various stages of the engineering surveys conducted for the highway alignment.
3.5 Why are planning surveys conducted? What are the items included in such surveys?
3.6 Discuss the objects and importance of reconnaissance survey.
3.7 Briefly discuss the surveying instruments required for various surveys conducted for the
alignment of a highway.
3.8 What are the objects and importance of preliminary survey? Also write the steps to carry out
it.
3.9 Write a critical note on location survey.
3.10 Why is it necessary to prepare a project report? List the drawings which are usually attached
to the project report.
3.11 What are the objects of re-alignment?
3.12 Write the general principles of re-alignment.
CHAPTER 4
Highway Geometric Design
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Highway design is the design of geometric elements of the road. It is primarily fixing the physical
dimensions and layout of visible features of highways such as:
i. Highway cross-section elements,
ii. Sight distance considerations,
iii. Horizontal and vertical alignment details, and
iv. Intersection elements.
The above visible features of a highway need due weightage in design for safe operation of
vehicles on the highways. The design must be such that it takes care of the present needs and future
developments. When stage construction is envisaged, it should be possible to improve upon them at
later stage depending on the traffic demand.
The following features affect the geometrics of a highway:
i. Road type,
ii. Topography of the area,
iii. Traffic characteristics, present as well as future,
iv. Design hourly volume and capacity, and
v. Environmental and other factors.
4.0.1 Road Type

The different types of roads have different requirements and specification. Out of all of them, the design
speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements of highways. It is decided
taking into account the overall requirements of the highway. The design speed standards also depend
upon the topography.
4.0.2 Topography
The topography or terrain type such as plain, rolling, mountainous, and steep terrain, influences the
geometric design of highway significantly. For the different classes of terrain, there are different design
32
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Gunpowder is manufactured by reducing the nitre, sulphur, and
charcoal to powder; they are then mixed, moistened with water, and
again mixed in a mill for five or six hours, or until the mixture is as
intimate as possible, for upon this the strength of the powder chiefly
depends.
When taken from the mill, the composition is put in a press, and
formed into hard cakes about a quarter of an inch thick; these, when
dry, or nearly so, are broken by wooden mallets into small pieces,
and reduced into grains by being put into sieves, and forced by
means of a wooden roller through circular holes of the proper
diameter.
Good powder should be devoid of smell, and of uniform colour,
approaching to that of a slate. The particles should be perfectly
granulated, and free from cohesion. It should admit of being readily
poured from one vessel to another.
In powder that has become damp, large lumps are formed: should
the damage, however, not be very considerable, these concretions
may be reduced by drying the powder in a hot-air stove, rubbing and
loosening the grains; but powder thus affected never thoroughly
regains its lost strength.
To test the purity of powder.—Lay a dram of it on a piece of clean
writing-paper, and fire the heap by means of a red-hot iron wire: if
the flame ascend quickly with a good report, leaving the paper free
from white specks, and without burning holes in it, the goodness of
the ingredients and proper manufacture of the powder may be safely
inferred.
Good powder blasted upon a clean plate of copper should leave
no track or mark of foulness.
Powder exposed for 17 or 18 days to the influence of the
atmosphere ought not to increase materially in weight. One hundred
pounds of powder should not absorb more than twelve ounces: if it
increase in weight more than one per cent., the powder should be
condemned.
Proof of Gunpowder.
To prove the strength of large grain or common powder, 2 ounces
are fired from 8-inch Gomer mortars (at an angle of 45°), placed on
stone beds, and so fixed as not to recoil. These mortars are loaded
with shot weighing 68 pounds, and the average of the ranges, with
Government powder of Waltham Abbey, is 250 feet. Powder made of
common pit charcoal will only project such a ball, under the same
circumstances, about 220 feet; and powder that has been re-stoved
will only produce a range of from 107 to 117 feet.
A musket, charged with two drams of fine grained or musket
powder, should drive a steel bullet through 15 or 16 half-inch elm
boards, placed three quarters of an inch from each other, the first
board being set at 40 inches from the muzzle of the musket: with re-
stoved powder, the bullet will only perforate from 9 to 12 of the
boards.
The quality of large grain powder is ascertained by its general
appearance, its firmness, glazing, uniformity of grain, and density.
POWDER MARKS.
The various sorts of Powder are distinguished by the following

marks on the heads of the barrels:—
LG Large grain.
FG Fine grain.
RA For rifle arms.
LG Large grain.
FG Fine grain.
RS Re-stoved.
Red L G, or F G, denotes powder of the best quality. White L G, or
F G, is an inferior Powder for salutes, &c.
POWDER MAGAZINES.
To ascertain if a Magazine is damp.—Soak a piece of sponge in a
solution of salt of tartar, or common salt and water: let it be well dried
and weighed, and then be placed in the magazine, which, if damp,
will cause the sponge to become heavier.
A small weight, suspended by a piece of catgut, or hair, will also
discover moisture, causing the former to contract and the latter to
lengthen.
POWDER BARRELS.
Whole Barrels contain 100 lb., and Half Barrels 50 lb., of powder,
whether fine or coarse.
Dimensions of Powder barrels.

Whole Half Quarter
barrels. barrels. barrels.
inches. inches. inches.
Depth 20½ 16¾ 14
Diameter at
15½ 12¼ 9½
top
Do. at bulge 16¾ 13¼ 10¼
Do. at
15½ 12¼ 9½
bottom
BUDGE BARRELS.
Weight of Barrel, copper-hooped, 10 lb., hazel-hooped, 6 lb.

Length of barrel 10½ inches }
each barrel will contain 38 lb.
Diameter ” 13 ” }
BOXES TO CONTAIN POWDER, CORRESPONDING TO THE BARRELS.

Whole Half Quarter
External
boxes. boxes. boxes.
dimensions.
inches. inches. inches.
Length 16¾ 13¼ 10¼
Breadth 16¾ 13¼ 10¼
Depth 20½ 16¾ 14
These boxes are lined with copper, tinned.
HANDBARROWS.
Length, 5 ft. 3 in. Breadth, 2 ft. Weight, 19 lb.
HANDSPIKES.
Length, 5 ft. Diameter at top, 1·25; Diameter at bottom, 2·75 inches.

Length of square, 1 foot 9 inches. Weight of ten, 64 lb.
There is a larger kind, 6 feet in length; weight of ten, 100 lb.
LEVERS.
ft. in. lb.

Iron shod, length 4 0 Weight of 5 36
Common 6 6 Do. 54
LIGHTS, BLUE.
Blue lights are used for signals, &c., and will burn half a minute.
Composition.
lb. oz.
Saltpetre, ground 1 12
Sulphur, sublimated 0 7
Red orpiment 0 2
LIGHTS, LONG (BOXER’S).

The paper case is 10 inches long, 6 inches of which are filled with
composition; one end is left open to fix on a wooden holder; the
other end is fitted with a nipple, on which a percussion cap is to be
placed. By giving the cap a smart blow on some hard substance, it
ignites the composition, which will burn for six minutes.
Composition.
lb. oz.
Red orpiment 0 8
LIGHTS, LONG (OR STEVENS’).
The composition is similar to that for blue lights. The cases are
made of brown paper, and are of the same diameter as the one-
pound signal rocket. The case is cut to the length of 9·75 inches, one
end being perforated at an inch from the bottom to allow a wooden
pin to pass through it, for the purpose of attaching the handle to the
case.
Two coats of paint are given to the cases.
A long light will burn five minutes.
LIGHTS, SIGNAL (BOXER’S)
This is similar to the Light, long, but has only one inch of
composition.
MATCH, QUICK.
Composition.
lb. oz.
Cotton wick Gunpowder
2 2 12 lb.
Gum arabic 0 8 Water 4 quarts.

Four pounds of the gunpowder are mixed into a thin paste with a
portion of the gum-water boiling, in this the cotton is then immersed.
Six pounds of gunpowder made into a stiff paste, with the remainder
of the gum-water, is spread on the top of the match, which is
afterwards reeled off, the remaining two pounds of powder being
sifted on the match while on the reel, and some of the stiff paste
being held in the hand through which the match passes.
MATCH, SLOW.
Slow match is prepared from slightly-twisted hemp rope, which is

dipped in a solution of lime water and saltpetre.
One yard burns about three hours. One skein, 35 yards, weighs
seven pounds.
During the Siege of Gibraltar, Slow match was thus made:—Eight
ounces of saltpetre were put in a gallon of water, and just made to
boil over a slow fire, strong blue paper was then wetted with the
liquor, and hung to dry. When dry, each sheet was divided into two
parts, which were rolled up tight, and the outward edges pasted
down. Each half sheet would burn three hours.
French slow match is made by soaking light twisted white rope in a
solution of one pint of rain water, and three quarters of an ounce of
sugar of lead.
PARACHUTE, LIGHT BALL (BOXER’S).
This light ball consists of a paper shell, enclosing two tin

hemispheres, one containing the composition, the other the
parachute. The shell is fired from a mortar, having a fuze, fixed in the
usual manner, which communicates with the bursting powder, opens
the shell, and lights the composition in the hemisphere attached to
the parachute, which, suspended in the air, renders conspicuous the
objects required to be illuminated.
Composition.
lbs. oz.
Red orpiment 0 8
PENDULUMS.
A Pendulum is readily made with a musket ball, and a piece of silk.

The length of a Pendulum is measured from the centre of the ball to
the end of the loop on which it swings.
{ 1 Seconds 39·14 inches
Length of Pendulums to vibrate { ½ Seconds 9·8 ”
{ ¼ Seconds 2·45 ”
To find the length of a pendulum to make a given number of
vibrations.
Rule.—As the square of the given number of vibrations is to the
square of 60, so is the length of the standard (39·14 length for one
second) to the length sought.
Or, multiply 39·14 by the square of the time required for the
Pendulum to vibrate—viz., by the square of ½ = ¼, for ½ second;
and by the square of 2 = 4 for two seconds.
To find the number of vibrations, the length of pendulum being
given.
Rule.—Multiply 60 seconds by the square root of 39·14, divided by
the length of the given pendulum.
Or say, As the given length is to the standard length, so is the
square of 60 (its vibrations per minute) to the square of the number
required.
PORTFIRES.
Portfires are of four different natures—viz., Common portfires,

Percussion portfires, Miners’ portfires, and Slow portfires.
A common portfire is 16 inches long, and will burn 15 minutes.
Composition.
lb.
Brimstone, sublimed 2
Powder, cylinder mealed 1
Saltpetre, pulverized 6
PORTFIRES, PERCUSSION.
Composition.
Brimstone, sublimed 4
Powder, cylinder mealed 1
The percussion priming is added to these portfires at the stations
where they are used (principally for the Coast Guard), and is simply
a small glass globule, containing sulphuric acid. This is embedded in
loose composition, which ignites on the globule being broken. A
percussion portfire will burn 5 minutes.
PORTFIRES, MINERS.
Composition.
lb. oz.
Saltpetre, pulverized 0 8
Sulphur, sublimed 0 8
Powder, cylinder mealed 1 0
PORTFIRES, SLOW.
The paper, which is called blue sugar-loaf paper, is wetted by

dissolving 12 ounces of saltpetre in one gallon of water, wetting each
sheet separately on both sides with a brush, one side being dried
before the other is made wet.
Slow portfires burn from three to four hours.
Portfires were made during the Siege of Gibraltar in the following
manner: Two ounces of nitre were dissolved in a gallon of water, and
sheets of soft brown paper dipped in the solution; these, when dry,
were rolled up to about the size of common portfires.
Portfires may be made by boiling square rods of lime, birch, or
poplar, in a solution of nitrate of lead for six hours (a quart of water to
every pound of the nitrate); the matches are then dried, and
afterwards boiled in spirits of turpentine; they are then wiped and
dried. A yard of this match will burn three hours.
COAST GUARD PORTFIRES.
Composition.
Saltpetre 8 lb. Sulphur 4 lb. Cylinder mealed powder
1 lb.
QUOINS.
Nature. Length. Width. Thickness.

ft. in. inches. inches.
42 Pr. 2 3 10·75 6·75
32 ” 2 3 10·75 6·75
24 ” 2 9 9·5 6·75
18 ” 2 9 9·5 6·75
12 ” 1 11 9·25 6·25
9 ” 1 11 9·15 6·
ROCKETS.
There are two descriptions of Rockets:—

1st.—Signal Rockets. 2nd.—Congreve Rockets. (Vide Part
VI.)
SIGNAL ROCKETS.
Signal rockets are of two natures—viz., 1 lb. and ½ lb. Rockets.
They are fired from a tube, the ignition being effected by means of a
percussion tube.
Composition.
lb.
Sulphur, sublimed 1
Dog-wood charcoal 1½
Composition for Stars of Rockets.

lb.
Saltpetre, pulverized Isinglass 3 oz. 8
8
drs.
Antimony, pounded 2 Vinegar 1 quart.
Cylinder mealed powder 1 Spirits of Wine 1 pint.
Sulphur, sublimed 2
The head of a 1 lb. rocket contains 36 stars, and that of the ½ lb.
rocket 24 stars.
SHELLS.
Shells are hollow iron Shot, and are of various descriptions, viz.:—
1st.—The Common shell, with one fuze hole, used in the attack
and defence of fortresses, &c., against shipping, and troops.
2nd.—The Carcass, which has three fuze holes, is filled with
burning composition, and is used to set fire to towns, &c.
3rd.—The Compound-shot, which is filled with lead to increase the
impetus of the shot, and the extent of the range.
4th.—The Shrapnell shell, which is very destructive when used
against bodies of Cavalry or Infantry, as it produces the same effect
as common Case or Canister shot from guns or howitzers, but at a
much greater range.[11]
Diameter and thickness of each Shell now in the Service.
Mean Bursting
Nature of Shell. Thickness.
Diameter. Powder.
inches. inches. lb. oz. dr.
{ 13 Inch 12·84 2·146 6 8
{ 10 ” 9·84 1·646 5 8
Common {8” 7·86 1·39 2 4
{ 5½ ” 5·595 0·936 0 10
{ 4⅖ ” 4·454 0·746 0 5
{ 32 Pr. 6·177 1·034 1 0
{ 10 Inch 9·85 1·35 5 8
Naval {8” 7·925 1·35 2 4
{ 32 Pr. 6·177 1·034 1 0
{ 8 Inch 7·86 0·82 10
{ 32 Pr. 6·177 0·64 6
{ 24 ” 5·595 0·58 3
Shrapnell { 18 ” 5·099 0·53
Diaphragm { 12 ” 4·454 0·477 1 12
{9” 4·08 0·41 1 8
{6” 3·55 0·356 0 0 12
All shells are now issued in the Field Service, loaded, and secured
with a metal plug.
SHOT, CASE OR CANISTER.
The common Case or Canister shot consists of a number of balls

packed in tin canisters of a cylindrical form: the balls being of
different weights according to the size of the gun. For field service
the balls are counted into the case, and laid in tiers, but for other
purposes they are loosely thrown in till the case is filled. The top
being soldered on, the bottom of the tin case is nailed on to the
wooden bottom, and the heads of the nails are soldered. These shot
should seldom be used at a greater distance than 300 yards, and
even at that range they scatter so much as to be nearly
unserviceable; but at from 100 to 200 yards they are very
destructive.
SHOT, COMMON CASE, OR CANISTER.
Number Weight
Weight
Nature of Ordnance. in each of case
of ball.
case. filled.
lb. oz. lb. oz. dr.
IRON GUNS. 1 34
10 Inch* { }82 7
13⅛ 50
8 Inch* 8 90 48 12
8 Inch* 8 90 48 12
68 Pr.* 8 90 50 4
56 Pr.* 1 50 52 11
42 Pr.† 8 85 45 15
32 Pr.† 8 66 34 13
24 Pr.† 8 46 10 7
18 Pr.† 6 46 10 7
12 Pr.† 4 46 12 2
9 Pr.† 3 44 9 11
6 Pr.† 2 40 5 10
3 Pr.† 1½ 34 3 9 8
BRASS GUNS. 12 Pr.‡ 2 126 17 4

‡ 6½ 41 16 14
9 Pr.‡ 1½ 126 12 15
‡ 5 41 13 2 8
6 Pr.‡ 1½ 85 8 13
‡ 3¼ 41 8 15 8
3 Pr.‡ 1½ 41 4 3 8
HOWITZERS. 10 Inch* 8 170 85 6

8 Inch* 2 258 35 15 8
5½ Inch† 2 100 14 11 8
4⅖ Inch† 2 55 7 14 8
24 Pr.* 2 140 19 0 8
12 Pr.* 2 84 11 9
CARRONADES. 68 Pr.† 8 90 47 5 8
42 Pr.† 8 66 33 11
32 Pr.† 8 40 20 13
24 Pr.† 8 32 16 12 8
18 Pr.† 6 31 12 14
12 Pr.† 4 32 8 3 8
9 Pr.† 3 30 6 7 8
6 Pr.† 2 30 4 9
* Iron Tampeon. † Wood Tampeon. ‡ Tier Shot.
SHOT, GRAPE.
Number
Weight Weight of
Nature of Ordnance. in each
of ball. Grapeshot.
case.
lb. oz. lb. oz. dr.
GUNS. 10 Inch 3 24 81
Shot Quilted. 68 Pr.
8 Inch
} 3 15 50 7
56 Pr. 4 12 56 14
42 Pr. 4 9 41 6
32 Pr. 3 9 29 11
24 Pr. 2 9 20 10
18 Pr. 1 8 9 16 12
12 Pr. 1 9 11 2
9 Pr. 13⅛ 9 8 12
6 Pr. 8 9 8 7
3 Pr. 8 9 2 9
CARRONADES. 68 Pr. 3 15 52 8
Tin Case Shot.† 42 Pr. 4 9 37 15
32 Pr. 3 9 30 6
24 Pr. 2 9 20 9
18 Pr. 1 8 9 15 10
12 Pr. 1 9 11 0 8
9 Pr. 13⅛ 9 9 1
6 Pr. 8 9 5 2
† Wood Tampeon.
STOOL BEDS.
NATURE. BEDS. BLOCKS.

Length. Breadth. Thickness. Length. Breadth. Depth.
ft. in. in. ft. in. in. in.
42 Pr. 2·91 11 4·5 1 5 4·75 9
32 ” 2·91 10 4·25 1 5 4·75 9
24 ” 2·83 10 4·25 1 4 4·5 8
18 ” 2·85 9·5 4·25 1 3 4·5 8
12 ” 2·85 9·5 4 1 3 4·5 8
9 ” 2·85 9·5 4 1 1 4·5 8
TUBES.
Tubes are of five different natures—viz., Common quill, and Dutch

or Paper tubes for exercise, and Detonating quill, and Brass tubes;
and Friction tubes for service.
All tubes are gauged to two-tenths of an inch diameter.
The pipes for the Quill tubes are 2½ inches long; and the barrels
of Dutch tubes are 1¾ inch in length.[12]
Composition for Common tubes.

Mealed powder, mixed with spirits of wine into a stiff paste.
DETONATING TUBES.
The quills of these tubes are cut to 2¾ inches in length. Small, or

pigeon quills, are also prepared for the arms to receive the
detonating composition; these are cut to ¾ of an inch in length; and
a small hole is bored in the centre to communicate the composition
to the body of the tube. The body of the tube is filled precisely in the
same way as common tubes.
Composition for the Crosses, or Arms, of Detonating tubes.

grains.
Chlorate of potassa 230
Antimony 230
Glass, finely pounded 73
Brass tubes, common, are 3 inches long, and the cups, previous
to being stamped, are one inch in diameter.
They are filled similarly to common quill tubes.
FRICTION TUBES.
These tubes are of copper, and are three inches in length. The
detonating composition is inserted in a tin arm, into which is
introduced and pressed down tight, by the sides of the aim, a piece
of copper, grooved; with a small ring to receive the cord for firing the
tube, and gun.
WADMILTILT.
Length, 14 ft. 6 in. Breadth, 11 ft. 6 in. Weight, 50 lb.
WOODEN BOTTOMS.
They are riveted to shot for brass guns to prevent the bore being
indented in front of the seat of the shot by the first impulse of the
powder: and to Shells, to keep the fuze in the centre of the bore.
PA R T V I .
FIELD BATTERY EXERCISE.[13]
STANDING DRILL.
Section. 1. Telling off the Detachments.[14]

Section 2. Posts of the Detachment.
Art. 1.—In Action.
No. 1. At the handspike.
Nos. 2, 3. Outside the wheels: with Howitzers rather in rear of the
muzzle; with Guns in line with the front of the wheels.
Nos. 4, 5. In line with the breech.
No. 6. Five yards in rear of the left wheel.
No. 7. In rear of the Limber.
No. 8. Ten yards in rear of No. 6.
No. 9. Four yards in rear of the Limber.
Art. 2.—In Order of March.

No. 1. On the off-side at the wheel horses’ heads.
Nos. 2, 3. In line with the muzzle.
Nos. 4, 5. In line with the breech.
Nos. 6, 7. In line with the axletree of the Limber.
Nos. 8, 9. In line with the splinter bar.
Art. 3.—In Front.

In line, ten yards in front of the leading horses.
Art. 4.—In Rear.
In line, two yards in rear of the muzzle of the Gun.
Art. 5.—In line with the gun axletree, one yard to the right or left of
the wheel.
Art. 6.—Mounted.
No. 1. On the right.
} On the Gun limber.
No. 6. On the left.
} On the Waggon limber.
No. 2. On the left.
} On the front of the Waggon body.
No. 2. On the left.
} On the rear of the Waggon body.
No. 8. On the left.
When there are 9 men, No. 9 between Nos. 5 and 4.
Section 3. Change of Position of Detachments.
1. Form the order
Nos. 1. Right face. Double march.
of March.
2. Form the order
Nos. 1. Left face. Double march.
of March.
3. Detachments Nos. 1. Right about face. Double march.
rear. Halt. Front.
4. Detachments
Nos. 1. Double march. Halt.
front.
5. Detachments Nos. 1. Right (or left) face. Double
right. march, front turn. Halt.
6. Detachments Nos. 1. Right about face. Double march.
rear. Halt, front.
7. Detachments
Nos. 1. Double march. Halt. Front.
front.
Section 4. Detail of Duties in the service of Ordnance.
No. 1 Commands, and lays the Gun.
No. 2 Sponges.
No. 3 Loads, and serves ammunition.
No. 4 Serves the vent, and primes. After the discharge he clears the
vent with the drift, previous to reloading.
No. 5 Fires.[15]
No. 6 Serves ammunition.
No. 7 Attends the Limber, and serves ammunition to No. 8.
No. 8 Assists No. 7.
No. 9 Attends the ammunition Waggon.
CHANGING ROUND.
No. 2 becomes No. 4. No. 8 becomes No. 6.

No. 4 ” No. 9. No. 6 ” No. 1.
No. 1 ” No. 5.
No. 9 ” No. 7. No. 5 ” No. 3.
No. 7 ” No. 8. No. 3 ” No. 2.
Exercise, with Reduced Numbers.
Nos. Retained. Distribution of duties.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1, 2 1, 4, 5 2, 3, 6
1, 2, 3 4, 5 2 3, 6
1, 2, 3, 4 1 2 3, 6 4, 5
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 1 2 3, 6 4 5
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
DISTANCES REQUIRED
for a Battery of 6 Guns (4 horses to each Carriage).

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Traffic and Highway Engineering, 5th Edition Garber

Highway Engineering: Planning, Design, and Operations

A Textbook of IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE ENGINEERING 2nd

Transportation Engineering: A Practical Approach to

Spon s Civil Engineering and Highway Works Price Book

The Devil s Highway Gregory Norminton

Unravelling Plant-Microbe Synergy Dinesh Chandra

Commercial Motor Vehicle Driver Fatigue Long Term

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

All rights reserved.

Arba Minch, Ethiopia A. M. Chandra

6.4 Flexible Pavements 189

10.8 Joint Fillers and Sealing Compounds 318

14.5 Street Lighting 385

19. Intelligent Transportation Systems 436–445

1.1 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

1.1.1 Roadways or Highways

1.1.5 Other Modes

1.2 BRANCHES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF ROADS

1.5 REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL ROAD

ii. It should have easy gradient.

1.6 HISTORY OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 1.1. Tresaguet construction

Fig. 1.2. Roman road

Foundation stones Horizontal formation

Fig. 1.3. Telford construction

Macadam’s road construction is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4. Macadam construction

2.1 PLANNING REQUIREMENTS

iii. Economic planning studies, and

2.1.1 Road Inventory Studies

2.1.2 Traffic Studies

Rural Traffic Studies

Urban Traffic Studies

2.1.3 Economic Planning Studies

2.1.4 Financial Planning Studies

Major district roads (13.2 %)

Minor district roads (12.0 %)

Village roads (4.5 %)

National highways (48 %)

Kilometers travelled by vehicle

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

2.2.1 Types of Road

2.2.2 Method of Classification of Roads

2.2.3 Modified classification of Road System (by Third Road Development

2.3 ROAD PATTERNS

Fig. 2.3. Rectangular or block pattern

Fig. 2.4. Radial or star and block pattern

Fig. 2.5 Radial or star and circular pattern

Fig. 2.6. Radial or star and grid pattern

Fig. 2.7. Hexagonal pattern

3.1 ALIGNMENT CONTROLLING FACTORS

3.1.1 Obligatory Points

3.1.3 Geometric Design

3.1.5 Other Considerations

2.2.3 Modified classification of Road System (by Third Road Development