1. ESD - 2. TSS- 3. ICT - 4. TP 5.

TGS - RME
Concept and Definition of Social Tolerance
 Tolerance is a fair and objective attitude towards others
and mostly it is conscious effort from the individual. ---
The word tolerance was introduced in the early 15th
century from the Latin word tolerantia. This word was
originally meant to endure hardship or provide support.
--- Tolerance refers to willingness to accept feelings,
habits or beliefs that are different from your own. -- Its
characteristics includes ability to ethical reflection,
respect, acceptance of the other and self control.
-----------Examples of tolerance can be diverse
workplaces where people encourage a variety of
cultural, ethnic and gender perspective and respecting
lifestyle choices… where we understand and accept
others decisions about personal matters like diet,
clothing, or relationships even if they differ from us.
Aim of Tolerance Education
 The social component of ESD deals to educate the
citizens as it involves in understanding the role and
importance of social institutions and its contribution to
the attainment of social change and training of
individuals for resolving differences and conflicts.
(Pigozzi, 2005)... Tolerance education aims to promote
the culture of peace and acceptance of others for well-
being and diversity management.….. Therefore, it is
important to create learning environments, content, and
 facilities for tolerance education in line with the
universal values in education…………….Significance
and need for the Social Tolerance…….. Tolerance is
important because it provides a more balanced, peaceful
society. People who are free to express themselves freely
and peacefully without fear of mistreatment are more
likely to live happier lives as functional members of
society. Social tolerance requires all members of a
society to walk among each other, without fear of
physical or emotional violation. Tolerance does never
and ever mean that either an individual or a party shows
tolerance but others do not………..Benefits of social
tolerance includes: (1) To be empathetic and loving for
Creation. … (2) Engaging in Positive Citizenship. ... (3)
Developing Reason and Critical Thinking. ... (4)
Attaining Appreciation of Differences. ... (5)
Challenging Extremism and (6) Extremist Ideology
How to build Social Tolerance: (1) Take Ownership of
Your Feelings. Recognize that no one can make you feel a
certain way without your permission. ... (2) Develop
Curiosity. In many cases, when we lack tolerance towards
others it's simply because we don't understand them. ... (3)
Change Your Perspective. ... (4) Practice Respect.
Factors that shape Social Tolerance: (1) Natural
Factors : Natural climate like floods, earthquakes,
draughts, famines, drought and other natural disasters
always force changes in the social conditions and life of the
affected people . It increased mental health issues, domestic
violence and unemployment which leads to develop
intolerance among humans. (2) Cultural Factors: Our
social life is based upon our beliefs, ideas, values, customs
and conventions. Being culturally tolerant means not
discriminating against people of other cultures. The
education system and upbringing within a specific culture
can heavily influence to shape the social tolerance of
peoples. Race based and religious based crimes are reduced
when people understands and celebrate cultural differences.
(3) Biological Factors: Biological factors also shapes
social tolerance as it determines the heredity qualities of
generations. The human element is ever changing. Each
new generation is different from previous one. It is
different in form, ideas and in many other ways from the
generation who gone before. (4) Demographic Factors:
the demographic factors always influence on the social
tolerance. The population increase or decrease always
brings social changes in human behaviors. A constantly
rising population gives birth to poverty, unemployment and
several other problems. On the other hand a low birth rate
leads to low size of population which indicates that there
are fewer skilled hand available and country is not able to
full use of natural resources. (5) Socio economic Factors:
The economic factors constitute an important factor of
social tolerance. Marx said that the entire social structure of
a country is determined by economic factors i.e the means
of production and distribution of material. (6) Educational
Factors : Education and socialization are closely linked, as
education contributes to the overall development of an
individual and fosters social change by changing mindsets.
Through education, individuals acquire values and
practices that promote peaceful behavior and coexistence
with others.
Promotion of social tolerance through effective
interventions among students When it comes to
promoting tolerance, education plays a crucial role.
Education and learning are essential in shaping the way we
think and perceive the world around us. By educating
ourselves about different cultures, religions, and ethnicities,
we can expand our understanding and empathy towards
others. 1. Fostering Open-mindedness: Education can
help us become more open-minded. By exposing ourselves
to different perspectives, we can broaden our horizons and
start to appreciate the diversity around us. For instance,
schools can organize cultural exchange programs, inviting
students from different backgrounds to share their
experiences and traditions. 2. Encouraging Critical
Thinking: Education can help us develop our critical
thinking skills. By questioning our assumptions and beliefs,
we can challenge biases and prejudices that we might have
towards others. 3. Promoting Empathy: Education can
help us develop empathy towards others. By learning about
the struggles and experiences of different groups, we can
start to relate to them on a more personal level. 4. Creating
Inclusive Environments: Education can help in creating
inclusive environments. By teaching students about the
importance of respecting diversity and valuing differences,
schools can create a culture of tolerance and respect. For
example, teachers can encourage students to celebrate
different festivals and organize cultural events in the
school. 5. Integrate tolerance into the curriculum:
Schools should develop a curriculum that includes
tolerance education as a core subject. The curriculum
should teach students about different cultures, religions,
and backgrounds. By doing so, students can understand the
struggles and experiences of others, which can help them
develop empathy and respect for others. 6. Encourage
dialogue and discussion: Learning institutions should
encourage students to engage in open and honest dialogue
about sensitive issues. This can help promote
understanding and respect for different viewpoints. 7.
Create a Safe Learning Environment: A safe learning
environment is essential to promote tolerance and
acceptance. Educators can create a safe learning
environment by setting clear expectations for behavior and
enforcing consequences for negative behavior. By creating
a safe learning environment, students can feel comfortable
sharing their own experiences and perspectives without
fear of judgment or ridicule.
5.1. Peace Definition:A state of tranquility or
quiet.Freedom from civil disturbance.Peace means societal
friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and
violence. Significance: It is as an essential element to the
realization of all human rights. Peace is a product of human
rights: the more a society promotes, protects and fulfils the
human rights of its people, the greater its chances for
curbing violence and resolving conflicts peacefully.
Without peace, it will not be possible to achieve the levels
of trust, cooperation and inclusiveness needed for societies
to be resilient to shocks, manage disputes and adapt to
changes in their environments.
The significance of peace in today word: 1. conflict
resolution. 2. Environment sustainability. 3. Economic
development. 4. Social harmony
Characteristics of peace: Peace can also describe a
relationship between any people characterized by Respect,
Justice & Goodwill.
Institute of economic and peace: Well functioning
government, good relationship with neighbour, low level of
corruption, acceptance of the right of the others, high level
of human capital, sound business environment, free flow
of information, equitable distribution of resources. Needs:
Earth needs peace in order to survive. This applies to every
angle including wars, pollution, natural disasters and more.
When peace and harmony are maintained, things will
continue to run smoothly without any delay. Moreover, it
can be a savior for many who do not wish to engage in any
disrupting activities or more. Necessity: The importance of
peace for any society is obvious. Without peace no nation
and no individual can move forward. Only in a peaceful
atmosphere mankind can secure greater heights. Why do
we need peace in word? When peace and harmony are
maintained, things will continue to run smoothly without
any delay. Peace for human mind: But mental peace is so
important because it can help you remain calm in the face
of distress by easing feelings of anxiety, worry, and
overwhelm. Without peace of mind, you might eventually
begin to notice symptoms of anxiety and stress, including:
sleep disturbances. aches and pains.
- Peace can not be kept by force, it can only be achieved by
understanding.
5.2. Title: Peace Education as an essence of ESD
Introduction:
The pursuit of sustainability entails addressing
environmental, social, and economic challenges to ensure
the well-being of current and future generations. ESD
serves as a fundamental tool in achieving these goals by
promoting awareness, understanding, and action towards
sustainable practices. However, an often overlooked aspect
of ESD is its interconnectedness with peace education.
ESD Overview: Introduction to ESD and its
Sustainability Goals
ESD aims to empower individuals and communities to
make informed decisions and take responsible actions
towards environmental protection, social equity, and
economic prosperity (UNESCO, 2019). At its core, ESD
seeks to cultivate critical thinking, values, and skills
necessary for sustainable living and global citizenship. Key
sustainability goals of ESD include biodiversity
conservation, climate change mitigation, sustainable
consumption and production, and the promotion of social
justice and equity.(UNESCO, 2019)
Peace Education: Definition and Role in Fostering
Peace
Peace education encompasses a holistic approach to
learning that seeks to cultivate attitudes, values, and
behaviors conducive to building a culture of peace and
non-violence (UNESCO, 2020). It emphasizes the
importance of understanding and addressing the root causes
of conflict, promoting dialogue and reconciliation, and
fostering a sense of empathy and respect for diversity. By
nurturing critical thinking and conflict resolution skills,
peace education plays a vital role in preventing violence,
resolving conflicts peacefully, and building inclusive and
resilient communities. (UNESCO, 2020)
Peace-Sustainability Link: Emphasize Peace's Role in
Sustainable Development
The connection between peace and sustainability is
profound, as peace is not merely the absence of conflict but
the presence of conditions that promote justice, equality,
and harmony. Sustainable development cannot be achieved
in the absence of peace, as conflicts and violence disrupt
social cohesion, undermine environmental conservation
efforts, and impede economic progress. Conversely,
sustainable development contributes to peace by addressing
the root causes of conflict, reducing inequality, and
promoting inclusive governance structures.
Peace Education Components: Conflict Resolution,
Empathy, and Social Justice
Peace education encompasses various components essential
for fostering a culture of peace and sustainability. Conflict
resolution skills enable individuals to manage conflicts
constructively, negotiate differences, and find mutually
acceptable solutions. Empathy fosters understanding,
compassion, and respect for others' perspectives, leading to
greater social cohesion and cooperation. Social justice
principles promote equity, human rights, and inclusivity,
addressing systemic inequalities and discrimination.
Impact & Recommendations: Examples, Challenges,
and Integration Strategies for Peace Education within
ESD
Examples of successful integration of peace education
within ESD include interdisciplinary curricula that address
both environmental and social justice issues, community-
based projects promoting dialogue and reconciliation, and
partnerships between educational institutions and peace-
building organizations. HWPL (Heavenly Culture, World
Peace, Restoration of Light) is an exemplary organization
dedicated to fostering peace globally through various
initiatives such as interfaith dialogue, peace education, and
advocacy for international law for peace. As an advocate
for peace, HWPL emphasizes the importance of
collaboration among individuals, communities, and nations
to achieve sustainable peace and harmony worldwide.
However, challenges such as cultural barriers, lack of
resources, and resistance to change hinder the effective
implementation of peace education within ESD. To
overcome these challenges, it is essential to prioritize
capacity building, foster multi-stakeholder collaborations,
and mainstream peace education across educational
policies and practices. Conclusion: In conclusion, peace
education and education sustainability are interconnected
and mutually reinforcing concepts essential for building a
more just, peaceful, and sustainable world. By integrating
peace education within ESD, we can empower individuals
and communities to address the complex challenges facing
humanity and promote a culture of peace and sustainability
for future generations.
5.4. Dimension of peace education.
What is Peace? State of harmony, tranquility, and freedom
from conflict or violence. It involves the absence of war or
any kind of hostility, as well as the presence of mutual
respect, understanding, and cooperation among individuals,
communities, or nations.What is education? Education is
the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and
attitudes through formal or informal learning experiences.
It encompasses not only academic subjects but also social,
emotional, and practical learning that contributes to
personal development and societal well-being. What is
Peace Education? Peace education combines these
concepts by focusing on the development of knowledge,
attitudes, and skills that promote peaceful coexistence,
conflict resolution, and the prevention of violence. It aims
to foster a culture of peace by addressing root causes of
conflict, promoting social justice, and teaching values such
as tolerance, empathy, respect for diversity, and nonviolent
communication. Dimensions of Peace Education: Within
the framework of ESD, peace education takes several
forms, all of which are intended to promote a cooperative,
peaceful, and sustainable society. In relation to education
for sustainable development, the following are some
essential components of peace education: 1. Conflict
Resolution: The main goal of peace education is to provide
people with the skills necessary to resolve conflicts
peacefully. These skills include mediation, negotiation, and
nonviolent communication. It seeks to provide people the
tools they need to resolve disputes amicably and
cooperatively. 2. Intercultural Understanding: Education
for peace fosters acceptance and understanding of other
cultures. It promotes tolerance, inclusion, and empathy
among various communities by encouraging people to
value and accept cultural variety. 3.Environmental
Stewardship: Peace education acknowledges the
relationship between a sustainable environment and world
peace. It highlights the significance of fostering an equal
relationship of humans and the environment, encouraging
environmentally conscious behavior, and tackling
environmental issues as a group. 4. Social Justice:
Inequality, human rights, and social justice are all
addressed in peace education. Equal access to resources,
opportunities, and social well-being are promoted, and
critical thought and reflection on societal inequities are
encouraged. 5. Global Citizenship: Through encouraging
people to acknowledge their responsibility as engaged
global citizens, peace education fosters global citizenship.
Fostering cooperation, solidarity, and sustainable
development on a global scale, it cultivates a sense of
responsibility towards the world and the well-being of
others. 6. Nonviolence and Human Security: The goal of
peace education is to guarantee human security while
fostering a culture of nonviolence. It supports peaceful
methods of settling disputes, disarmament, human rights,
and the avoidance of all types of violence.
The main goal of peace education is to provide people with
the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values needed to create
a world that is more equitable, peaceful, and sustainable by
incorporating these elements into education for sustainable
development.
5.4. Role of Education for promoting peace Education
has been considered as one of the most powerful tool that
helps to promote world peace. 1. Education Boosts
Confidence & Hope: Confucius said it as far back as 500
B.C.: “Education breeds confidence. Confidence breeds
hope. Hope breeds peace.” Confidence has been defined as
the belief that you can succeed at something and a sense of
self assuredness. Knowledge is a key confidence builder; it
allows one to feel a sense of accomplishment, to be more
fearless, and to grow in unexpected ways. This confidence
and self assuredness result in motivation and hope that lead
to the peace. 2. Education Promotes Independent
Thinking: Education encourages independent thinking,
and it opens doors to new ideas. Independent thinkers tend
to try to make sense of the world and draw their own
conclusions instead of blindly following the beliefs of
others. Independent thinkers may be less likely to be
followers, and may instead be leaders towards positive
change and action. 3. Education Inspires Problem
Solving Skills: Along with math skills that are learned in
classrooms, students are often challenged to use logical
thinking in order to analyze different pieces of literature,
the significance of historical events, and scientific findings.
Coupled with independent thinking, these critical thinking
skills can to the innovative solutions. 4. Education Builds
Communication Skills: In the classroom, students are
often asked to speak or read in front of others, offer
opinions, and break into small groups to work on projects
together. This is how communication skills are honed, and
communication is they key to solving conflict. Through
quality education, students may be supplied with the tools
to work within their communities to solve problems, or to
do so, on a global scale. 5. Education Opens Doors:
There’s no doubt that education for peace leads to career
enhancement, employment opportunities, and chances of
higher earnings. And with these careers in place, many
come back to work within their communities and support
their families, often promoting peace. 6. Education
Reduces Poverty: Imagine always being uncomfortable,
malnourished, and fearful, not knowing where your next
meal will come from if it comes at all. This fear can often
lead to anger and anger to violence. Education, especially
when it’s combined with technical training, has been
proven to reduce poverty. This is one driving force behind
education for peace. With education come knowledge,
power, safety, security, and peace. 7. Education Builds
Empathy & Tolerance: The Human Rights conventions
declare: Education must prepare a child for responsible life
and effective participation in a free society in a spirit of
understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of genders and
friendships among all peoples, national and religious
groups. Therefore with quality education, a child can learn
the quality of empathy and understanding towards those
who are different from them. And they may be more
accepting of others and less likely to solve problems with
violence. 8. Education Cultivates Respect: In the
classroom, students learn to respect their teachers and their
peers. They are taught to let others speak and express
opinions, how to deal with stress, and how to conduct
themselves within a group setting. Perhaps this learned
respect for other humans can be practiced on a global scale,
where there’s a respect for each and every life, not just
those who share the same religious beliefs and
backgrounds.
5.5 Conflict Resolution & Strategies to resolve
conflicting resolution
Conflict: A conflict is a disagreement or problem between
people. A conflict can happen when people want, need or
expect different things. All people experience conflicts
from time to time; conflicts are totally normal. Conflict
Resolution: Conflict resolution is the process of ending a
dispute and reaching an agreement that satisfies all parties
involved. Since conflict is an essential part of being human,
effective conflict resolution is not designed to avoid
disagreements. Instead, conflict resolution skills are used to
facilitate discussions, increase understanding and control
emotional responses.Conflict Resolution Education:
Conflict resolution education programs focus on
developing critical skills and abilities for a person to deal
constructively with conflict. In most cases these programs
occur in schools, but they may also be used in after-school
programs, community centers, church groups, etc.
What do children learn in conflict resolution education?
These programs give children an understanding of the
nature of conflict
What is conflict? How does it develop? What can one do to
manage it?
Children learn that the existence of conflict is its natural,
necessary, and important; its just a disagreement about
goals or methods to achieve those goals between two or
more than two people or groups. Its very important for
Children to get aware with the variety of ways that they can
use to manage or respond to conflict; for that they learn and
understand:
1. Dynamics of power and influence that operate in all
conflict situations. 2.Role of culture. 3. How we see and
respond to conflict situations.
To intellectually deal with the situation at hand; its very
important to learn range of conflict styles such as
“competing, collaborating, accommodating, avoiding, and
compromising”; and consider the advantages and
disadvantages of each because no one approach to manage
conflict works all the time.
A violent response to any conflict is almost never an
appropriate response.. It’s a need of time to provide social
and emotional skills to every single child to prevent
conflict and reinforce their use of pro social strategies in
conflict. Some of the skills that conflict resolution
education helps develop include: Effective listening,
Perspective taking, Emotional awareness, Emotional
control & perspective taking (Jones, n.d.).
Conflict Resolution Strategies
The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) is
developed by psychologists Kenneth Thomas and Ralph
Kilmann in the early 1970s, the model identifies five
primary ‘modes’ of dealing with conflict, distinguished by
two dimensions.
1. Assertiveness means prioritizing your own concerns in
conflict.
2. Cooperativeness focuses on meeting other needs and
supporting their ideas.
By applying the basic two dimensions of Assertiveness and
Cooperativeness to the five conflict-handling modes, you
create the five major combinations possible in a conflict
situation.
1. Competing: “Might makes right”
Assertive & uncooperative, power-oriented mode where
you prioritize your own concerns/benefits rather than other
party concerns. The shark style: The Shark is like
someone who really wants things done their way and
doesn’t want to wait. They might not care much about what
others think and can be a bit forceful. When to use: You
might use this style when you need to make a decision
quickly, even if not everyone likes it, because waiting or
discussing things more might make the situation worse.
2. Collaborating: “Two heads are better than one”
Both assertive and cooperative. Find a creative solution
that serves both party concerns. The owl style: The Owl
works together with others to find solutions that everyone
feels good about and build stronger relationships based on
honesty and respect. When to use: This style is suitable
when there's no rush to resolve the conflict and you want to
take the time to understand everyone's perspectives and
build trust among the involved parties.
3. Compromising: “Split the difference”
Mid way; Finding middle ground through concessions from
all parties involved. The fox style: The Fox looks for
middle ground where everyone gives up something to get
something. It's about finding a solution that benefits
everyone, even if it's not perfect. When to use: Use this
style when you need to solve a problem quickly, but still
want to find a solution that works for everyone involved.
Just remember, not everyone might be completely happy
with the compromise.
4. Avoiding: “Leave well enough alone”
Non assertive and no cooperative mode. Stepping back
from the conflict situation. The turtle style: The Turtle
tries to stay away from conflicts altogether. They might do
this when the problem isn't that important, or they don't
think they can solve it, or they're just too busy. When to
use: You might use this style when the issue isn't a big
deal, or you don't have enough time to deal with it, or you
don't think you'll win if you try to solve it.
5. Accommodating “Kill your enemies with kindness”
Non assertive and cooperative mode. Only serving other
party benefits on the price of your own concerns. The
teddy bear style: The Teddy Bear tries to keep everyone
happy by giving in to others' wishes. They do this when
they want to avoid conflict and keep things peaceful When
to use: Use this style when your main goal is to keep the
peace and the issue isn't that important.
Chapter 6 --- 6.1. Topic : Inclusive Education for
sustainable development
Definition: Inclusive Education is defined as a learning
environment that promotes the full personal, academic and
professional development of all learners irrespective of
race, class, colour, gender, disability, sexual preference,
learning styles and language. Concept: Universal Access:
Inclusive education aims to ensure that all individuals,
including those with disabilities, from marginalized
communities, or with diverse learning needs, have equal
access to education. This involves removing physical,
social, and systemic barriers to education. Diversity and
Equity: Inclusive education celebrates diversity and
promotes equity by recognizing and accommodating the
varied needs, strengths, and identities of learners. It
acknowledges that each individual has unique abilities and
challenges. Quality Education: The goal of inclusive
education is not just access, but also ensuring that all
learners receive quality education. This involves adapting
teaching methods, curriculum, and resources to meet
diverse learning styles and needs. Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs): Inclusive education aligns
with the broader agenda of sustainable development, as
outlined by the United Nations' SDGs. Education is
recognized as a fundamental driver of sustainable
development, contributing to poverty reduction,
environmental sustainability, gender equality, and more.
Empowerment and Participation: Inclusive education
empowers learners by promoting their active participation
in educational processes and decision-making. It
encourages a sense of belonging and agency among all
learners. Lifelong Learning: Inclusive education supports
lifelong learning by fostering inclusive practices not only
within formal schooling but also in non-formal and
informal settings. It promotes continuous personal and
professional development for all. Community
Engagement: Inclusive education involves collaboration
with families, communities, and various stakeholders to
create supportive environments for learning. Partnerships
with civil society organizations, governments, and
businesses are essential for achieving inclusive and
sustainable education. Meaning: Equity and Access:
Inclusive education ensures that every child has the right to
education, contributing to the principle of leaving no one
behind. It promotes equal opportunities for all learners,
including those with disabilities or from marginalized
communities. Social Cohesion and Diversity: By bringing
together students from diverse backgrounds and abilities,
inclusive education fosters social cohesion, understanding,
and empathy. It breaks down barriers, reduces
discrimination, and promotes a culture of inclusivity and
acceptance. Quality Education: Inclusive education can
enhance the overall quality of education by accommodating
diverse learning needs and styles. It encourages innovative
teaching approaches that benefit all students, leading to
improved learning outcomes. Preparation for Life and
Work: Inclusive education prepares students for the real
world, where they will interact with people of different
abilities, backgrounds, and cultures. It promotes the
development of social and emotional skills essential for
sustainable development, such as empathy, collaboration,
and communication. Long-Term Impact: By investing in
inclusive education, societies can break the cycle of
poverty and exclusion. Providing quality education to all
children equips them with the skills and knowledge needed
to participate actively in society, contribute to economic
development, and make informed decisions for a
sustainable future. Scope: Diversity and Equity: Inclusive
education aims to embrace diversity by accommodating
students from diverse backgrounds, cultures, abilities, and
learning styles. It prioritizes equity, ensuring all students
have equal access to quality education and opportunities for
growth. Curriculum Adaptation: Inclusive education
involves adapting curriculum and teaching strategies to
cater to diverse learners. This may include differentiated
instruction, personalized learning plans, and flexible
assessment methods. Collaboration and Support
Services: It emphasizes collaboration among educators,
support staff, families, and community resources to provide
comprehensive support for students with diverse needs.
This collaboration may involve special education teachers,
counselors, therapists, and other professionals. Positive
School Climate: Inclusive education promotes a positive
and accepting school climate where diversity is celebrated,
and students feel valued and respected regardless of their
differences. Professional Development: Inclusive
education requires ongoing professional development for
educators to build their capacity in adapting teaching
practices, implementing inclusive strategies, and fostering
inclusive classroom environments.
Significance: Improved Learning Outcomes: Research
shows that inclusive education can lead to improved
academic and social outcomes for all students. It
encourages collaboration, peer learning, and personalized
support, which benefit students with and without
disabilities. Enhanced Life Skills: Inclusive education
equips students with essential life skills such as empathy,
communication, and teamwork, which are valuable for
success in school and later in life. Enhanced Learning:
Inclusive classrooms encourage collaboration and peer
learning, leading to a richer educational experience for all
students. Personal Growth: Inclusive education supports
the personal and social development of all students,
fostering empathy, tolerance, and a sense of community.
Empowers Individuals: It empowers individuals with
disabilities by providing them with the necessary support
and accommodations to participate fully in education and
society.
6.3. Development of ESD materials for inclusive
education in curriculum
Introduction: Inclusive education is a critical component
of sustainable development, as it aims to provide equal
opportunities for all learners, regardless of their
background or abilities. Inclusive education involves the
creation of learning environments that are accessible to all
students, including those with disabilities, and that promote
the values of environmental sustainability, social justice,
and human rights. To support inclusive education, the
development of educational materials that promote ESD is
essential.
Objectives: 1. To understand the concept of inclusive
education and its importance in sustainable development. 2.
To explore the role of ESD in promoting inclusive
education. 3. To analyze the development of ESD materials
for inclusive education in the curriculum. 4. To propose
strategies for integrating ESD materials into inclusive
education programs.
Concept of Inclusive Education: Inclusive education is a
philosophy that recognizes the right of all students to
receive quality education, regardless of their gender, race,
socio-economic status, or abilities. Inclusive education
promotes diversity, equity, and social inclusion, and aims
to create learning environments that are accessible and
supportive to all students. Inclusive education is essential
for achieving sustainable development goals, as it promotes
the values of environmental stewardship, social justice, and
human rights.
Role of ESD in Inclusive Education: Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) is a key component of
inclusive education, as it promotes the values and
principles of sustainable development. ESD aims to
empower learners to take action for sustainable
development, and to develop the knowledge, skills, and
values needed to create a more sustainable and inclusive
society. ESD materials can help to promote awareness of
environmental issues, social justice, and human rights, and
can empower students to become active agents of change in
their communities.
Development of ESD Materials for Inclusive Education:
The development of ESD materials for inclusive education
involves creating educational resources that are accessible
and relevant to all students, including those with
disabilities. ESD materials should be designed to promote
the values of sustainable development and to foster critical
thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills. ESD
materials can include textbooks, lesson plans, teaching
aids, and multimedia resources that are tailored to the
diverse needs of learners.
Inclusive teaching practices: 1. Differentiated teaching. 2.
Adopting Assessment Strategies. 3. Teaching social
development. 4. Teaching use of assertive technology.
5.Teaching of independent learning. 6. Collaboration. 7.
Ongoing professional development. 8. Teaching using a
variety of material. 9. Instructionallly appropriate programs
and learning enviornment.
Strategies for Integrating ESD Materials into Inclusive
Education Programs
Integrating ESD materials into inclusive education
programs requires collaboration between educators,
curriculum developers, and stakeholders.
Strategies for integrating ESD materials into inclusive
education programs include: 1. Developing inclusive and
accessible ESD materials that cater to the diverse needs of
learners, including those with disabilities. 2. Providing
professional development and training for educators on
how to integrate ESD materials into their teaching
practices. 3. Engaging students in hands-on, experiential
learning activities that promote sustainability and social
inclusion.4. Creating partnerships with community
organizations and stakeholders to support the
implementation of ESD materials in inclusive education
programs. Conclusion: The development of ESD materials
for inclusive education in the curriculum is essential for
promoting sustainable development and social inclusion.
By integrating ESD materials into inclusive education
programs, educators can create learning environments that
are accessible and supportive to all students, and that
promote the values of environmental sustainability, social
justice, and human rights. This assignment has explored the
concept of inclusive education, the role of ESD in
promoting inclusive education, the development of ESD
materials, and strategies for integrating ESD materials into
inclusive education programs.
6.2. HISTORICAL PROCESS OF EXCLUSION AND
STRUGGLE FOR INCLUSION IN EDUCATION---
Education is right of every human being. Education
transform a human into man. Every individual is different
from the other. Diversity is big challenge for educationist.
Is there a need of special education system or disabled
personalities can be taught under same system?
Exclusion: UPTILL 1960s DISABILITY WAS VIEWED
AS ABNORMALITY Segregation: PERSON WITH
SPECIAL ABIITES WERE PROVIDED WITH SPECIAL
EDUCTAION SYSTEM. Integration: PLACING
PERSON WITH SPECIAL NEED IN MAIN STREAM
WITH PARTIAL OPPERTUNITIES AND SPECIAL
TREATMENT. Inclusion: PLACING PERSON WITH
SPECIAL NEED IN MAINSTREAM WITH EQUAL
OPPORTUNITY AND TREATMENT
Back in time: Journey from Exclusion to Inclusion:
EXCLUSION:Until mid 20th century disabled people
were considered abnormal and unable to function in
society. People with disabilities had no right to get
education. People were not only excluded on the basis of
disabilities but also on ethnicity, race, and religion.
SEGREGATION: Segregation is the act of separating a
population into two groups on the basis of their abilities to
get education. A new educational system was introduced
called SPECIAL EDUCATION. INTEGRATION: Aim of
integration is to avoid or reduce restrictions on any aspects
of a childs development which might result from
segregated education. INCLUSION: In world conference
on SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION held in
SALAMANCA,Spain in June 1994 UNESCO, it was stated
in the report entitled THE SALAMANCA STATEMENT
AND FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION ON SPECIAL
NEEDS EDUCATION that,
"Those with special education needs must have access to
regular schools which should accomodate them within
child centered pedagogy capable of meeting these needs."
Past and Present definition of Exclusion: OLD: Keeping
someone out from the formal education system based on
their race, colour disability, religion etc. NEW: Not
providing appropriate assistance and facilities even when
the individual is attending general school. Inclusive
Education: " a dynamic approach of responding positively
to pupil diversity and of seeing individual differences not
as problem, but as opportunity for enriching
learning."UNESCO
"In its broadest and all encompasing meaning- inclusive
education as an approach , seeks to address the learning
needs of all children, youth and adults."
(Action plan for inclusive education of children and youth
with disabilities 2005)
Principle of inclusion: Every child has right to Quality
education. Equal value and respect to all learners and
learning styles. Increasing learner's participation by
removing barriers to learning. Enables learners to
maximum level of learning
….…………………………..
6.4. Inclusive Education Strategies to teach children
with diverse need
Creating an inclusive classroom climate where all students
are encouraged to participate, by learning about students'
backgrounds and modifying approaches accordingly,
establishing ground rules for discussing controversial
issues, and developing (and helping students develop)
deeper racial and socioeconomic awareness.
Recommended strategies for student diverse needs:
1. Provide Support - Instructors can structure their courses
to support students in and out of the classroom, through
open office hours, additional learning and grading
opportunities, formative assessments, and reliable email
habits. Such support visibly extends the instructor’s
commitment to all their students’ learning.
2. Consider Teaching and Learning Frameworks -
Instructors should consider a variety of approaches to
structuring their course content, and choose a design that
best serves their student populations.
3. Examine Implicit Biases - Instructors can consider their
own attitudes towards students and strive to minimize
negative impacts. This process can involve actively
monitoring interactions with different types of students,
implementing policies like name-blind grading and inter-
rater grading to minimize the impact of bias, and
maintaining high expectations for all students.
4. Maintain Awareness of Classroom Diversity -
Instructors can develop and
maintain their awareness and understanding of various
racial and socioeconomic factors in their classes, as a way
to test their implicit bias, ensure equal access for all their
students, and even enrich classroom discussion.
Incorporate Diversity into the Curriculum - Instructors
can be sure to represent diverse types of peoples and
perspectives through course content and materials,
including readings, lecture examples, images in
PowerPoint presentations, and case studies. Doing so helps
all students to imagine themselves within various learning
scenarios.
Cultivate an Inclusive Climate - Instructors can create a
nurturing classroom where students feel valued because of
their differences, and feel comfortable participating in
class. Effective syllabus and classroom behavioral
policies can promote an inclusive environment, especially
when instructors take time to discuss such policies in class
with students.
Consider Universal Design Principles - UDL provides an
intensive framework to enable varied and comprehensive
access of course content to all students. UDL helps
instructors present information both orally and visually to
accommodate student visual or auditory impairments,
while recognizing various student learning preferences.
Solicit Student Feedback - Instructors can use
anonymous online surveys to gather information from
students regarding their prior knowledge and/or mastery
of course material at the start of the semester, and continue
to monitor how students feel about the course content and
class climate by the middle of the semester. Midterm
student course evaluations or observation protocols can
also help instructors comprehend the climate and
effectiveness of their classroom, and address inclusivity
concerns (among other concerns) in real times.
Review the Literature - Instructors can learn more about
critical pedagogies and classic texts on diversity in
education through discipline-specific resources regarding
diversity in a particular field.
6.5. “H” theory to promote inclusion: Head ,Heart and
Hands to prepare teachers to use inclusive practices.
The “head, heart and hand” is a holistic approach, first put
forth by Orr in 1992 and expanded by Sipos et al. (2008).
The basic idea is to appeal to the three key motivational
drivers of all humans: the heart, the head, and the hands.
The theory suggests that effective learning should engage
all three domains: Head (cognitive), Heart (affective), and
Hands (psychomotor). There are many reasons why the
Head Heart Hands theory can be considered as important
when designing a curriculum.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was a Swiss educational
reformer influenced by the work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
He believed in a whole-child approach that focused on the
head, heart, and hands. For Pestalozzi, education was a
vehicle for creating a more just society.
Teaching in inclusive schools is complex. It requires that
teachers are well prepared to create welcoming educational
environments and facilitate the learning of all students
irrespective of needs and abilities. A well-prepared teacher
demonstrates his or her readiness to include all learners
through three key aspects of the “heart” (i.e., the ethical
and moral dimensions impinging on teaching in inclusive
classrooms), “head” (i.e., knowledge and skills to teach
students with diverse characteristics and backgrounds), and
“hands” (i.e., application of inclusive pedagogy in real
settings).
Among the three key aspects of teacher preparation, the
one that is given minimal attention in teacher education
programs is the “heart” which, however, directly impacts
on the teachers’ commitment to teaching in inclusive
classrooms• The holistic learning approach, which
embraces the affective, psychomotor and cognitive
domains in equal measure, has made a great impact on the
ways schools are organized and supported to promote
learning among all students. It is the responsibility of
teachers and schools to improve the learning of students
who come from different backgrounds and have different
needs.
HEAD (cognitive Domain of Learning)
The head “stores” all psychological and intellectual
functions that allow us to understand the world and form
rational judgments about certain things. More specifically,
these processes include perception, memory, imagination,
thought and language.
The cognitive domain is usually described “as what we
know”, but it is in fact determined by knowledge,
understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. Within this model, teacher familiar with child
development, multiple teaching strategies, and various
evaluation strategies.
The teacher is leader, not an authority. Consequently, the
personal, philosophical and emotional part of the student is
also trained and directed as much as the intellectual part.
Many issues connected with overburdening teachers would
be resolved by a simple procedure: the inclusion of parents,
grandmothers and grandfathers, the community and
students themselves into the teaching process.
Everybody has the potential for learning, but we learn in
our own individual ways. Since human beings are flexible
and adjustable, the basic profiles provide a starting point
for understanding the learner.Heart (affective domain of
learning) Emotions stimulate our learning and determine
whether we are confident in this learning. Only when we
have strong feelings about it do we believe something and
give significance to it. The affective side of learning is of
key importance in the interplay of our feelings, actions and
thoughts.
A school teacher should use emotions as a part of the
learning process, not as its accessory because they are a
form of learning and an integral and invaluable part of
every child’s education. Engaging emotions helps to
activate the area of the central brain and when they are
involved, we understand what we learn better. Furthermore,
we believe in what we have learned and remember it.
Hands (Psychomotor domain of learning)
Hands-on learning is where instructors engage with
students in direct experience and focused reflection to
enhance students’ knowledge, skillset and values. Hands-
on learning allows students to learn through experiencing
something and can give them an opportunity to immerse
themselves in a learning environment, while putting their
acquired skills to use and building new skills.
What is Hands-On Learning?
Experimenting as part of science class. Reenacting a
historical event as part of history class. Solving problems
as part of math class. Writing a poem as part of English
class. Play strategic games as part of the critical thinking
class.
According to researches the cerebellum, which is of key
importance for maintaining posture, coordination, balance
and movement. The part of the brain that processes
movements is the very same part that processes learning.
Many researchers established that sensorimotor
integration is a requirement for maturity to attend school .
Researches proves that almost 85% of learners are
kinesthetic learners, and yet the school program offers few
techniques of kinesthetic learning.
To neglect the body in learning is to neglect the fact that
the human body possesses an integrated system of cells,
molecules, muscles and organs which are completely
interdependent.
The contemporary brain, mind and body research
established significant connections between movement and
learning. Braincompatible learning means that teachers
should integrate mathematics, movement, geography,
social skills, imitation, natural science and technical
content and physical education.
The modern school also puts emphasis on self-de-
termination, self work, self-organization and self-
management. Such a school teaches students self-reliance:
prepares them to manage themselves, to act on their own,
to study by themselves and to motivate themselves.
6.6. Acceptance: Embracing diversity and promoting
acceptance of all students, regardless of their abilities,
cultures, languages, or identities. Belonging: Fostering a
sense of belonging among students, ensuring they feel
valued, respected, and supported. Cultural Competence:
Developing cultural awareness and understanding, and
incorporating diverse perspectives and experiences into
teaching practices. Differentiation: Tailoring instruction to
meet the diverse needs of students, including students with
disabilities and English language learners. Equity:
Addressing systemic barriers and biases, and promoting
equal opportunities for all students to succeed. Flexibility:
Being adaptable and responsive to the diverse needs of
students, and willing to try new approaches and strategies.
Growth Mindset: Encouraging students to embrace
challenges, take risks, and view failures as opportunities for
growth and learning. Inclusive Curriculum: Incorporating
diverse perspectives, histories, and experiences into the
curriculum, and promoting critical thinking and inquiry.
Intersectionality: Recognizing and addressing the
intersections of identity, privilege, and oppression, and
promoting inclusive practices that consider multiple
perspectives. Joyful Learning: Creating a positive and
engaging learning environment that promotes joy,
creativity, and a love of learning. Kindness and Empathy:
Fostering a culture of kindness, empathy, and respect, and
promoting positive relationships among students, teachers,
and staff. Language Accessibility: Providing language
support and accommodations for students who are English
language learners or have language-based disabilities.
Multilingualism: Valuing and supporting students' home
languages and cultures, and promoting multilingualism in
the classroom. Neurodiversity: Embracing and supporting
students with diverse learning styles, abilities, and
neurological differences. Opportunities for All: Providing
equal opportunities for all students to participate,
contribute, and succeed. Parent and Community
Engagement: Building partnerships with parents, families,
and communities to promote inclusive education and
support student success. Quality Education: Ensuring all
students have access to high-quality education, resources,
and support. Respect and Empowerment: Promoting
respect, empowerment, and student voice, and encouraging
students to take ownership of their learning. Safe and
Supportive Environment: Creating a safe, supportive, and
inclusive learning environment that promotes social-
emotional well-being. Technology Accessibility: Ensuring
that technology and digital resources are accessible and
usable by all students. Understanding and Awareness:
Developing understanding and awareness of diverse
experiences, perspectives, and identities. Valuing
Diversity: Valuing and celebrating diversity in all its
forms, and promoting inclusive practices that support
student success. Welcoming Environment: Creating a
welcoming and inclusive environment that promotes a
sense of belonging and connection. X - eXtra Support:
Providing extra support and accommodations for students
who need them, and ensuring equal access to education.
Youth Leadership: Empowering students to take
leadership roles and promote inclusive education and social
change. Zero Tolerance for Discrimination: Promoting a
zero-tolerance policy for discrimination, bullying, and
harassment, and ensuring all students feel safe and
respected.
By following these ABCs, we can create inclusive learning
environments that promote diversity, equity, and
accessibility, and support the success of all students!
Historical perspective of environmental education in
school
Perspective of environmental education
 Mankind could not exist without the earth to which it
owes its life and could not have continued to exist to this
day. This earth we call our world is an ecosystem.
Mankind could not survive alone in this ecosystem.
 Environmental education is a process that allows
individuals to explore environmental issues, engage in
problem solving, and take action to improve the
environment. As a result, individuals develop a deeper
understanding of environmental issues and have the
skills to make informed and responsible decisions.
Approach of Environmental Education
 The Geographic Approach in environmental study
refers to using geographic science supported by GIS as a
framework for understanding our world and applying
geographic knowledge to solve problems and guide
human behaviour.
 Environmental Education (EE) is a process in which
individuals gain awareness of their environment and
acquire knowledge, skills, values, experiences, and also
the determination, which will enable them to act -
individually and collectively - to solve present and future
environmental problems.
 The components of environmental education are:
Awareness and sensitivity to the environment and
environmental challenges. Knowledge and understanding
of the environment and environmental challenges.
Attitudes of concern for the environment and motivation to
improve or maintain environmental quality. Skills to
identify and help resolve environmental challenges.
Participation in activities that lead to the resolution of
environmental challenge. Environmental history emerged
as a new field of study as environmental problems began to
rise up the global political agenda in the 1960s and 1970s.
Its primary goal is to show how environmental change and
human actions are interconnect.
The four stages in conservation history are Pragmatic
resource conservation, moral and aesthetic nature
preservation, a growing concern about health and
ecological damage caused by pollution, and global
environmental citizenship.
More specifically, it explores into three main themes: how
the environment shapes human history; how attitudes
towards the environment influence human actions; and how
these actions bring about environmental changes.•
In An Environmental History of the World, Hughes
demonstrates how natural forces and resources have shaped
societies on a global scale— how people and the
environment share a reciprocal relationship, giving and
taking, but often in unequal amounts.
Primary sources of history include: personal
journals/diaries/memoirs, letters, court proceedings,
legislative debates, newspaper and magazine articles,
movies, music, art, etc. Secondary Sources (i.e.,
historiography) – Books and articles produced by
historians.
Chapter 9 -- LIFE SKILLS
The World Health Organization has defined life skills as,
"the abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that
enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and
challenges of everyday life"
UNICEF defines life skills as “a behaviour change or
behaviour development approach designed to address a
balance of three areas: knowledge, attitude and skills”.
Outcomes of skill based education
lessened violent behaviour -- Increased pro -social
behaviour and decreased negative, self-destructive
behaviour --- Increased the ability to plan ahead and choose
effective solutions to problems --- Improved self-image,
self-awareness, social and emotional adjustment ---
Increased acquisition of knowledge --- Improved classroom
behaviour gains in self control and handling of
interpersonal problems and coping with anxiety ---
Improved constructive conflict resolution with peers,
impulse control and popularity.
9.1. Mobile Navigation ,tracking
Mobile navigation refers to designing and implementing
menus, controls, and interactions that enable users to
navigate a digital product’s content and features. It
encompasses the placement, visibility, and functionality of
navigation elements, such as menus, icons, tabs, and
gestures.
People in Nordic countries, North America, Australia, and
New Zealand have the best spatial navigational abilities.
Mobile navigation is important due to the,
Time Efficiency: Mobile users often have limited time and
attention spans. An effective navigation system allows
users to quickly and efficiently navigate through the app or
website, saving their time and providing a more convenient
experience.
The navigation is the way your users will get from point A
to point B. It’s how they’ll discover the design and interact
with the product. Designers and writers have described
navigation as the road system of an app, because they are
the highways that users need to enjoy the product.
The navigation design of any product is crucial. While it’s
tempting to think of the goal of the navigation as “getting
from A to B in the least amount of time possible”, that
would be a mistake. Your navigation isn’t about getting
users there quickly – it’s about making the way there
logical and easy.
Users don’t want to wonder what buttons do or where links
will go. From a usability point-of-view, it’s crucial that the
navigation is intuitive to your target users.
This is the time to pull out all stops and create a mobile
navigation system that works with users instead of against
them.
9.2. Driving and Parking skills: Driving is an important
life skill to possess. Not only does it open up a world
possibilities, but it also provides a sense of freedom and
independence. This life skill can also help you save time
and money, as well as allow you to socialize with family
and friends. Japan is home to the world's best drivers.
The safe-driving skills listed below are described in this
section:
Managing space. -- Negotiating intersections. -- Managing
speed. -- Negotiating curves. -- Turning, merging and
passing. -- Negotiating highways and interchanges.
Driving Tips for Beginners
 - Start With Driver's Ed. --- Have your license or learner's
permit. --- Adjust the vehicle so that you're comfortable
behind the wheel. --- Get rid of distractions. --- Do not
overthink the driving situation. --- Calm your nerves. ---
Practice makes perfect. --- Stay on familiar roads.
Parking sensors are proximity sensors for road vehicles
designed to alert the driver of obstacles while parking.
Car parking sensors not only provide enhanced safety for
drivers and the vehicle but also protect surrounding
pedestrians and objects. The sensors' ability to detect
obstacles and provide timely alerts helps prevent potential
accidents involving pedestrians, bicycles, or other
stationary objects.
9.3. Cleanliness and waste Management
Cleaning and organizing are learned skills. A cleaner
performs all the duties required to keep homes, businesses,
and public facilities neat and hygienic.
Waste management can be defined as the actions and
process of managing waste from its creation to its disposal.
It is important to teach students about waste management
because it is a foundational aspect of our relationship with
the environment.
The most important reason for waste collection is the
protection of the environment and the health of the
population. Rubbish and waste can cause air and water
pollution. Rotting garbage is also known to produce
harmful gases that mix with the air and can cause breathing
problems in people.
What Are the 5R’s of waste management: Five
principles of waste management are
1. Refuse: Make sure to work closely with your
procurement team so you can establish an effective
approach to this step. . You’ll have to minimize the waste
production by refusing to use materials such as single-use
plastics and non-recyclable products.
2.Reduce : Reduce refers to the reduction of harmful,
wasteful, and non-recyclable materials so you can save
more money, which also benefits the environment. When
you lessen the amount of these materials, especially non-
recyclables, less of it goes in the garbage. The more
material that gets dumped in the landfill, the quicker it fills,
thus requiring more space for garbage storage. This
ultimately leads to more negative effects on the
environment.
Try to use the smallest amount of material to lessen the
amount of excess waste. A great example of this is printing
a document. You can lessen the paper waste by printing
double sided.
3. Reuse :The “reuse” step refers to the diligent reuse of
any materials. Unfortunately, many companies have fallen
into the routine of throwing away completely recyclable
material on the basis that it won’t hurt to do it one time.
The problem is that this feeling of convenience in the
moment leads to a constant habit. It is actually becoming a
crisis because the number of plastic products that are being
consumed is to a level that’s becoming unsustainable.
4. Repurpose : Utilizing this step is imperative, especially
if you can refuse, reduce, or reuse certain items and
materials that will be used in your business. The idea of
repurposing involves taking items that were meant for one
purpose but can be used for other ones. This is also known
as upcycling in the green or environmental circle. It often
requires thinking outside the box.
5. Recycle :After you’ve made quality efforts to go through
all the previous steps from the five R s, recycling is a great
final option. There are many businesses that don’t actually
practice recycling. If your business is one of these, adopt
the process and start by gathering any recyclable materials
that are on your worksite. This includes cardboard, paper,
plastics, glass, and organics.
9.4. Traffic Rules
The system should be designed in a manner that without
basic road safety knowledge, a person should not be able
to withstand his/her vehicle.
The major benefit to drivers of preventing crashes is
avoiding significant and long-lasting personal costs
resulting from injury or death. There are also financial
benefits to safe driving, largely from avoiding crash
consequences.
Traffic light sign on roads includes three colors: red,
yellow, and green. The red indicates that the vehicles must
stop, the yellow indicates that they must slow down, and
the green shows that they can go ahead. Road traffic
control at its most elemental level is achieved through the
use of a system of signs, signals, and markings.
Sweden. Sweden, with 3.14 traffic deaths per 100,000
people, ranks among the countries with the best drivers and
stringent traffic laws.
Traffic rules focused that always use a helmet. Do not ride
or wheel your vehicle on to the footpath. Don't leave your
lane don't be hasty stay calm in case of traffic jam. Use
your lights when riding at night.
Accidents can be prevented by adhering to traffic safety
regulations. Driving within posted speed limits and obeying
traffic signals are crucial. Driving while using a cell phone
is never a good idea.
9.5. Public Dealing
Dealing is the act of giving something in return for
something received. The important key in public dealing is
to know about your public (the people around you).
There's an old saying: “Advertising is what you pay for;
publicity is what you pray for.”
While dealing public, making an interaction with your
listeners is one of the basic thing that you should be
getting on with. First, just make an eye contact with the
audience and keep a gleaming smile on your face to make
them feel relaxed and listen to you. Communicate only to
them.
Try not to take their anger or frustration personally.
Instead, stay calm, apologize, and focus on how you will
help resolve the situation. At times, people might be rude,
or even abusive. When you don't have the skills to handle
these types of situations, this can be intimidating.
People with good public dealing are easy people they have
characteristics of: Good listener, understanding, Non
judgmental, doesn’t jump to conclusion, Thoughtful, non
critical, Not easily hurt, forgiving, Patient, calm ,
approachable.
9.6. Personal safety and reporting rescue/police
Personal safety is defined as “an individual's ability to go
about their everyday life free from the threat or fear of
psychological, emotional or physical harm from others.”
Personal safety can be in the workplace, in public and
private spaces. It can include domestic abuse, hate crime,
offensive weapon offenses, stalking, theft, identity theft,
cyber crime and harassment.
Prioritizing personal safety reduces the likelihood of
accidents and harm when faced with risky behaviors, which
can help avoid physical injuries, medical expenses, and
potential long-term health consequences. 2. Long-term
Well-being: By prioritizing safety, individuals can
safeguard their long-term well-being.
Ways to protect yourself
There are a number of ways that people can protect their
own personal safety:
1. Carry a personal alarm and be alert about your
surroundings. 2. Make sure someone you trust knows
where you are meant to be. 3. Stay in well-lit areas. 4.
Don’t keep items in a back pocket. 5. Keep items in sight
wherever possible. 6. Follow work policies, procedure and
guidance for health and safety including lone working. 7.
Be careful what you share on social media. 8. To know
about personal safety apps 9. Lock doors, windows, cars.
10. Never provide your security details or bank card details
to anyone who has called you. 10. Never give your pin
number to anyone 11. Be aware of escape routes for
emergencies and post the police and fire department
numbers near telephones. 12. Finally, if a crime does
occur...REPORT IT! Everyone should consider it his or her
responsibility to report crime. Many criminals develop
favorite areas for committing crime, as well as predictable
methods of operation. When you report all the facts about a
crime, it helps the police assign officers in the places where
crimes are occurring or where they are most likely to occur,
and your report may help prevent a crime from reoccurring.
9.7. Personal rights and other’s rights
A right is essentially an entitlement or a justified claim. It
denotes what we are entitled to as citizens, as individuals
and as human beings.
The Declaration outlines 30 rights and freedoms that
belong to all of us and that nobody can take away from us.
The rights that were included continue to form the basis for
international human rights law. Today, the Declaration
remains a living document. It is the most translated
document in the world.
The Declaration was proclaimed by the United Nations
General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 (General
Assembly resolution 217 A) as a common standard of
achievements for all peoples and all nations.
How To Promote Human Rights: 10 Examples
1. Research human rights issues. ... 2. Donate to good
organizations. ... 3. Change your shopping habits. ... 4.
Connect to human rights movements. ... 5. Vote in every
election. ... 6. Put pressure on those responsible for
upholding human rights. ... 7. Protest inequalities. ... 8.
Support mothers and parents. 9. Take action when you see
discrimination ….10. Support economic rights
In Pakistan the Constitution has provided some
fundamental rights and freedom to Pakistanis. The
Constitution contains 25 rights in all of which 15 relate to
civil and political rights whereas the rest of the 10 are
social and economic rights.
NCHR (National Commission for Human Rights) is
committed to fulfilling its mandate of promoting the human
rights of all citizens.
If you respect someone, you have due regard for their
wishes, rights, or customs, and you would try to avoid
doing things that they would dislike or regard as wrong. In
exercising our rights, we must therefore respect the rights
and freedoms of others.
Champion Countries for best Human rights
practices/Care about human rights.
1. Denmark - 2. Sweden - 3. Norway - 4. Canada - 5.
Netherlands - 6. Switzerland - 7. Finland - 8. New Zealand
----- D-S-N-C-N-S-F-NZ
Software; Software is a set of instructions, data or
programs used to operate computers and execute specific
tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the
physical aspects of a computer.
Software is a generic term used to refer to applications,
scripts and programs that run on a device. It can be thought
of as the variable part of a computer, while hardware is the
invariable part.
The two main categories of software are application
software and system software. An application is software
that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. System
software is designed to run a computer's hardware and
provides a platform for applications to run on top of.
Early software was written for specific computers and sold
with the hardware it ran on. In the 1980s, software began to
be sold on floppy disks, and later on CDs and DVDs.
Today, most software is purchased and directly
downloaded over the internet. Software can be found on
vendor websites or application service provider websites.
Examples and types of software
Among the various categories of software, the most
common types include the following: 1. Application
software. The most common type of software, application
software is a computer software package that performs a
specific function for a user, or in some cases, for another
application. An application can be self-contained, or it can
be a group of programs that run the application for the user.
Examples of modern
applications include office suites, graphics software,
databases and databasE management programs, web
browsers, word processors, software development tools,
image editors and communication platforms. 2. System
software. These software programs are designed to run a
computer's application programs and hardware. System
software coordinates the activities and functions of the
hardware and software. In addition, it controls the
operations of the computer hardware and provides an
environment or platform for all the other types of software
to work in. The OS is the best example of system
software; it manages all the other computer programs.
Other examples of system software include the firmware,
computer language translators and system utilities. 3.
Driver software. Also known as device drivers, this
software is often considered a type of system software.
Device drivers control the devices and peripherals
connected to a computer, enabling them to perform their
specific tasks. Every device that is connected to a
computer needs at least one device driver to function.
Examples include software that comes with any
nonstandard hardware, including special game controllers,
as well as the software that enables standard hardware,
such as USB storage devices, keyboards, headphones and
printers. 4. Middleware. The term middleware describes
software that mediates between application and system
software or between two different kinds of application
software. For example, middleware enables Microsoft
Windows to talk to Excel and Word. It is also used to send
a remote work request from an application in a computer
that has one kind of OS, to an application in a computer
with a different OS.
How does software work? All software provides the
directions and data computers need to work and meet users'
needs. However, the two different types -- application
software and system software -- work in distinctly different
ways.
Application software: Application software consists of
many programs that perform specific functions for end
users, such as writing reports and navigating websites.
Applications can also perform tasks for other applications.
Applications on a computer cannot run on their own; they
require a computer's OS, along with other supporting
system software programs, to work. These desktop
applications are installed on a user's computer and use the
computer memory to carry out tasks. They take up space on
the computer's hard drive and do not need an internet
connection to work. However, desktop applications must
adhere to the requirements of the hardware devices they
run on. Web applications, on the other hand, only require
internet access to work; they do not rely on the hardware
and system software to run. Consequently, users can launch
web applications from devices that have a web browser.
Since the components responsible for the application
functionality are on the server, users can launch the app
from Windows, Mac, Linux or any other OS.
System software: System software sits between the
computer hardware and the application software. Users do
not interact directly with system software as it runs in the
background, handling the basic functions of the computer.
This software coordinates a system's hardware and
software so users can run high-level application software to
perform specific actions. System software executes when a
computer system boots up and continues running as long as
the system is on.
Here are the key differences between system and
application software.
The dimensions of software quality include the following
characteristics:
• Accessibility. The degree to which a diverse group of
people, including individuals
who require adaptive technologies such as voice
recognition and screen magnifiers,
can comfortably use the software. Compatibility. The
suitability of the software for use in a variety of
environments, such as with different OSes, devices and
browsers. Efficiency. The ability of the software to
perform well without wasting energy,
resources, effort, time or money. Functionality. Software's
ability to carry out its specified functions. Installability.
The ability of the software to be installed in a specified
environment. Localization. The various languages, time
zones and other such features a software can function in.
Maintainability. How easily the software can be modified
to add and improve features, fix bugs, etc. Performance.
How fast the software performs under a specific
load.Portability. The ability of the software to be easily
transferred from one location to
another. Reliability. The software's ability to perform a
required function under specific conditions for a defined
period of time without any errors. Scalability. The measure
of the software's ability to increase or decrease
performance in response to changes in its processing
demands. Security. The software's ability to protect against
unauthorized access, invasion of privacy, theft, data loss,
malicious software, etc. Testability. How easy it is to test
the software. Usability. How easy it is to use the software.
History of software. The term software was not used until
the late 1950s. During this time, although different types of
programming software were being created, they were
typically not commercially available. Consequently, users
-- mostly scientists and large enterprises -- often had to
write their own software. The following is a brief timeline
of the history of software:
June 21, 1948. Tom Kilburn, a computer scientist, writes
the world's first piece of software for the Manchester Baby
computer at the University of Manchester in England. •
Early 1950s. General Motors creates the first OS, for the
IBM 701 Electronic Data Processing Machine. It is called
General Motors Operating System, or GM OS. • 1958.
Statistician John Tukey coins the word software in an
article about computer programming. • Late 1960s.
Floppy disks are introduced and are used in the 1980s and
1990s to distribute software.
An introduction to MS Word
One of the most widely used programs of Microsoft Office
suite, MS Word is a word processor developed by
Microsoft. An introduction to MS Word, its features and its
uses, have all been discussed in detail, in this article. Also,
a few sample questions based on this MS Office program
have been given further below for the reference of
candidates preparing for competitive exams.Since MS
Word is one of the most used programs of the Office Suite,
some basic information regarding its creation and
development has been given below:
Charles Simonyi, a developer and Richard Brodie, a
software engineer, were the two creators of MS Word.
This program was initially named “Multi-Tool Word” but
later, was renamed as MS Word. It was introduced in 1983.
Word for Windows is available standalone or as a part of
MS Office suite. MS Word for Mac was introduced by
Microsoft as Word 1.0 in 1985. The extension for any word
file is “.doc or .docx.”
What is MS Word? Used to make professional-quality
documents, letters, reports, etc., MS Word is a word
processor developed by Microsoft. It has advanced features
which allow you to format and edit your files and
documents in the best possible way.
Where to find MS Word on your personal computer?
Steps: Start → All Programs → MS Office → MS Word.
What are the uses of MS Word? MS Word enables users
to do write-ups, create documents, resumes, contracts, etc.
This is one of the most commonly used programs under the
Office suite. -- To create an MS Word doc, follow the steps
mentioned above to open Microsoft Word. Then once the
program is open, click on “File” followed by “New”. This
opens a new doc where something new can be created.
Since it is used by people of all age groups, in schools, in
colleges and for official purposes, having proper
knowledge of Microsoft Word is a must. The preview of
the MS Doc file once it is opened is given below:
MS Word Document
Also, from a competitive exam perspective, one must be
well aware of this topic. To get the list of all major
Government exams conducted in the country, aspirants can
visit the linked article.
Features of MS Word
Now let us read more about the features and components of
an MS Word doc file in detail.
The image given below shows the different elements and
categories which are available in MS Word doc:
Home: This has options like font colour, font size, font
style, alignment, bullets, line spacing, etc. All the basic
elements which one may need to edit their document is
available under the Home option. Insert: Tables, shapes,
images, charts, graphs, header, footer, page number, etc.
can all be entered in the document. They are included in the
“Insert” category. Design: The template or the design in
which you want your document to be created can be
selected under the Design tab. Choosing an appropriate tab
will enhance the appearance of your document. Page
Layout: Under the Page Layout tab comes options like
margins, orientation, columns, lines, indentation, spacing,
etc. References: This tab is the most useful for those who
are creating a thesis or writing books or lengthy documents.
Options like citation, footnote, table of contents, caption,
bibliography, etc. can be found under this tab. Review:
Spell check, grammar, Thesaurus, word count, language,
translation, comments, etc. can all be tracked under
the review tab. This acts as an advantage for those who get
their documents reviewed on MS Word.
Apart from all the above-mentioned features, the page can
be set in different views and layouts, which can be added
and optimised using the View tab on the Word document.
Margins and scales are also available for the benefit of the
users.
When compared with MS PowerPoint, MS Word is more
of reading while PPT is more of visual and graphical
representation of data.
Uses of MS Word Given below are the different fields in
which MS Word is used and simplifies the work of an
individual: In Education: It is considered as one of the
simplest tools which can be used by both teachers and
students. Creating notes is easier using MS Word as they
can be made more interactive by adding shapes and images.
It is also convenient to make assignments on MS Word and
submitting them
Online. In Workplace: Submitting letters, bills, creating
reports, letterheads, sample documents, can all easily be
done using MS Word. Creating & Updating Resume:
One of the best tools to create your resumes and is easy to
edit and make changes in it as per your experience. For
Authors: Since separate options are available for
bibliography, table of contents, etc., it is the best tool which
can be used by authors for writing books and adjusting it as
per the layout and alignment of your choice
Q 1. How can you open the column dialogue box?
Answer: (1) Alt+O+C
Q 2. Which is the default alignment in MS Word?Answer:
(3) Left
Q 3. “Ctrl + =” is used for _________ Answer: (2)
Subscript
Q 4. A combination of which shortcut keys to use to split a
table? Answer: (1) Ctrl+shift+enter
Q 1. Which formatting features can be added to the MS
Word document?
Ans. The common formatting features which are available
on MS Word include:
o Font Style, Size and Colour</li
o Header and Footer
o Insert Images
o Add tables and bulleted lists
o Set a page layout
o Add Word ArtThe basic feature of why people choose
MS Word over any other text editor is that it makes the
document
more visually interactive and appealing.
Q 2. What is Microsoft Word used for?? MS Word can
also help you organize and write documents more
efficiently. When the document is created in Word, the user
can choose to start from a blank document or let a template
do much of the work
for the user. From then on, the basic steps in creating and
sharing documents are the same.
Q 3. What are the basic functions of MS Word? Basic
functions of Microsoft Word:
• Creating text documents • Editing and Formatting the
existing documents • Making a text document interactive
with different features and tools • Graphical documents,
comprising images • Used by Authors and Researchers •
Detect grammatical errors in a text document
Q 4. What is the extension of an MS Word file? An MS
Word file is always saved with the extension of .doc
or .docx. Q 5. What are the five basic fields of
application for MS Word? Using Microsoft Word, one
can create resumes, reports, and write letters. Authors can
use it to write their books and researchers for writing a
thesis. Apart from this, it can be used as a simple text
editor.
MS Excel -- MS Excel is a commonly used Microsoft
Office application. It is a spreadsheet program which is
used to save and analyse numerical data.
MS Excel is a spreadsheet program where one can record
data in the form of tables. It is easy to analyse data in an
Excel spreadsheet. How to open MS Excel? Steps-->
Click on Start -- Then All Programs -- Next step is to click
on MS Office --Then finally, choose the MS-Excel option.
Alternatively, you can also click on the Start button and
type MS Excel in the search option available.
What is a cell? A spreadsheet is in the form of a table
comprising rows and columns. The rectangular box at the
intersection point between rows and columns forms a cell.
What is Cell Address? The cell address is the name by
which is cell can be addressed. For example, if row 7 is
interested in column G, then the cell address is G7.
Features of MS Excel: Various editing and formatting can
be done on an Excel spreadsheet. Discussed below are the
various features of MS Excel. Home: Comprises options
like font size, font styles, font colour, background colour,
alignment, formatting options and styles, insertion and
deletion of cells and editing options. Insert: Comprises
options like table format and style, inserting images and
figures, adding graphs, charts and sparklines, header and
footer option, equation and symbols. Page
Layout:Themes, orientation and page setup options are
available under the page layout option Formulas: Since
tables with a large amount of data can be created in MS
excel, under this feature, you can add formulas to your
table and get quicker solutions. Data: Adding external data
(from the web), filtering options and data tools are
available under this category. Review: Proofreading can be
done for an excel sheet (like spell check) in the review
category and a reader can add comments in this part. View:
Different views in which we want the spreadsheet to be
displayed can be edited here. Options to zoom in and out
and pane arrangement are available under this category
Benefits of Using MS Excel: MS Excel is widely used for
various purposes because the data is easy to save, and
information can be added and removed without any
discomfort and less hard work. Easy To Store Data: Since
there is no limit to the amount of information that can be
saved in a spreadsheet, MS Excel is widely used to save
data or to analyse data. Filtering information in Excel is
easy and convenient.
Easy To Recover Data: If the information is written on a
piece of paper, finding it may take longer, however, this is
not the case with excel spreadsheets. Finding and
recovering data is easy. Application of Mathematical
Formulas: Doing calculations has become easier and less
time-taking with the formulas option in MS excel
More Secure: These spreadsheets can be password secured
in a laptop or personal computer and the probability of
losing them is way lesser in comparison to data written in
registers or piece of paper. Data at One Place: Earlier,
data was to be kept in different files and registers when the
paperwork was done. Now, this
has become convenient as more than one worksheet can be
added in a single MS Excel file. Neater and Clearer
Visibility of Information: When the data is saved in the
form of a table, analysing it becomes easier. Thus,
information is a spreadsheet that is more readable and
understandable.
MS Excel – Points To Remember There are certain things
which one must know with respect to MS Excel, its
applications and usage:
• An MS Excel file is saved with an extension of .xls •
Companies with large staff and workers use MS Excel as
saving employee information becomes easier • Excel
spreadsheets are also used in hospitals where the
information of patients can be saved more easily and can be
removed conveniently once their medical history is cleared
• The sheet on which you work is called a Worksheet •
Multiple worksheets can be added in a single Excel file. •
This is a data processing application
Q 1. The address that is obtained by the combination of the
Row number and the Column alphabet is called ________.
Answer: (4) Cell Address
Q 2. Where is the option for page border given in the MS
Excel spreadsheet? Answer: (5) Page Border cannot be
added in excel worksheet
Q 3. Excel workbook is a collection of _______ and
_______. Answer: (1) Worksheet and charts
Q 4. What type of chart is useful for comparing values over
categories? Answer: (2) Column Chart
Q 5. There is an option to add comments in an Excel
worksheet, what are the cells called in which comments can
be
added? Answer: (1) Cell Tip
Q 6. Which of the following symbols needs to be added in
the formula bar, before adding a formula? Answer: (5) =
Q 7. Which keyboard key is used for Help in MS Excel?
Answer: (3) F1
Q 8. How can you activate a cell in MS Excel? Answer :
By clicking on it
- MS Excel is a spreadsheet program where one can record
data in the form of tables. This gives the user a more
systematic display of data.
The main features of MS Excel include inserting a pivot
table, sorting of tabulated data, adding formulas to the
sheet, and calculating large data.
Q 3. What are the common MS Excel formulas? the
common calculations which can be done using MS Excel:
Addition - Subtraction - Average - Maximum and
Minimum - Concatenate - Count
Q 4. What is a cell in Microsoft Excel? MS Excel
comprises a spreadsheet is in the form of a table
comprising rows and columns. The rectangular box at the
intersection point between rows and columns forms a cell.
Q 5. Can multiple sheets be added to a single spreadsheet?
Ans. Yes, MS Excel gives an option to add multiple
worksheets to a single spreadsheet. The user can rename
each of these worksheets as per their requirements.
What is mind mapping?
Traditionally, a mind map is done with a pen (or, ideally,
loads of colored pencils or markers) and paper. You start
by writing a central idea or theme in the middle of a blank
sheet of paper. Then the fun starts: around your central
theme, you create "nodes" connected by lines, each with its
own related idea or theme. For example, if the central
theme was "Summer" (say, for a marketing campaign), the
first five or so nodes might be "Good weather," "BBQs,"
"Vacation," "Air conditioning," and "School's out"—or
whatever else it is that you think of when you think of
summer.
From each node, you then repeat the process, drilling
deeper into the different concepts. "BBQs" might lead to
"Family time," "Good food," and "Burgers." "School's out"
could lead to "Summer jobs," and "Extracurriculars,”.
Some ideas will also connect back to other ideas. "Family
time" could also link to "Good weather" and "Vacation."
"Burgers" could link to "Summer jobs." But by getting all
these branching concepts down on paper, you can start to
see the relationships between different things and generate
new ideas. Mind mapping software is a tool that allows
users to visually organize and structure information,
thoughts, and ideas. It creates a visual representation of
information in the form of a diagram or map, connecting
related ideas and concepts. This type of software helps to
improve brainstorming, note-taking, project planning, and
problem solving by
providing a clear and concise way to connect information
and ideas.
The 5 best mind mapping tools • Coggle for mind map
beginners and occasional use
• MindMeister for collaborating on a mind map with a team
• Ayoa for a modern approach to mind mapping •
MindNode for Apple users • Xmind for personal
brainstorming
Explanation of Teaching Continuum
1. Exposition: Exposition includes those verbal methods in
which some authority or expert (textbook, speaker, film,
video, fact sheet) presents information without overt
interaction taking place between the expert and the
learners. Common examples of the expository method are
lecture, video or textbook reading.
Uses and Benefits: To present information, especially
when time is limited. To give directions. To wrap up an
activity
Problems and Concerns: Verbal learning tends to be
passive. Any verbal presentation is organized according to
the leader's idea of logical order. This may not be the same
as the learner's logical order, especially with culturally
diverse groups of learners. What is said is not always what
is heard, and verbal presentations are open to interpretation.
Verbal presentations are limited by the learner's attention
span (whether young or old). Visual aids help. Verbal
presentations are difficult for children in elementary grades
to follow. They need concrete materials in order to
understand concepts and ideas. The leader can make
exposition more interactive by asking questions. This is a
good technique to use to review previously learned content
material, check for understanding, and/or present new
material.
Strategies: Lecture, illustrated lecture (e.g., slide show,
PowerPoint, video), lecture with discussion, guest speaker,
panel discussion, debate, point-counter point, storytelling,
dramatization, reading aloud, teleconference, poster, chart,
exhibits, guided field trip (content), guided imagery,
simulated field trip, drill and practice,
games (content), recitation, textbooks, manuals, handouts,
brochures, fact sheets, fiction, non-fiction, computer-
assisted instruction, distance learning
2. Discussion: A discussion is an open forum in which
learners express their opinions as well as review factual
material. It is a natural opportunity for learners to build
skills in communication, inference, application, synthesis,
and drawing conclusions. Typically the pattern of
discussions can be characterized as either “ping pong” or
“basketball” style. The former involves the leader (or
facilitator) saying something first, then a participant
responding and then back to the leader. This back-and-forth
keeps the interaction under the control of the leader. The
latter involves the leader saying something and then the
discussion bounces around among the participants with
little or no involvement by the leader. Basketball style
discussions tend to involve more participants and generate
a wider range of ideas and perspectives. In most learning
situations, we strive to have learners talk as much or more
than the leader.
Two broad categories of discussions are: • Open
discussion—learners determine the topic and the role of
the leader is to ask those questions that will lead the
learners to consider various ideas. The leader may need to
define terms and encourage differing points of view. •
Planned discussion—the leader determines the content of
the discussion, plans the questions in advance, and guides
the learners toward some predetermined goal or conclusion.
Uses and Benefits: • To introduce a topic • To bring to a
topic a wide variety of information, attitudes, opinions,
insights, and talents • To allow learners (participants) to
bring in life experiences • To help learners make
inferences, draw conclusions, communicate, and express
values and attitudes • To involve learners cognitively
• To create greater motivation, interest, and involvement in
learning and decision making • To address controversial
issues and help learners clarify values and positions • To
provide a safety valve for emotional tensions • To use the
expertise inherent in each group
Problems and Concerns: • It is a verbal approach. • It can
be controversial, even to the extent of interfering with
someone's ability to learn. • One or a few participants can
dominate discussion. Some learners will not participate,
especially in a culturally diverse learning situation.
Strategies: Small group (facilitated or non-facilitated),
large group (facilitated or non-facilitated), fish bowl, buzz
groups, couple buzzers (also in triads), think-pair-share,
case discussion, interviews, circle response, group writing
or drawing, friends meeting, talking stick, Dear Abby or
Andy, brainstorming, electronic (chat rooms, listserv),
video and teleconferencing, interviews of guests and
resource people
3. Demonstrations: There are two types of
demonstrations. During a traditional demonstration, the
leader stands before the group, shows something, and then
tells what happened. The leader is the only one involved.
The emphasis is on content. During a discovery
demonstration the leader silently conducts the
demonstration and the learners attempt to determine why
what is shown occurs. The emphasis is on
process rather than content.
Conducting demonstrations poses some unique
challenges, especially if doing them in front of groups of
20-30 learners. The following tips apply to many
different kinds of demonstrations:
• Practice, Practice and Practice—Anytime you do a
demonstration, it is important to try it out first, to be sure
you know that it will work the way it is supposed to and to
identify potential problems. Remember one of Murphy’s
laws: If you tell someone that something will always
happen, it won’t; and if you tell them it never happens, it
will. --------• Take precautions—Anticipate potential
accidents or problems (e.g., have paper towels for spills,
protect surface areas with plastic, have a first aid kit). ------
• Make everything visible—Elevate demonstration
materials as high as is practical and safe (e.g., on a sturdy
box on a table). Stand behind or to the side so that you do
not block the learners’ view. Use food coloring to make
liquids more visible. Have the learners sit in a tiered or
layered arrangement like bleachers close to the
demonstration so that everyone can see (e.g., the first row
sits on the floor, the second on chairs, the third on desk or
table tops).
Uses and Benefits: • To protect learners when danger is
involved • To show how to use something • To begin or
end a unit of study • To control time when the action needs
to be stopped periodically to show important changes or to
point out specific elements • To illustrate an important
concept when there is not enough equipment and
substitutions cannot be made • To develop problem solving
skills • To grab learners' attention before introducing a
concept or unit • To actively, mentally engage learners in
learning
Problems and Concerns • Demonstrations don't always
work. • Learners may become restless and inattentive. •
Learners may have difficulty seeing the demonstration. • It
is difficult to locate demonstrations that are difficult
enough to challenge the learners yet simple enough to
allow for possible solutions. • Because the group may ask
questions, the person who is demonstrating needs to know
precisely
what happened and why. • The fact that there is a lack of
closure in the discovery demonstration is a problem for
many leaders. The emphasis is on problem solving, not
reaching one "right" answer.
Strategies: Models, skills, procedures, scientific processes,
experiments, modeling, guided field trip (process)
4. Guided Discovery: Guided discovery is a method by
which learners develop inquiry skills and information
processing skills. The learners are totally involved with
materials, people, and the environment and use these to
develop concepts and facts. Reading, listening to verbal
information from the leader, and other forms of exposition
are very limited. Emphasis is on content and process.
Uses and Benefits: • To encourage learners to explore the
content through the use of concrete experiences • To allow
learners to use process skills to generate content
information • To actively engage learners in first-hand,
real-world learning • To release the leader from the role of
authority and giver of knowledge to become a facilitator
and fellow investigator • To replace the notion that the
leader must know all the answers Problems and Concerns •
Learners, especially young people, are not inherently good
investigators nor do they automatically know how to work
appropriately, especially in small groups. Collaboration and
investigation skills
need to be taught in order for guided discovery to be fully
effective. • Because learners work independently, time is a
problem. Some learners finish early, others take "too long."
• Because learners are developing their own exploration
activities, different and incorrect answers frequently result.
Because the final outcome of guided discovery is the
teaching of content, such differences and deviations may
cause confusion. • Sometimes learners develop guided
discovery activities that are not relevant to the problem at
hand. These are tangents to the original problem and may
lead to confusion, or at least not to the content that the
educator intends the students to learn. • The method is time
consuming. Investigation, activity development, and
drawing conclusions all take time. • Management of
learners and materials must be carefully planned in advance
and monitored to prevent chaos as students begin to
investigate challenging questions.
Strategies: Sensory awareness or observation experiences,
directed activities, directed labs (experiments), field
experiences, field trips (with process), games, simulations,
role playing, directed drama, debate, participatory
dramatization, brainstorming, concept mapping, webbing,
individual and group projects,
peer teaching, multi-age teaching, drill and practice
Individual and group projects include, for example, poster,
mural, diorama, computer generated art, collage, drawing,
bulletin boards, sculpture, skit, public service
announcement, TV show, puppet show, PowerPoint
presentation, bumper sticker, comic strip, political or other
cartoon, parade, interactive exhibit, display, video, slide
show, photo essay, original song or musical piece, new
words to old song, journal, research report, creative
writing, poetry, newspaper article or editorial, graph, chart,
model, map, invention
5. Open Inquiry: Open inquiry provides a degree of
freedom not found in any of the previous methods. In open
inquiry, the leader and/or learner present a problem.
Materials that could be used to solve the problem are
provided and learners use any method they wish to arrive at
a solution. Open inquiry focuses predominantly on process.
Uses and Benefits • To teach problem-solving skills • To
allow learners to develop creative solutions to the problems
presented • To provide learners with the freedom to solve a
problem any way they can with safety, materials, and
access being the major constraints • To enable learners to
use processes in a genuine problem-solving situation
Problems and Concerns • It tends to look, and sometimes
be, chaotic, as learners discuss their findings and
demonstrate their activities to one another. • It requires
lively curiosity and willingness to share what is found. • If
needed, locating enough materials can be problematic. • As
with guided discovery, open inquiry requires time.
• It is difficult to focus learning on specific content since
learners are working on different problems or aspects of a
problem. • Evaluation poses a problem, especially in
schools where grades are required. • For many students,
open inquiry involves high risk
Strategies: Learner-centered investigations, surveys or
questionnaires, interviews, case studies (written, tape
recorded, video taped, role played), issues analysis and
investigations, community studies, problem solving,
decision making, action projects, service learning,
individual and group projects Individual and group projects
include, for example, poster, mural, diorama, computer
generated art, collage, drawing, bulletin boards, sculpture,
skit, public service announcement, TV show, puppet show,
PowerPoint presentation, bumper sticker, comic strip,
political or other cartoon, parade, interactive exhibit,
display, video, slide show, photo essay, original
song or musical piece, new words to old song, journal,
research report, creative writing, poetry, newspaper article
or editorial, graph, chart, model, map, invention
================\
The framework for 21st Century Learning
For many, however, modern teaching methodologies like
the 4 C’s, collaborative learning, or project-based learning
can sound like neglect of traditional curriculum . The
reality is that no subject in the traditional curriculum is
being replaced.
In fact, the 4 C’s are part of a larger educational framework
whose foundation is the
traditional curriculum: math, reading, writing, language
arts, science, civics, history,
languages, geography, and the arts. The 4 C’s were
originally part of the Framework for 21st Century Learning
from the Partnership for 21st -Century Skills. In this
framework, the traditional curriculum is still the focus, and
Learning and Innovation Skills, or the 4 C’s, are intended
to be used to support it.
What are the 4 C’s? While the 4 C’s may sound a bit
vague, they are actually composites of real skills that are
definable, measurable, and teachable.
Creativity and innovation: Creativity is a set of skills that
enables learners to discover alternatives, brainstorm ideas,
generate solutions, rethink existing paradigms, and create
new knowledge. However, creativity involves more than
just “thinking outside the box.” In the 21st century,
creativity is overwhelmingly a group process that requires
openness to new and divergent ideas, the ability to
formulate useful feedback, the recognition of the limits of
new ideas and the value of old ideas, and the capacity to
use failure as an opportunity. Group creativity skills are
just as important, if not more so, as thinking outside the
box.
Critical thinking and problem solving: In the real world,
problems do not have “right answers” conveniently printed
at the back of the textbook. Critical Thinking and Problem
Solving involves mastering skills that enable learners to
define problems, pose questions, sort through information,
evaluate evidence, weigh alternatives, consider different
points of view, analyze arguments, understand complexity,
and approach unfamiliar problems. Many of these skills
have long been taught in the classroom in traditional
courses like science, civics, history, and math, but the goal
is to use them deliberately throughout the curriculum.
Communication: Communication is the set of skills that
allows students to read, listen, interpret, speak, write,
persuade, negotiate, argue, and master a large variety of
media. Learning communication skills dates back centuries
in subjects like reading, writing, oratory, and language arts.
The difference, however, is that the 4 C’s put
communication at the center of learning in all subjects,
from language arts to algebra. A few ways to teach
communication skills to students include encouraging
activities that reinforce active listening, asking openended
questions, fostering critical thinking and reflective learning
opportunities, and modeling effective conversation skills
when communicating with students.
Collaboration: In our complex and changing world,
success requires that people work together. Most problems
and projects in the 21st century workplace are multifaceted
and multidisciplinary, requiring a diverse set of skills,
knowledge, and backgrounds to bring to completion.
Collaboration is the set of skills that enable people to
collectively set goals, allocate resources, fulfill group roles,
plan, manage time, make group decisions, negotiate,
resolve conflicts, and build teams. Unlike other aspects of
the 4 C’s, collaboration is a relatively recent structural
innovation in K-12 education. Widely adopted in the
1990’s, collaborative learning was originally intended to
enhance learning outcomes in the traditional curriculum.
The 4 C’s also focus on developing a defined set of
interactional skills that not only increase learning, but are
also necessary skills in today’s workplace. A few ways to
encourage collaborative learning include incorporating
games into lessons, creating a safe space for class
discussion, encouraging storytelling and brainstorming, and
amplifying all student voices.
Defining media and technology: Philosophers and
scientists have argued about the nature of media and
technologies over a very long period. The distinction is
challenging because in everyday language use, we tend to
use these two terms interchangeably. For instance,
television is often referred to as both a medium and a
technology. Is the Internet a medium or a technology? And
does it matter? I will argue that there are differences, and it
does matter to distinguish between media and technology,
especially if we are looking for guidelines on when and
how to use them. There is a danger in looking too much at
the raw technology, and not enough at the personal, social
and cultural contexts in which we use technology,
particularly in education. The terms ‘media’ and
‘technology’ represent different ways altogether of thinking
about the choice and use of technology in teaching and
learning.
Technology: There are many definitions of technology.
Essentially definitions of technology range from the basic
notion of tools, to systems which employ or exploit
technologies. Thus• ‘technology refers to tools and
machines that may be used to solve real-world problems‘
is a simple definition;
Media: Media (plural of medium) is another word that has
many definitions and I will argue that it has two distinct
meanings relevant for teaching and learning, both of which
are different from definitions of technology. The word
‘medium’ comes from the Latin, meaning in the middle (a
median) and also that which intermediates or interprets.
Media require an active act of creation of content and/or
communication, and someone who receives and
understands the communication, as well as the technologies
that carry the medium.
What are the types of media? The types of media are the
different channels through which information and
entertainment reach an audience. Media often includes the
content itself as well as the physical device needed to
transmit it, such as television programming and a
television. You can divide media into four distinct
categories:
1. Print media: Print media refers to printed materials,
such as books and magazines,
that contain words and images. 2. Broadcast media:
Broadcast media includes information transmitted through
one of several mass communication channels, such as
television and radio. 3. Internet media: Internet media is
content distributed online and can include emails and
online publications. 4. Out-of-home media: Out-of-home
media, or OOH, is media that reaches people when they are
outside of their homes, like billboards.
ASSURE Model
ASSURE is an instructional design model that has the goal
of producing more effective teaching and learning.
“ASSURE” is an acronym that stands for the various steps
in the model. The following is a breakdown of each step.
A – Analyze Learners: The first step in the process is that
the teacher should analyze the attributes of her learners.
There should be a focus on those learner characteristics
which are associated with the learning outcomes desired.
The information gathered will help you in the decisions
that you make with respect to the other steps in the process.
When you determine the character of the learners, it will
guide you in choosing specific strategies and resources to
aid the learning process.
The analysis of your learners should include: - The general
attributes of your learners, such as age, academic abilities,
gender, interests, etc. - Prior competencies. - Learning
styles, such as auditory, visual, and tactile
S – State Standards and Objectives: After the analysis of
the learner attributes, the teacher must state standards and
objectives for the learning module. This statement consists
of a specification of what the learners will be able to do as
a result of the instruction. To be more concrete about
things, this statement will focus on what the learner will
know or be able to do as a result of the instruction. An
example of this is with medical students. The learner will
be able to name at least two databases and two search
techniques that they can use to locate medical evidence for
particular cases.
The objectives can be used in assessing the success of the
students, perhaps for the grading process. Also, you can use
them to let the learners know what they will accomplish
through the class. The mark of a good set of learning
objectives is conformity to the ABCDs of well-stated
learning objectives. They are as follows:
--- Audience – For whom is the objective intended? ---
Behavior – What is the behavior or performance to be
demonstrated? --- Conditions – What are the conditions
under which the behavior or performance will be observed?
--- Degree – To what degree will the knowledge or skill be
mastered?
The objectives statement should be formulated with verbs
that pinpoint the learning objective. A useful guide to the
appropriate verbs to use is contained in Bloom’s
Taxonomy. Remember that assessment can only be based
on your learners’ behavior. A learner may know some
material backwards and forwards but may not be able to
perform well on a test.
S – Select Strategies, Technology, Media, and Materials:
The second “s” in the acronym stands for select strategies,
technology, media, and materials. Given what your
learning objectives are, it’s necessary to pick instructional
strategies, technology, and media that will bring about the
results that you want. First, you should figure out what
which delivery method will be best for your instruction.
For instance, what proportion of your instruction will be
instructor-centered and what proportion of will be student-
centered? The first of these are strategies such as lecture,
demonstration or showing a video. The second are
strategies such as group discussion or cooperative group
work. Common sense weighs in on the side of learner-
centered strategies. Learning becomes more exciting when
there is more class participation. Ultimately, it’s the learner
who must gain mastery over the material, not the teacher.
However, there will be a certain amount of crucial
information and technique that the teacher must give over
and demonstrate. Learning is at its best when the teacher
merely leads the student into discovering the correct
answer to a problem themselves. An effective teacher is
merely a facilitator to the process of learning.
Once you select your teaching strategy, then it’s time to
figure out which technology, media, and materials best
support the method of teaching that you’re using. This
ranges from simple tools such as chalk and blackboard to
more sophisticated ones such as power-point presentations.
What must be remembered is that the instructor is the
essential ingredient in giving over the material. Fancy tools
are useful, but it ultimately boils down to having someone
who knows more than what the textbook contains.
U – Utilize Technology, Media, and Materials: This step in
the ASSURE process concerns making a plan as to how
you will utilize the technology, media, and materials that
you have selected. As with all of the instructional steps,
you must make sure that your plans contribute towards
producing the objectives that you have laid down. It’s
important to follow the “five p’s” process to achieve this:
✓ Preview the Technology, Media, and Materials: This
means that it’s important to plan ahead of time just how
you’re going to use them. It’s good to do a dry run of your
lesson before you actually teach it. Make sure that the
whole lesson will go smoothly and seamlessly. ✓ Prepare
the Technology, Media, and Materials: You need to gather
together all of the things that you will need to teach your
lesson. They must be working properly. For example, if
you are making a power-point presentation, then you’ll
need to create the text and graphics for each screen. ✓
Prepare the Environment: There is some minimal
preparation required to set up the learning environment.
Simple things like making sure that you have enough desks
are important. Also, if you have control over the situation,
you should make sure that there are no sources of noise that
will disturb the students. ✓ Prepare the Learners: First,
you need to clearly inform the learners as to what the
learning objectives are. This will help the learners create a
mental map of what they need to absorb. Next, it’s
important to tell the students how they will be assessed.
You need to tell them what their assignments will be, how
they will be graded, if there are tests, etc. Also, you should
explain to the students what the benefits of learning the
material are. ✓ Provide the Learning Experience: You then
actually carry out the lesson. This is where all of your
planning takes effect. You should be prepared to carry out
the lesson with every prior step of the process in mind. This
will ensure your success as a teacher.
R – Require Learner Participation: This step actually
belongs within earlier steps. It requires that you make plans
to how you are going to actively engage your students in
the material that you are teaching. This needs to be figured
out both at the class level and the individual level. The
most basic step that you can take is requiring participation
of the students in class discussions. A more sophisticated
approach would require that students prepare questions and
comments at home to bring into the class. You might try
even allowing individual students to lead classes or
discussions in the style of a seminar. Beyond this, you need
to plan exactly how the students will participate in the
learning process generally speaking. How will they learn
the information and techniques included in a lesson? This
plan needs to be more specific than just saying that they
will listen and absorb the material. Maybe you will
encourage a specific kind of note-taking or other learning
strategies.
E – Evaluate and Revise: The final step in the ASSURE
process is just as crucial as all of the others. In this step,
you evaluate the impact of your teaching on student
learning. This includes an evaluation of your teaching
strategies and the technology, media, and materials that you
used. The following questions are useful to ask during this
evaluation:
--- Did your lesson meet the learning objectives that you
planned? How will you determine whether the students
reach the objectives? Is your way of assessing the
students in line with your learning objectives? --- Can this
lesson be improved? How? How are you going to assess
the weaknesses in your presentation? --- Was your choice
of media and materials a good one? How will you assess
the effectiveness of these tools? --- Is it possible that other
technologies, media, and materials would have done a
better job?
The final step in your evaluation should focus on feedback
from your students. Was their experience positive overall?
Do they feel that they have reached your objectives and
their own personal objectives? How will you determine
whether or not your performance was effective?
Conclusion: The ASSURE process is really just a matter of
common sense. However, it is good to follow a regimented
guide to improve your teaching technique. Any effective
teacher knows that the perfection of their technique does
not come overnight, and there is always room for
improvement. By following the ASSURE process, you will
be sure to improve your teaching for many years to come.
Achieving 21st Century Learning Environments
Think back to some of the classroom environments you’ve
encountered on your educational path. During your
childhood, the learning environments you engaged in may
have been vibrant and colorful, with a desk layout that
allowed for flexibility and creativity. Your high school and
college learning environments likely emphasized the head
of the classroom or lecture hall to direct your attention,
with rows of desks facing forward or seats arranged around
a central point. Whether you signed in online or studied in
a physical classroom, these learning environments likely
had a profound effect on your primary, secondary, and
post-secondary education experiences.
What Is a Learning Environment? While a learning
environment is most commonly a classroom, it’s more
generally a space where students can feel safe and
supported in their pursuit of knowledge and be inspired by
their surroundings. In addition to aesthetics, instructors can
shape a learning environment by the way they teach and the
atmosphere they create in the classroom. They can
influence student learning by encouraging student
participation and engagement. Doing so helps nurture
positive and constructive feedback that supports
exploration, community among peers, and diversity.
Studies have shown that positive learning environments
help increase student focus, motivation, and retention of
information. As students continue to grow and evolve as
learners, the environments in which they learn evolve as
well. Learning environments change over time, adapting to
student needs. This means that teachers must continually
optimize their learning environments to help students meet
their educational goals. What Are the Different Types of
Learning Environments? Learning environments can be
categorized into three different types—or “landscapes”—
which include the following: --- Physical environment ---
Psychological environment --- Emotional environment.
This section explores each of these landscapes and how
they differ from one another. Physical Environment: A
physical learning environment encompasses all the tangible
aspects of a learning space. This includes the physical
layout and design of classrooms, from vibrant and playful
settings in elementary schools to more structured
arrangements in colleges and universities. Physical
environments also extend to home and distance-learning
setups, where creating a distinct and comfortable learning
space free from distraction has become increasingly
important. The recent COVID-19 pandemic prompted
many students to engage in online learning environments,
which, in turn, has caused teachers to implement tools like
digital learning experience management systems and online
courses. Psychological Environment: An effective
psychological environment encourages students to engage
with the curriculum and each other in ways that enhance
their personal and professional development. By building
trust with students and fostering a safe, inviting space,
teachers can create a positive learning environment where
students have more opportunities to participate, ask
questions, and receive feedback. This type of environment
can enable students to take risks or make mistakes more
confidently, without fear of rejection. Learners are more
likely to feel comfortable and valued in well-nurtured
psychological environments. Emotional
Environment:School can be stressful at any age, which is
why students need a positive emotional environment that
supports their educational path. Part of creating a
psychological environment’s safe space means addressing
the emotional environment’s need for self expression and
the freedom to express emotions. By supporting students’
emotional needs, teachers can help enhance their students’
emotional intelligence, boosting their confidence and self-
esteem. Some ways that teachers can maintain a thriving
emotional learning environment include establishing
routines that students can rely on, encouraging diversity,
and celebrating student achievements. How Can I Create
a Better Learning Environment? There are several things
that parents and teachers can do to create better learning
environments for their children and students. Below are
some useful tips. At Home• Parents can outfit children
with a personalized learning space where they can remotely
attend classes with all necessary supplies, comfortable
seating, a strong internet connection, and more. Teachers
can share upcoming lesson plans with parents by providing
them with course materials, reading assignments, and other
resources. -- If a student is facing difficulty, parents and
teachers can collaborate on ways to support the student,
whether it’s through updated teaching methods, one-on-one
tutoring, or counseling. --- Parents and teachers can make
study time or homework more fun with music, timed
contests and drills, scents that jog the memory, or other
unique learning approaches.
In the Classroom: Teachers might consider the layout of
the classroom and how it supports student learning. Is there
a better way to position desks so that everyone can see
what’s going on at the front of the room? Would
semicircles instead of rows create more face-to-face
engagement and camaraderie? Don’t be afraid to try new
things. --- Teachers may encourage students to take part in
creating their own learning environment. For example,
students might create artwork to decorate the walls or be
involved in open forums where they can ask questions or
express concerns. Students will likely feel more connected
to their environment if they have a hand in shaping it. ---
Teachers can employ one or more of the five most common
educational theories to adapt lessons to individual students
and their unique learning needs. By creating positive and
engaging learning environments, teachers and parents can
lend their students the physical, psychological, and
emotional support they need to thrive and be successful in
school, the workplace, and beyond.Engaging Students
with Technology: It’s bright, it’s shiny, it’s new. It’s all
sleek devices and fun and games. Surely technology will be
the thing that finally gets our students engaged. All we
need to know is how to use it and we’ll have them hooked.
Right? Not so fast. There’s plenty of advice out there about
engaging students with technology, but most of it fails to
mention one vital point: We need to engage our students
with meaningful learning. Not technology. But that’s not
to say technology can’t help. When used well, technology
can help you craft learning experiences that get
students so immersed they forget to leave when the bell
goes. Here are eight ways to make it happen. 1. Use
technology to get students working together:
Technology can bring a whole new level of engagement to
group work. Instead of huddling around an A3 sheet all
trying to write at once, your students will be able to: ---
contribute equally, without the ‘strong-minded’ members
of the class hogging the paper. --- walk away with a copy
of the activity on their device (without you having to
photocopy it). --- stay accountable. Because every student
has their own copy, it becomes their work as much as
anyone else’s. Here are some tech tools you can use to get
students collaborating and loving it: Online discussion
boards: These make it easy for all students to get involved
– even the ones who tremble at the thought of raising a
hand during class discussion. Pro tip: for more thoughtful
discussions, kickstart things with an open-ended prompt
and let students post as much as they like without the
requirement for a specific type of response. Cloud
documents: Cloud documents (e.g. Google Docs or
Microsoft OneDrive) allow students to work on the same
item at once from their individual devices. It’s quicker and
more organized than a shared piece of paper, and gives
every student a voice. Pro tip: have no more than 3–5
students working on the same document, and have them
seated next to each other. This keeps students accountable
and stops that student (you know the one) from
anonymously typing in those comments. Use breakout
rooms: Some LMSs and live communication tools (e.g.
Zoom) allow you to split students into virtual groups where
they work together via video. It’s a distraction-free
alternative to having multiple groups chatting away in the
same room, and it lets home learners stay connected. Pro
tip: breakout rooms are great for jigsaw activities. Give
each group a different task or question, and then have them
return to the rest of the class to share their findings
(perhaps as a document in the chat).
2. Have students teach peers (and you) how to use new
tech tools: Get your students to share tech tools and tips
they already know with the rest of the class. Are they
constantly trialing new apps? Building a social media
following? Coding in their spare time? Whatever they’re
into, let your students become the teachers with weekly
tech talks or mini-tutorials. Challenge them to link it back
to learning or the things you’re currently studying in class.
This initiative uses technology that already engages your
students to create an opportunity for independent learning
(and teaching). Also, you’ll probably learn a thing or two
from them yourself!
3. Use technology to connect students with the world
outside the classroom: When will we ever use this?
What’s the point? Why does it matter? If you can answer
these questions by connecting learning with the mythical
‘real world’, you’ll get engagement and your students will
get purpose. Connect your students with real people,
places, and problems beyond the four walls of the
classroom. For example, students could get online to: --- do
webquests where they are tasked with finding solutions to a
real problem (e.g. develop a plan to save an endangered
animal) --- correspond with students from another school
(even one on the other side of the world). --- connect with
native speakers of a studied language. --- publish
completed assignments on a website or blog for a genuine
audience.
4. Freshen up old resources with digital designs: Now’s
the time to spruce up Jurassic resources that came to life
before your students did. You can use free design templates
from a tool like Canva to give your paper some pizazz, or
swap a bland PowerPoint for a visually appealing Prezi. All
you need to do is plug the text in for sleek and engaging
resources that catch your students’ eyes. Learning content
is more likely to resonate when presented in clear, visually
appealing ways, too. For example, an effective infographic
will make complex concepts visible when even your best
explanations don’t do the trick. Have a look at the free
templates on Venngage. Remember: you’re not a graphic
designer and you’re not expected to be. Any effort is going
to draw more engagement than none at all (even if the class
gets to have a laugh at your illustration skills).
5. Use gamified learning programs: Besides being just
plain fun, gamification engages students through visible
progress tracking, measured challenges, and friendly
competition. And while we might get some of these
benefits through rewards charts and physical activities,
technology can take gamification to a whole new level of
engagement by: -- using points and scoring systems that
track student progress in real time offering customisable
avatars and characters to make the game personal for
students setting learning challenges in immersive virtual
worlds. Just make sure you choose a game that has the right
balance of engagement and educational value.
In our Mathletics and Reading Eggs games, for example,
the educators behind it made sure every fun activity and
challenge is explicitly tied to curriculum outcomes. The
other big plus of gamified technology is that students can
use it to learn anytime, anywhere there’s internet. In fact,
they’ll probably find themselves trying to set a high score
or pass a tough level outside of class – even if you haven’t
set homework.For teachers, it’s a way of promoting
independent learning. But to our students, it feels like fun
more than anything else.
6. Start a class blog: Seeing their work pinned up on the
wall gives students a sense of ownership and pride. But
what happens when they create something that isn’t on
paper? And wouldn’t it be great if parents could see it, too?
A class blog can showcase everything your students create,
whether that be a link to an online resource, a photo, or a
text-based post. Friends and family can have a look at any
time, and students could also post reflective or explanatory
statements to go alongside their work. Fortunately, you
don’t need to be tech savvy to get a blog up and running
these days. Use a blogging platform designed specifically
for teachers like Weebly, or a free service such as Blogger.
You could even use your LMS. All you need is a single
space where everyone can upload work for others to see.
7. Give your students tech options for their next
project: If we give students the opportunity to think
beyond paper projects, we give them the freedom to
innovate and lose themselves in something immersive.
Think about how technology can take an ordinary task to
the next level. For example: --- Speeches and oral
presentations could become podcasts. --- Narratives could
become short films. --- A research project could become a
mini documentary. --- An art piece could be animated. ---
Posters could be created using online graphic design tools.
--- Essays or extended written pieces could be published as
online articles with photos. Tip: leave the options open so
students have choice. They can produce something more
traditional if they want to, or think outside the box and
come up with something entirely new. Just talk through the
criteria first so they all know to evidence the same learning.
8. Use social media: Our students are captivated by the
real relationships, communities, connections, and identities
they can form on social media. And as teachers, we should
be, too. Because they’re rich in learning opportunities.
Here are some ways you might use social media for
learning. --- Have students crowdsource opinions on social
media via a survey or public post. --- Have students share
work to receive feedback from people outside class. ---
Students could create a post, ad, or group as the final
product in a project. --- Students could organise an event
(e.g. a fundraiser). --- Students could create groups or
communities to raise awareness of issues or ideas. --- (For
upper school) students could experiment with what it takes
to ‘go viral’ and find out something about their peers and
the public in the process. Tip: if you’re using social media,
it’s a good time to talk about online safety. Have students
design a fake profile and use this to spark a discussion
about how easy it is for people to misrepresent themselves
online.
Web 2.0 and 3.0 --- What is Web3? Well, you might be
familiar with web1 and web2. Web1 was all about static
websites with basic information, while web2 brought us
dynamic websites with interactive features like social
media and online shopping.
Now, web3 is taking things to the next level by introducing
decentralization, block chain technology, and more user
control.
One of the critical features of web3 is decentralization. In
web2, we rely on centralized servers owned by big
companies like Google and Facebook to store our data and
provide services. However, with web3, the power is in the
hands of the users. Instead of relying on a single point of
control, web3 uses decentralized networks powered by
block-chain technology to provide services and store data.
Another essential aspect of web3 is the focus on user
control. With web2, companies often collect and use our
data without our knowledge or consent. However, web3
puts the control back in our hands. Through block-chain
technology, we can have greater control over our data and
how it’s used.
Difference between web3 and web2 --- When we talk
about the differences, there is one thing: these technologies
are similar but slightly different regarding the internet.
Web 2.0 is the current state of the internet, while Web 3.0
is the future of the internet. The primary difference
between the two is the way they function.
Web 2.0 is focused on user-generated content and social
interaction. It allows users to interact with each other and
create content on websites such as social media platforms,
blogs, and forums. This type of content is easily accessible
and widely shared, which has led to the rise of influencers
and online celebrities.
On the other hand, Web 3.0 is expected to be a more
decentralized and interconnected web. It is built on top of
blockchain technology, which means it will be more secure
and private. In short, we can say that Web 2.0 emphasizes
reading and writing content, while Web 3.0 emphasizes the
creation of content.
Examples of Web 3.0 technologies• Here are some
examples of Web 3.0 technologies that are changing the
game in the industry, and we hope they will grow in the
future. 1. Blockchain: It’s a decentralized and secure way
to store and share data, which makes it ideal for everything
from financial transactions to voting systems. A real-life
example of blockchain technology in action is
cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin. These digital currencies use
blockchain technology to keep track of transactions
securely and transparently. 2. Artificial Intelligence (AI):
It is another Web 3.0 technology that’s becoming
increasingly popular. AI is a technology that can learn and
adapt, making it useful in various applications. One real-
life example of AI is chatbots. Chatbots are programs that
use natural language processing (NLP) to communicate
with users. They can be used for everything from customer
service to personal shopping assistants. 3. Virtual Reality
(VR): This Web 3.0 technology has already changed how
we experience the world. VR is a fully immersive digital
environment that allows users to interact with a simulated
world. A real-life example of VR is gaming. Video game
developers use VR to create more immersive and engaging
gaming experiences that blur the line between the real and
digital worlds. 4. Internet of Things (IoT): It is another
Web 3.0 technology set to revolutionize how we live and
work. IoT is a network of devices connected to the internet,
allowing them to share data and communicate with each
other. A real-life example of IoT is smart homes. Smart
homes use IoT technology to automate and control
everything from temperature and lighting to security
systems and appliances.
Advantages of Web 3.0: Here are some of the benefits that
Web 3.0 is expected to bring: 1. Decentralization: Web
3.0 is designed to be more decentralized than its
predecessor. This means data will be stored on a distributed
network rather than centralized servers. This makes the
internet more secure and less vulnerable to hacking and
data breaches. 2. Increased Privacy: Web 3.0 is designed
to give users more control over their data and privacy. With
blockchain technology, users can keep their information
secure and prevent unauthorized access. 3. Improved
Efficiency: Transactions on Web 3.0 will be faster and
more efficient than on Web 2.0. This is because there will
be no need for intermediaries such as banks and payment
processors.4. Innovation: Web 3.0 is expected to enable
the creation of new types of applications and services that
were impossible on Web 2.0. Some of the possibilities are
decentralized marketplaces, social networks, and even
virtual reality experiences. 5. Trust: Trust is a crucial
element of Web 3.0. With blockchain technology, users can
trust that their data is secure and that transactions are
transparent and tamper proof. The potential benefits of
Web 3.0 are exciting and could revolutionize how we use
the internet.
Disadvantages of Web 3.0: Although Web 3.0 has
numerous benefits, it’s essential to acknowledge the
potential downsides and risks that come with it. Some of
the disadvantages of Web 3.0 include the following: 1.
Lack of Compatibility: One of the most significant
disadvantages of Web 3.0 is its lack of compatibility with
current web technologies. Businesses must invest
considerable money and time to transition to the new
platform. 2. Security Concerns: While Web 3.0 is
designed to be more secure than Web 2.0, it’s not entirely
immune to security threats. As with any new technology,
there will be new vulnerabilities that hackers can exploit. 3.
Complexity: Web 3.0 is a more complex platform than
Web 2.0, meaning it may be more difficult for users to
navigate and use effectively. This could be a barrier to
adoption for some businesses and consumers. 4. Cost:
Adopting Web 3.0 will require a significant investment in
new technology and infrastructure. This could be a
substantial barrier to adoption for smaller businesses and
organizations with limited resources. 5. Privacy Concerns:
While Web 3.0 is designed to give users more control over
their data and privacy, there are still concerns about how
this data will be used and who will have access to it. While
these are some of the most significant disadvantages of
Web 3.0, it’s important to remember that this new
technology is still in development. As the platform evolves
and more businesses and consumers adopt it, many
disadvantages may be mitigated.
EVALUATION IN SOCIAL STUDIES
It has long been recognized that for curriculum
development to be successful, the assessment of students
must be sensitive to the aims and objectives of curriculum.
It judiciously employed assessment results can be used to
evaluate curricula, particularly to determine difficulties.
Evaluation is new term in the field of education that has
been introduced to replace the terms like testing or
examination etc. Evaluation is an inconclusive concept - it
indicates all kinds of efforts and all kinds of means to
ascertain the quality, value, and effectiveness of desired
outcomes. It is composed of objective assessment and
observations.
3 Steps of Evaluation in Social Studies: 1. Identification
and formulation of objectives of teaching social studies. ---
2. Their definition in terms of pupil behavior i.e., what
changes do we expect in each child by each one of those
objectives. --- 3. Construction of valid and practical
instruments for observing the specific phases of pupil such
as knowledge, information, skills, attitudes, appreciation,
persona-social adaptability, interests, and work-habits.
Meaning of Evaluation: Evaluation has a wider meaning
as compared to testing and examination. Concept of testing
is too much limited in terms of objectives, scope,
methodology etc. Whereas evaluation has a very wide
meaning as it includes to assess all educational outcomes
and outputs which have been brought about by teaching-
learning process. In simple words, evaluation is the process
of judging the value of an object, an experience, or an
achievement. Some definitions given below will help us is
understanding the correct concept of evaluation: ------1.
According to Clar and Star, "Evaluation is the judgment or
interpretation that one draws from the information at hand
about a pupil's work." ------ 2. According to C.C. Rose,
"The term evaluation, as distinguished from measurement,
is often used to refer to the process of appraising the whole'
child or the entire educational situation." ------ 3.
According to Dr Hill, "In the old system, examination
dictated all curriculum and methodology, but in the new
system, both examination and instruction which would be
determined by specific educational objectives, should form
the basis of the whole scheme of education of evaluation.
Developing an Effective Evaluation Program for Social
Studies: For an effective evaluation program, the following
points can prove quite useful: 1. Evaluation should aim at
testing the degree to which the objectives of teaching the
subject have been achieved. 2. The scheme of evaluation
should also make sure for an effective coverage of the
syllabus. 3. It is necessary that a variety of tools may be
used to ensure accurate evaluation. 4. Whatever tool is
used, should ensure objectivity in results. 5. Evaluation
tools should be refined constantly to keep pace with the
advances in educational concepts and practices.
Different techniques of Evaluation ---- Tests ---
Observation ---
1. Tests: There are two types of tests. ---
1.1.Objective Test: Objective test items require
students to work or select the correct or best answer.
These items are called objective because they can be
scored more objectively than any other type of item
used to measure students’ performance. --- Items on
which persons select response from a list of options.
--- An objective test is one that can be provided with a
simple predetermined test of correct answer so that
objective opinion or judgment in the scoring
procedure is eliminated. Characteristics of Objective
test: They can be reliably scored because there is no
inconsistency in scoring. They allow for adequate
content sampling because they require less time on
the part of the examinee than do other item formats.
They are generally written at the lowest level of
cognitive taxonomy. Forms of objective Tests --- 1.
True and False Test: A true-false item consists of a
statement or proposition which the examinee must
judge and mark as either true or false. 2. Matching
Type Test: Matching test items are popular selected
response format. These items require students to
match information in two columns. Items in the left-
hand column are called premises and those in the
right-hand column are called responses. Students are
required to locate the correct response for each
premise. 3. Multiple Choice Questions: Multiple
choice items consist of two parts: a stem and number
of options, or alternatives. The stem is a question or
statement that is answered or completed by one of the
alternatives. All incorrect of less appropriate
alternative are called distracters or foils and the
student’s task is to select the correct of best
alternative from all the options. Rules to construct
objective test. While preparing questions, it should
be kept in mind that the maximum subject matter
content is covered. There should be no overall choice
in the question paper. As far as possible, equal marks
may be allotted to each question. Question paper may
be reviewed before it is handed over to the person
concerned. Clear instructions to the students regarding
the number of questions to be attempted. Reasonable
amount of time should be allowed. ------ 1.2.
Constructing Subjective Test Items: Subjective test
presents one or more questions or other tasks that
require extended written responses from the persons
being tested.Forms of Subjective Test: 1. Extended
Response Questions: - An extended response type of
essay question permits a student to demonstrate his
ability to recall factual knowledge, evaluate his
factual knowledge, organize his ideas, and present his
ideas in a coherent and logical way. Example: -
Describe in detail the situation in the golden age of
the Muslim period in Indo-Pak. 2. Restricted
Response Questions: - In restricted response, the
student is restricted as to the form and scope of his
answer because he specifically told the context in
which his answer is to the made. Example: - Describe
in 100 words the situation in the golden age of the
Muslim period in Indo-Pak. Characteristics:
Abilities like logical thinking, critical reasoning, and
systematic presentation etc can be best evaluated.
They provide an opportunity for the student to show
their originality of thought as they are permitted
freedom of response. They help to develop good
study habits such as preparing outlines and
summaries, organization arguments for and against a
topic. They provide opportunities to students to
develop abilities such as to organize ideas
effectively, to criticize or justify a statement and to
interpret etc. It is relatively easier to prepare. It is
relatively easier to administer. Guessing is eliminated
to some extent. It is more economical. They can be
used as an instrument for measuring and improving
expression skills ad language of the examinees. They
provide less scope for unfair means. 1.3. Short
Answer Type Tests: Short answer item requires the
examinee to respond to the item with a word, short
phrase, number, or a symbol. Characteristics: The
test can be answered by a word, a phrase, a number,
or symbol. The test has supply responses rather than
select or identify. The test is in the form of a question
or incomplete statement. It stands between subjective
type and objective type. Forms of short answers. 2.1.
Question form: A question posted in the item is
straight forward. 2.2. Identification or association
form: - In this test, the examinee is given a set of
words of phrases and is required to supply an
association for identification for each or the word or
phrase in the set. 2.3. Completion form: - An
incomplete statement is provided which is responded
to by filling the blank.
2. Observation: It is one of the best techniques that is
available to the teacher knowing about children,
appraising their growth, and diagnosing their trends.
Observation can be current or retrospective. It is
current when a person engaged in acting, which may
be 'natural' or staged, is observed. Retrospective
observation is used when one has to look back upon
past experience and pass a judgment on the child. The
social studies teacher is in an excellent position to
observe the child in various situations, notes his
attitudes, feelings, interests, changes in his behavior
pattern, his comments on various situations, his
relationship with his classmates and playmates. This
data can provide a realistic picture of his present
status and å blue print of desirable ‘emphasis for the
future. Observation is a subjective technique, and it
suffers from the drawback of bias. Moreover, an
observation may give the behavior under particular
situation only, it may not be an accurate sample of
general behavior, therefore. The conclusions based on
observations alone, can be misleading. Hence, it is
necessary, for the teacher to systematize his
observations in some way and attempt to objectify the
data. The teacher should be definite as to what he is
looking for. Instead of observing something in
general, he should select certain pupils from intensive
observation and study. "Sampling' of behavior can
also help in refining the technique. Example
Instruction: Write down 'U if you like the activity, 'D'
if you dislike it. 1. Reading a newspaper. 2. Going to
the hobby class. 3. Playing a musical instrument. 4.
Helping in the garden. 5. Seeing a play.
3. Checklists: Checklists can be used either by the
teacher or by the children themselves for evaluating
progress. They may be und as an over-all guide in
many situations or they may be applied specifically to
the child's behavior in planning, discussion, research,
or construction. The specific points to be checked
would be the behavior characteristics which provide
evidence either of the presence. absence or of the trait
under study. Checklists should be specific, descriptive
of desirable behavior and easy to use. Below is a
checklist for evaluating skills in group participation.
Skills in Group Participation. Evaluation Arca
Names of Children Work habits 1. Takes part in
group planning 2. Participates in discussion 3.
Considers the opinions and ideas of others. 4.
Assumes leadership at appropriate Times. 5.
Participates in making group decisions. 6. Accepts
and abides by group decisions. 7. Assumes
responsibilities in carrying out group plans. -----The
data collected from the checklists provide good basis
to the teacher to evaluate children's progress in social
studies. He can come to know which children are
making successful growth in these skills and habits,
who have difficulty in cooperating with others, who
have special skill is organizing a group for work, who
know how to use many kinds of materials and
equipment. This information, supplemented with
other data, can help the teacher to know the different
facets of the personality of the child.
4. Group Discussion: It is another effective device
for appraising growth in social studies. As all
members of the group participate, specific instances
of behavior can be noted. Group discussion provides
opportunities for the teacher to note children's
behavior as they think and plan together. Creativeness
of contributions, sharing of ideas, respect for the
opinions of others, considerations of differing points
of view, boldness, etc., can be observed. With the help
of the information gained, a fair estimate of children's
needs and potentialities can be formed.
5. Anecdotal Records: It has been agreed that
anecdotal records also are a promising approach for
evaluating the behavior of the students. In the words
of Randall, "The anecdote is a record of some
significant items of conduct; a record of an episode in
the life of the student; a word picture of the student in
action, the teacher's best effort at taking a word snap-
shot at the moment of the incident, any narrative of
events in which the student takes such a part as to
reveal something which may be significant about his
personality." A collection of specific instances of
behavior can provide the teacher with a documentary
account of changes of behavior which have occurred,
or which are in progress. Rules of preparing While
preparing anecdotal record: --- The teacher should
indicate the data and time of the incident. --- The
circumstances under which the incident occurred. ---
An objective description of the situation in which the
incident occurred. --- He should write general
comments on traits as Rana was unkind in her
manner. --- Words and phrases that have strong
emotional connotations Le, love, hate, insolence etc.,
 should be avoided.
It is the teacher's responsibility to record the information
objectively and study these records carefully to identify
children's needs and problems and to search for evidence
of growth in understandings, attitudes, behaviors, and
skills. The anecdotal record provides useful data about the
pupil behavior.
6. The Daily Diary: The daily diary is another device
which shows the general pattern of a student's life, the
activities in which he is currently engaged regularly,
and some of his special interests. Advantages:The
teacher can note references towards self, family
friends, and others. This can show his adjustment with
the people around him. It tells something about how
he spends his leisure time. It tells for which subject he
gives more time, and the reasons can be thought.
Disadvantages: The information given in the daily
records may be exceedingly inaccurate. The student
may not report what he does, instead what he should
like to do or what he believes his teachers and parents
think he should be doing. Fantasy and self-interest,
rather than truth, may furnish the basis for the report.
Truth can only be reported if student-teacher relations
are sound and strong, if the student has found that the
teacher is able to accept the facts of student life
calmly. Thus, daily diary, if properly kept and
interpreted, can serve as a good tool for knowing the
different aspects of personality of the student.
Criteria of Good Questions and Question-Papers
Below is given the criteria of good questions and
question. papers in social studies: 1. Objective-
Questions should be based upon a predetermined
objective of instruction to be valid. 2. Content-
Questions should be based upon a topic of subtopic. 3.
Form-Questions should be written in the form suited
to them. Certain forms of questions are more suitable
than others for testing some objectives and topics. So,
the test constructor should use his discretion in the
selection of proper form, i.e., essay, short answer, or
objective type. 4. Wording-Questions should be
written in clear and unambiguous language. They
should also be within the comprehension of the
students and should clearly indicate the scope and
length of the answer. 5. Difficulty Level-Questions
should suit the level of attainment of the child. They
should be neither too easy nor too difficult. 6.
Allotment of marks should be judicious. 7. Time
should be adequate. ----------Suggestions for the
preparation of the social studies paper: Some
suggestions are listed below for the preparation of a
design of a social studies paper. 1. Weightage to
Objectives. The following plan of marks allotment
among different objectives can prove useful: a)
Acquisition of knowledge ---- 60% (b) Application of
knowledge ---- 20% (c) Development of skills ----
20% ----- 2. Form of Questions. Questions included
may not be only essay type ones, but the question-
paper may contain all the three types of questions,
viz., essay type, the short-answer type, and the
objective type. ---- The essay type questions may
require writing answers of three to four pages
containing 300 to 400 words each. Regarding the
length of a short-answer question, they may require
extremely brief answers and should not take more
than five lines or 50 words. As far as objective type of
items is concerned, they may only be of the multiple-
choice variety for the present and should be so
designed as to test higher abilities than mere recall. 3.
Options. May be included in the question-paper as
follows: 1. Essay Type Questions. It is suggested that
only internal choice be provided in respect of essay
type questions. Care should be taken to ensure that the
alternatives are balanced and equivalent in respect of
the content area, the difficulty level, time required for
answering and the scheme of marking. Each essay
type questions should have one option. 2. Short-
Answer Questions. In this type of question also, only
internal choice may be provided, the criteria for
providing options stated in respect of the essay type
questions hold good here also. 3. Objective Type
Questions. No option should be given in respect of
the objective type of question.
LESSON PLANNING IN SOCIAL STUDIES ----- A
lesson plan is a plan of action. It includes the knowledge
of philosophy, information about the understanding of the
pupils, comprehension of the objectives of education,
knowledge of the material to be taught and ability to
utilize effective methods. --------- Experienced teachers
often do not write out plans in detail, but they do think
through the aims, methods and resources either keeping
these aspects of a lesson in their minds or jolting a few
notes on paper. Beginner teachers need to write out lesson
plans. Careful planning of lessons is essential for
experienced as well as beginner teachers. Lesson planning
in fact is fundamental to effective teaching. ---------
Lesson Planning: A proper planning of the lessons is key
to effective teaching. The teacher must know in advance
the subject matter and mode of its delivery in the class.
This gives the teacher an idea of how to develop the key
concepts and how to correlate them to real life situations
and how to conclude the lesson. Lesson planning is also
essential because effective learning takes place only if the
subject matter is presented in an integrated and correlated
manner and is related to the pupil's environment. Though
lesson planning requires hard work, it is rewarding too. ---
L. B. Stands conceives a lesson as, 'plan of action'
implemented by the teacher in the class. --- According to
N.L. Bossing - "Lesson Plan is the title given to a
statement of the achievements to be realized and the
specific meaning by which these are to be attained as a
result of the activities engaged during the period". ---
According to Bining and Bining-"Daily lesson planning
involves defining the objectives, selecting and arranging
the subject matter and determining the method and
procedure". --- International Dictionary of Education -
"Lesson plan is the outline of the important points of a
lesson arranged in order in which they are to be presented
to students by the teacher. Advantages of Lesson
Planning: It keeps the teacher to be systematic and
orderly in the treatment of the subject-matter. He
proceeds on well-thought of and definite lines and does
not follow haphazard and thoughtless teaching. - The
teacher sets forth with some definite aims in view and is
conscious of the interest, attitude, etc. that he is to
develop in the students through certain activities or some
other means. - Planning a lesson gives confidence and
self-reliance to the teacher which is of great value for
successful teaching. - It saves time in the sense that the
students get a better understanding of the subject and
form some desirable attitudes and habits which would
otherwise have been impossible in the same period. - As
the lesson is correlated with the social and physical
environments of the students their interest is maintained
throughout the lesson. - Micro-lessons are helpful in
developing specific teaching skills. - The effectiveness of
a teacher depends on a good lesson plan. It develops the
reasoning, decision-making ability and imagination of the
pupil-teacher. - Lesson planning encourages a proper
consideration of the learning process and definite choice
of appropriate learning procedures. - Lesson planning
provides for an adequate checking of the outcomes of
instruction. - The plan helps the teacher to collect
different aids, maps etc. for use in the class.
Features of Lesson Planning: A good lesson plan must
be made in writing. Memory plan misleads the teachers
and the students. It is a permanent record of the teacher.
The plan increases the validity and reliability of teaching.
--- It should ensure continuity of the lesson - Every lesson
plan should link itself with the previously taught lesson
and should form the basis of the next lesson that will be
taught. --- It should indicate the methods) the teacher will
follow - According to the topic the teacher selects the
method or methods. If this method will not be reflected in
the plan, then teaching many not be effective. --- It should
be well constructed with suitable questions - Well graded
questions should be constructed and included in the plan
to make the lesson successful. ---- The plan must have
provision for using aids and should indicate what are the
aids to be used. --- A good plan should indicate the aims
and objectives of the lesson in clear words. ---- The
interest and ability of the child should be taken into
consideration in planning a lesson. --- A good lesson plan
should accommodate new and unexpected situations. This
is a pragmatic tendency of education. --- A good plan
should have consideration for individual differences. ----
A plan should be prepared in consultation with different
books for a particular topic. --- A good plan should
indicate the time period required to complete the lesson
and it should also indicate the approximate time required
for each step. ---- A good lesson plan prepares a brief
summary at the end.
Steps in Lesson Planning: 1. General Objectives: These
objectives will be related to the subject. 2. Specific
Objectives: These objectives will be related to the topic.
3. Teaching Aids: These aids will be related to the topic
and will be helpful to understand the topic. 4. Teaching
Method: It will be dependent on the subject and the class
level. 5. Introduction: It will be related to the class
entrance behavior of the teacher. 6. Test of Previous
Knowledge: Teacher will ask the questions related to the
previous topic and relate with the new topic. 7.
Announcement of the topic: The teacher will announce
the new topic and will write it on the board. 8.
Presentation: The teacher will present the content of the
new topic and will also write the important points on the
board. 9. Recapitulation: The teacher will ask some
questions related to new topic for the assessment of the
students. 10. Activity: Teacher may include any activity
to make the content effective and understandable. 11.
Home task: The teacher will assign the home task related
to the topic he/she taught in the class.
METHODS OF TEACHING SOCIAL STUDIES
By teaching social studies we aim to bring about the
desirable behavioral changes amongst pupils. Teaching is
quite a difficult talk, and a teacher can improve his
teaching if he is fully acquainted with various methods of
teaching. To make children learn effectively, the teacher
must adopt the right method of teaching. For choosing
right method for a given situation the teacher must be
familiar with different methods of teaching. A good
method can bring about good results even from a weak
curriculum. Any method, good or bad, links up the
teacher and his pupils into an organic relationship with
constant material interaction; good methods which are
psychologically sound may raise the whole quality of man
and their life, bad methods may debase it.
Under the new methods of teaching, the psychological
needs, interests, and tendencies of children are given due
importance. It has been realized that lecture or merely
question-answer method would not be adequate. Students
must be exposed to a variety of learning experiences
involving book-learning, observation, interviewing,
surveying, interpreting, reviewing, recording reporting,
and evaluating if comprehensive objectives of teaching
social studies are to be realized in students.
There are several methods of teaching social studies. The
selection of a particular method be done in accordance
with the aims and objectives. To achieve comprehensive
aims and objectives the teacher should provide a variety
of experiences during the teaching-learning process. All
these experiences cannot be provided by any single
method. The teacher can make use of Textbook Method
and Lecture Method to impart knowledge about facts and
event. However, to develop the desired, specific abilities,
skills, attitudes etc., the teacher must make use of
methods like Discussion Method, Project Method,
Problem Method, Source Method etc.
The social studies teacher must be familiar with the
theory and practice of different methods of teaching the
subject, able to use any permutation and combinations of
methods, devices, and techniques to make the subject
interesting, vital and living.
There are some of the dynamic methods of teaching social
studies that are useful for our educational institutions.
1. Lecture Method: It is the oldest method of teaching
social studies for imparting authentic, systematic, and
effective information about some events and trends. This
method is most followed in big classes and is particularly
used in secondary classes or above. This method is not
quite suitable to realize the aim of teaching social studies.
In this method only the teacher talks and students are
passive listeners. Since the students do not actively
participate in this method of teaching so this method is a
teacher centered method and information centered and, in
this method, teacher works as a role resource in classroom
teaching.
Due to lack of participation students get bored and some
of them sometimes may go to sleep. In this method
student is provided with readymade knowledge by the
teacher and due to this spoon feeding the students lose
interest and their power of thinking, reasoning and
observation get no stimulus. In this method the teacher
goes ahead with the subject matter of his own speed. The
teacher may make use of the black board at times and
may also dictate notes. The teacher-oriented method in its
extreme form does not expect any questions or response
from the students.
Uses of Lecture Method: This method can be used for
the following.
i) To Motivate: While stating. new topic or a new unit the
teacher may present the important aspects in a lecture
indicating some of the significant persons, events and
problems so as to arouse the interest of his students. ii) To
Clarify: If any problem is felt by the students during the
study of a topic, a few minutes lecture can help clarify the
difficulties and in this way a lot of time can be saved. iii)
To Review: The teacher can summarise the main points of
a unit/ topic and can indicate the few and significant
details in a very short lecture. iv) To Expand Contents:
Additional information about a topic can easily be
presented by the use of lecture method. For any additional
information the teacher may give a lecture punctuated
with interesting anecdotes, stories, personal experiences
and chatty descriptions.
Lecture method is especially suitable to deal with units
concerning World Wars, Fascism, Nazism, U.N., Cold
war, Emergence of Asia, Africa; and Latin America,
Developing countries, the contemporary world.
International peace and co-operation, New Economic
order etc. because most of the textbooks do not provide
the latest and up-to-date information regarding the topics
listed above.
Merits of Lecture Method: 1. Economical: It is quite
economical method. It is possible to handle a large
number of students at a time and no laboratory, aids,
materials are required. 2 Saves Time: Making use of
lecture method, the knowledge can be imparted to the
students quickly and the prescribed syllabus can be
covered in short time. 3. Attractive: It is quite attractive
and easy to follow. Using this method teacher feels secure
and satisfied. 4. Teacher's work become easier: It
simplifies the task of the teacher as he dominates the
lesson for 70-85% of the lesson time and students just
listen to him. 5. Useful for factual information's: Using
this method it is quite easy to impart factual information
and historical anecdotes. 6. Helps in developing own
style: By adopting this method teacher can develop his
own style of teaching and exposition. 7. Maintains
Sequence: In this method teacher can easily maintain the
logical sequence of the subject by planning his lecture in
advance. It minimizes the chances of any gaps or
overlapping. 8. Motivating: Some good lectures delivered
by the teacher may motivate, inspire a student for creative
thinking. 9. Develops rapport: It facilitates rapport
between the teacher and the taught and so makes the
teaching-learning process interesting and effective.
Speech involves a unique power of attraction. When a
teacher starts speaking in an effective language with
proper modulation and gestures giving examples and
narrating anecdotes. It leaves a positive impact upon
students which establishes the desired rapport. 10.
Develops listening Skills: It develops listening skill of the
students. Hearing skill is an important means of learning
that should be developed during the school stage. For
developing this skill lecture method is quite suitable. It
has been observed that after some period of learning
distraction sets in. However, if lecture is interesting
concentration of students continues for long and the
lecture method helps in drawing attention and
concentration which leads to grasping the content matter.
Thus, this method develops the listening skill of students.
11. Useful for brilliant students: It is more useful for
brilliant students and encourages the thinking and
reasoning capacities of bright students. When the teacher
selects material from different books, it encourages the
bright students to read these books themselves. 12. Assists
other methods: It helps in the implementation of other
methods. The success of various methods such as Project
Method, Problem Method, Assignment Method etc.
depends upon the explanation provided by lecture
method. It saves their time and energy and give them a
clear direction. 13. Promotes learning by heart: It
promotes learning by heart among students. When the
students are asked to answer certain questions about the
lecture delivered, the students gradually learn the art of
learning various aspects of the lesson by heart. De-Merits
of Lecture Method: 1. Students Passive: In this method
student’s participation is negligible and students become
passive recipients of information. 2. No surety of students
understanding: In this method we are never sure if the
students are concentrating and understanding the subject
matter being taught to them by the teacher.\ 3. Weak
students cannot follow: In this method, knowledge is
imparted so rapidly that weak students develop a hatred
for learning. 4. Not favorable for development of mental
faculties: It does not allow faculties of students to
develop. 5. No learning by doing: In this method there is
no place for "learning by doing." 6. Previous knowledge
not assessed: It does not consider the previous knowledge
of the students. 7. No feed back: It does not provide
corrective feedback and remedial help to slow learners. 8.
Individual differences are not cared: It does not cater to
the individual needs and differences of students. 9.
Authoritarian Method: It is undemocratic and
authoritarian method in which students depend only on
the authority of teacher. They cannot challenge or
question the verdict of the teacher. This checks the power
of critical thinking and proper reasoning in the students.
2. Story-Telling Method: It is an important method of
teaching social studies - particularly the History part of
the subject. Stories of great men and women and of early
man, stories of famous rulers, reformers, writers, saints,
scientists, discoverers etc., be told to the students
specially in primary classes. The teacher’s capacity, as an
actor and speaker, can make the lessons lively and
interesting to the pupils. Different types of stories (e.g.,
myths, legends, moral fables, and true historical tales) can
be used. The type of story and the way of its presentation
will vary with the age of the children. Till class V, the
method of teaching history part of social studies should be
mainly the story method. In the middle and secondary
classes, stories and anecdotes otherwise enliven the
subject-matter. While using other methods such as
Lecture or Conversation Method or even Discussion and
Problem Method, telling related stories will make the
subject-matter interesting and lively. For effective use of
this method special attention be paid by teacher to the
following points: 1. Story should be told in an orderly
manner. Expressions such as "Oh, I forget to tell you
about an important point” does not speak of a good story
Telle. 2. Story should be full of actions and details. It
should be replete with descriptions of places, persons, and
things. Frequent reference to geographical conditions
should be made during the narration of stories. 3.
Narration should be made interesting using catchy words
and phrases and handy illustrations like metaphors and
similes and correlation with the verbal experiences with
which children are familiar. Catchy words and phrases
should be used to create proper images. Any dialogue or
speech in the story should be narrated in direct speech.
Narration can be made very interesting if the narrator
takes the role of one of the characters. For example, the
stories of various discoverers can be told as if they
themselves were narrating them. 4. Narration should suit
the audience. It should be adapted to the audience
although the facts should never be distorted. Advantages:
Various advantages of this method are: 1. It can increase
the interest of the students in the subject. 2. It can help in
the development of imagination. A good story, told in a
proper manner, goes a long way in firing the imagination
of listeners. 3. It can help in the inculcation of virtue. It
can be relied upon as the best ally for helping in
developing in his pupils the much-coveted traits of
character as piety, truthfulness, valor, charity etc.
Story telling is an art, and every teacher, particularly
social studies teacher, must know this art.
3. Discussion Method: It is an important method of
teaching social studies that has gained popularity in recent
years. In this method the teacher and taught clarify
various concepts and get their doubts removed. it may be
in the form of a conference, symposium etc. A discussion
is never a debate. This method can be used to plan a new
activity or to take certain decisions or to provide some
information or to analyze certain concept and ideas or to
motivate the students or to develop their interest in the
subject. Requirements of a Good Discussion Method:
1.A good teacher who can control and direct the
discussion. 2. Encouragement of the Group. All the
students of the class must be made to participate in the
discussion. Teacher should see tinat below average,
average and above average, students parti-ipate in the
discussion, 3. Well Chooser Problem. The teacher should
choose the problem very carefully and with the co-
operation of the students. 4. Varied Content. To arrive at
conclusions, the participants need books, reference
materials, maps, drawings, pictures, etc., in order. to
visualize the discussions. The use of many aids helps to
put vigor and life into the discussion. 5. Evaluation. It is
the last step, and we assess the results and notice how
necessary changes in the behavior of the learner take
place. Procedure of Discussion Method: It is an
interactive method of teaching. It is quite helpful in
developing desirable attitudes and skills among students.
For successful implementation of the method the
following points, be given due consideration. 1.
Preparation. For the success of this method, it is most
important that teacher should read wide and deep enough.
He should read purposefully and critically and prepare the
material conscientiously. All the points to be discussed be
arranged in a logical order and may be written on the
blackboard. The problem selected for discussion must be
a felt problem.2. Conduct. The teacher should see that the
discussion is being, conducted in a disciplined way. No
one should be allowed to dominate the discussion and the
teacher should see that all participants make his
contribution. 3. Contribution. The teacher should
encourage sincere questions. The discussion must be
geared to the realization of specific objectives and the
development of proper skills and method. 4. Evaluation.
After the discussion is over it should be assessed as to
how far it has achieved the predetermined objectives and
how much knowledge has the students gained. The
changes in their ideas and attitudes should also be
observed and evaluated. ------- Merits of Discussion
Method--- It is a psychological method. ---- It is an
important method of clarifying the issues. --- It
discourages cramming. --- It helps in collective thinking.
--- It helps in the development of personality. --- It helps
in the development of democratic values. --- It is useful at
all levels of teaching. --- It helps the teacher in
discovering the abilities of his students. --- It multiplies
knowledge. --- It promotes tolerance. --- It reflects the
spirit of teamwork. --- The decision drawn is collective.
--- Discussion may help students know and understand
that difference in perspective need not result in disaster
and that people may believe in the same thing for
difference and acceptable reasons. --- Discussion gives
knowledge a round trip. --- Discussion helps students in
discovering what they did not know. What he has
overlooked and wherein he is mistaken. --- Discussion
activates thinking along the lines of self-evaluation.
--------------- Limitations of Discussion Method: In this
method there is a likelihood of the teacher or some bright
students dominating the discussion. ---- This method
cannot be used for all topics of social studies. --- It is time
consuming method. --- It is not quite suitable for small
children who are not mentally mature. --- Every teacher is
not capable of making use of this method.
4. Problem Method: This method of teaching is one of
training children in the technique of discovery. It' also
helps in the development of intuitive thinking. In this
method, the student remains active. This method places
challenging problems before the students, requiring
solution. According to C. V Good, "The problem method
is a method of instructions by which learning is
stimulated by reaction of challenging situations that
demand solution. It is a specific procedure by which
learning is stimulated by the creation of challenging
situations that demand solution. It is a specific procedure
by which a major problem is solved through the
combination of a number of smaller related problems." It
is based on the hypothesis that by generalizing what the
students have learnt about solving of problem in social
studies, they can solve their problem of living efficiently
and effectively. This method involves at least following
four stages though some authors have given 20 to 30
stages for this method. 1. Definition of the problem--- 2.
Selection of the appropriate information -- 3. Putting
together the separate pieces of information --- 4.
Evaluation of the solution. Types of Problems to be
selected. The problem should be such that the students are
interested in it and it provides sufficient mental activity
and useful knowledge. Following points be given due
consideration while selecting a problem: 1. The problem
should be challenging. 2. The problem should be in
accordance with the need of the children. 3. The problem
should be related to basic human needs. 4. The problem
should be specific and definite. 5. The solution should
also be definite. 6. The problem should be in accordance
with the available material otherwise the students will
lose interest. 7. The problem should lead to expansion of
interest. Advantages of Problem Method:
Experiences undertaken to solve problems and finding
their solution result in a sequence of learning's. --- It
constitutes a realistic method for preventing the type of
experience that will face the pupil throughout his career.
--- The problem furnishers a natural objective i.e., an
objective of the pupil. --- This method points out a logical
way of thinking to the pupils. --- The pupils learn to track
down information quickly and efficiently, to evaluate it,
and to reorganize it for reports and problem solving. ---
The problem can be adjusted to groups and to individuals.
--- The problem tends to develop initiative and
responsibility. --- The traits of open-mindedness and
tolerance are included because the children see many
sides to a problem and listen to many points of view. --- It
helps to develop and promote good and harmonious
relationship between the teacher and the taught. --- It is a
student-centered method. --- It gives education in real
situations. --- It helps in sequential learning. --- It helps in
taking logical decisions.
5. Project Method: This method was given by Dewey-
the American philosopher, psychologist and practical
teacher. This method is a direct outcome of his
philosophy. According to Dr. Kilpatrick, 'A project is a
unit of wholehearted purposeful activity carried on
preferably in its natural setting. According to Stevensen,
"A project is a problematic act carried to its completion in
its natural setting." According to Ballard, A project is a
bit of real life that has been incorporated into the school. -
The project method is not totally new. Project equivalents
are advocated for the adolescent period by Rousseau in
Emile (BK-III). A project plan is a modified form of old
method called. "Concentration of studies." The main
feature of "concentration of studies plan" is that some
subject is taken as the core or center and all other school
subjects as they arise are studied in connection with it.
Project method is based on the following principles: i)
Learning by doing. ii) Learning by living iii Children
learn better through association, cooperation, and activity.
Tomas and Long define project method, "as a voluntary
undertaking which involves constructive effect or thought
and eventuates into objective results." Classification
of projects: The projects may broadly be classified as: 1.
Individual projects: Individual projects are to be carried
out by individuals. 2. Social projects: Social projects are
to be carried out by a group of individuals.
Steps in a Project: For completing a project, we have
five stages in actual practice. These are: Providing a
situation. Choosing and proposing the project. Planning
of the project. Executing the project. Judging the project
or evaluation. Recording of the project
i) Providing a Situation. A project should arise out of a
need felt by pupils and it should never be forced on them.
It should be purposeful and significant. It should look
important and must be interesting. For this the teacher
should always be on the look out to find situation that
arise and discuss them with students to discover their
interests. Situations may be provided by different
methods. Such methods may include talking to students
on the topics of common interest eg., how did they spend
their holidays, what did they see in Karachi etc. ii)
Choosing and Proposing the Project. The teacher
should refrain from proposing any project otherwise the
whole purpose of the method would be defeated. Teacher
should only tempt the students for particular project by
providing a situation but the proposal for the project
should finally came from students. The teacher must
provide guidance in selection of the project and if the
students make an unwise choice, the teacher should
tactfully guide them for a better project. The
essentials of a good project are: a) It should have evident
worth for the individual or the group that undertaken
them. b) The project must have a bearing on a great
number of subjects and the knowledge acquired through it
may be applicable in a variety of ways. ¢ ） The project
should be timely. d) The project should be challenging. e)
The project should be feasible. f) It is for the teacher to
see that the purpose of the project is clearly defined and
understood. iii) Planning. The students should encourage
by the teacher to plan out the details of the project. In the
process of planning teacher must act only as a guide and
he should give suggestions at times, but actual planning
be left to the students the teacher should also make sure
that the planning process is not dominated by two or three
students but involve as many students as possible. The
prospective plan should be noted down in a notebook. iv)
Executing the Project. Once the project has been chosen
and the details of the project have been planned, the
teacher should help the students in executing the project
according to the plan. Since execution of the project is the
longest step in the project method so it needs a lot of
patience on the part of the students and the teacher.
During this step the teacher should carefully supervise the
pupils in manipulative skills to prevent waste of materials.
The teacher should assign work to different students in
accordance with their tastes, interests, aptitudes, and
capabilities. Teacher should see that every member of the
group gets a chance to do something. Teacher should
constantly checkup the relation between chalked out plans
and the developing project and as far as possible 'at the
spot' changes and modifications be avoided. However, if
such changes become unavoidable these should be noted
down and reasons explained for further guidance. v)
Evaluation. The evaluation of project should be done
both by the pupils and the teacher. The pupils should
estimate the qualities of what they have done before the
teacher gives his evaluation. The evaluation of the project
must be done in the light of plans, difficulties in the
execution and achieved results. Let the students have self-
criticism and look through their own failings and findings.
This step is very useful because of the project, the pupils
can know the values of information, interest, skills, and
attitudes that have been modified by the project. (vi)
Recording. A complete record of the project be kept by
the students. The record should include everything about
the project. It should include the proposal, plan and its
discussion, duties allotted to different students and how
far were they carried out by them. It should also include
the details of places visited and surveyed, maps etc.,
drawn guidance for future and all other details.
Merits of the Project Method: It is a method of teaching
based on psychological laws of learning. The education is
related to child's life, and he acquires it through
meaningful activity. It imbibes the spirit of co-operation
as it is a cooperation venture. The teacher and the students
join in a project. It stimulates interest in natural as well
as manmade situations. Moreover, the interest is
spontaneous and not under any compulsions. The
method provides opportunities for pupils of different
tastes and aptitudes within the framework of the same
scheme. It upholds the dignity of labor. It brings about
a close correction between a particular activity and
various subjects. It introduces democracy in education.
It is a problem-solving method and less emphasizes on
cramming or memorizing. A project can be used to
arouse interest in a particular topic as it blends school life
with outside world. It provides situations in which the
students come in direct contact with their environment.
It develops self-confidence and self-discipline. A project
tends to illustrate the real nature of the subject. A project
affords opportunity to develop keenness and accuracy of
observations and produces a spirit of enquiry. It provides
the students an opportunity for mutual exchange of ideas.
This method helps the children to organize their
knowledge. Drawbacks of the Project Method:
Project requires a lot of time, and this method can be used
as a part of practical work. The practical difficulties of
covering the syllabus in time rule out teaching by this
method in most of the schools. At higher stages it may
not be so easy to formulate projects having satisfactory
degree of width and comprehensiveness. There is great
difficulty in ensuring any kind of systematic progress in
instructions. Very highly qualified teachers are required
for the success of this method. Good textbooks on these
lines have not yet been produced. It is an expensive
method as it involves tours, excursions etc. The method
leaves a gap in pupils’ knowledge. Sometimes the
projects may be too ambitious and beyond pupils’
capacity to accomplish. The education given by projects
is likely to emphasize relationships in breadth than in
depth.
Some Suggested Projects in Social Studies: Our Town.-
Our Food. - Story of transportation through ages -
Geographical Exploration. - Communication through
ages. - National Movement. - The socialist movement. -
U.N.O. and its development. - Setting up and running of
social studies museum.
Choice of the Method: The choice of the method must be
made by the teacher in the light of facilities available and
nature of work to be done. This does not mean that a
teacher may select any one method and then cling to it
lavishly throughout his service or even an entire academic
session. This is a great mistake because each method has
its own merits. Our preference for any one of the methods
deprives us of the merits of the other method. A good
teacher should therefore try to imbibe the good qualities
of all methods instead of depending on any one method.
The teacher should keep himself on the right side of every
method. The best method of a teacher is his own
individualized and personalized method which is the
result of his varied and long experience in teaching. Some
of the points which a teacher should keep in mind are as
follows: He should introduce the lesson in a
problematic way so that the students feel that they are
going to learn something useful and work learning.
He should choose a pupil dominated method in preference
to a teacher dominated method. He should have a
bright manner of presentation and should illustrate his
lesson for experiments pictures, charts, diagrams etc.
Teaching should be made a cooperative enterprise.
Teacher should give maximum opportunity of
participation to the students so that they feel that their
active participation is quite important for the solution of
the problem and successful growth of the subject.
Teacher should make all possible efforts to properly
correlate the topic in hand with other subjects. Teacher
should avoid the use of difficult phrases, scientific
expressions, and lengthy discussions. Instructional
methods and plans must be flexible.
After constant use of some method teacher can break the
monotony by using project method. Thus, we conclude
that no single method could be the best method and a
good teacher will have to evolve our individual method
consisting of good points of all the methods. He will
never become a slave to any method and will remain a
true master of all of them. --------------- Choice of
teaching method should be based on available facilities
and nature of work. Avoid depending on a single method;
imbibe good qualities of various methods. Introduce
lesson in a problematic way to create interest and need for
learning. Choose pupil-dominated methods over teacher-
dominated ones. Use bright presentation with
experiments, pictures, charts, diagrams. Make teaching a
cooperative enterprise with maximum student
participation. Correlate topic with other subjects; avoid
difficult phrases and lengthy discussions. Instructional
methods and plans must be flexible. Break monotony by
using different methods like project method. Evolve an
individualized method consisting of good points from
various methods. Remain a master of all methods rather
than becoming a slave to any one

6. Approaches of Teaching General Science --

5.1 Teaching approach --- 5.1.1 Problem solving
Problem Solving Method: Student-centered instructional
technique. - Engages both teacher and students in seeking
solutions to educational difficulties. - Utilizes the
scientific method for reasoning and solution finding. ---
Definitions: Yokam & Simpson: Problem arises when
difficulty to act is recognized. - Gates: Inability to reach a
definite goal with available behavior patterns. - Skinner:
Process of overcoming difficulties hindering goal
attainment. ---- Purpose: Train students in reasoning.
Improve knowledge. Solve puzzling questions. Overcome
obstacles in objective attainment. ---- Steps with
Example of General Science: 1. Formation and
appreciation of problem: Identifying a hypothesis
regarding plant growth being affected by different light
wavelengths. 2. Collection of relevant data and
information: Gathering information on photosynthesis,
light absorption by plants, and experimental setups. 3.
Organization of data: Sorting collected data into
categories such as light wavelengths and corresponding
plant growth rates. 4. Drawing conclusions: Analyzing
data to conclude which light wavelength promotes
optimal plant growth. 5. Testing conclusions:
Conducting further experiments to validate findings. ----
Features: Meaningful, interesting, and worthwhile
problems. Correlation with real-life situations and other
subjects. Clearly defined with student-guided solutions.
---- Teacher Role: Help students define problems clearly.
Encourage analysis, recall, and courageous guesses.
Facilitate evaluation of suggestions. Organize material
through outlines, diagrams, and concise statements. ----
Advantages: Develops science process skills. Applicable
to various subjects. Motivates future scientific procedure
use. Develops higher-level thinking skills. Cultivates
responsibility, originality, and resourcefulness.
Disadvantages: Relies mainly on mental activity. Young
children may lack sufficient background information.
Time-consuming for both students and teachers. Requires
capable teachers for effective guidance.
2. Inquiry Techniques: Engages students in active
exploration and questioning. --- Definitions: Techniques
like questioning, problem posing, Socratic dialogue. ---
Purpose: Stimulate curiosity, critical thinking, and deeper
understanding. --- Steps: Questioning, problem posing,
Socratic dialogue, think-pair-share. --- Features:
Encourages ownership of learning, collaboration, and
empathy. --- Teacher Role: Facilitate discussions, guide
inquiry, promote collaboration. --- Advantages: Fosters
curiosity, critical thinking, and peer learning. ---
Disadvantages: Time-consuming, requires facilitation
skills.
3. Exploration: Hands-on exploration of concepts and
phenomena. --- Definitions: Activities, field trips,
simulations, role-playing. --- Purpose: Enhance
experiential learning and relevance. --- Steps: Hands-on
activities, field trips, simulations, role-playing. ---
Features: Promotes authenticity, engagement, and
application. --- Teacher Role: Provide opportunities,
facilitate learning experiences. --- Advantages: Enhances
understanding, engagement, and application. ---
Disadvantages: Resource-intensive, may require
preparation time.
4. Observation: Systematic observation and data
collection. --- Definitions: Structured observations,
naturalistic observations, peer observations. --- Purpose:
Develop scientific observation skills and attention to
detail. --- Steps: Structured observations, naturalistic
observations, data collection tools, peer observations. ---
Features: Encourages attention to detail, data collection
skills, and collaboration. --- Teacher Role: Guide
observations, provide tools, facilitate peer learning. ---
Advantages: Develops scientific observation skills and
collaboration. --- Disadvantages: Time-consuming, may
require specific tools or settings.
5. Experiment:Systematic investigation to test
hypotheses. --- Definitions: Experimental design,
controlled experiments, data analysis, reflection. ---
Purpose: Test hypotheses, analyze data, and draw
conclusions. ---Steps: Experimental design, controlled
experiments, data analysis, reflection. --- Features:
Promotes scientific inquiry, critical thinking, and
metacognitive awareness. --- Teacher Role: Guide
experimental design, facilitate data analysis, encourage
reflection. --- Advantages: Develops scientific inquiry
skills, critical thinking, and metacognition. ---
Disadvantages: Resource-intensive, requires careful
planning and supervision.---
5.2 Teaching Strategies --- 5.2.1 Scope & propose of
practical activities --- 5.2.2 Science laboratory ---- 5.2.3
Safety measure in laboratory
Teaching strategies, also known as instructional
strategies, are methods used by teachers to deliver course
material in engaging ways that cater to diverse student
needs and learning styles.
5.2 Teaching Strategies --- 5.2.1 Scope & Propose of
Practical Activities --- Scope: The scope of practical
activities in science education refers to the breadth and
depth of the experiments or activities that are designed to
achieve specific learning objectives. It encompasses the
range of topics, methods, and tools used to facilitate
learning. --- Propose: The propose of practical activities
is to provide students with hands-on experience and
opportunities to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world
problems. This enhances their understanding, critical
thinking, and problem-solving skills. Example
(Secondary Level General Science): In a secondary
level general science class, the scope of practical
activities might include experiments on the properties of
materials, the water cycle, and the structure of cells. The
propose of these activities is to help students understand
the concepts of density, buoyancy, and osmosis, which
are essential for their overall understanding of science.
------ 5.2.2 Science Laboratory: A science laboratory is a
specialized room or area designed for conducting
scientific experiments and investigations. It is equipped
with various tools, equipment, and materials necessary for
conducting experiments safely and effectively.Role in
Education: Science laboratories play a crucial role in
science education by providing students with hands-on
experience and opportunities to apply theoretical
knowledge to real-world problems. They help students
develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical
skills. Example (Secondary Level General Science): In
a secondary level general science class, the science
laboratory might be equipped with tools such as
microscopes, thermometers, and spectrophotometers.
Students use these tools to conduct experiments on the
properties of materials, the water cycle, and the structure
of cells, which helps them understand the concepts of
density, buoyancy, and osmosis.
5.2.3 Safety Measures in Laboratory: Importance:
Safety measures are crucial in a laboratory setting to
prevent accidents and ensure a safe learning environment.
They include procedures for handling hazardous
materials, wearing personal protective equipment, and
following standard operating procedures. Examples:
Examples of safety measures in a laboratory include
wearing gloves and goggles, handling chemicals with
care, and following proper disposal procedures for
hazardous materials. Example (Secondary Level
General Science): In a secondary level general science
class, safety measures in the laboratory might include
wearing gloves and goggles when handling chemicals,
following proper disposal procedures for hazardous
materials, and ensuring that the laboratory is well-
ventilated to prevent exposure to harmful fumes.
6. Teaching Aids --- 6.1 Need & Importance of
Teaching Aids
1. Clear Understanding: Teaching aids help students
grasp complex concepts more easily. Example: Using
models to explain the structure of a cell in general
science. 2. Make Learning Process Interesting:
Engaging teaching aids make lessons more captivating
and enjoyable. Example: Using interactive simulations to
demonstrate chemical reactions. 3. Expand Teaching
Skills: Utilizing a variety of teaching aids enhances a
teacher's ability to cater to diverse learning styles.
Example: Incorporating multimedia presentations to
explain ecological systems. 4. Habit of Study: Teaching
aids encourage students to develop a habit of studying
regularly. Example: Providing flashcards for students to
review key terms in biology. 5. Save Time: Effective
teaching aids can streamline the learning process and save
time in conveying information. Example: Using
educational videos to explain physics concepts like
motion. 6. Provide Experience: Hands-on teaching aids
offer practical experience and reinforce theoretical
knowledge. Example: Conducting experiments in the
science laboratory to understand chemical reactions. 7.
Develop Motor Skills: Certain teaching aids like
manipulatives help in developing fine motor skills.
Example: Using building blocks to teach geometric
shapes in mathematics. 8. Increase Attention Span:
Interactive teaching aids can improve students' focus and
attention during lessons. Example: Using interactive
whiteboards for engaging geography lessons. 9. Scientific
Attitude: Teaching aids foster a scientific attitude by
promoting curiosity and exploration. Example:
Encouraging students to use microscopes to observe
microscopic organisms. ----- 6.2 Types of Teaching
Aids --- 1. Audio Aids: Utilizing recordings, songs, and
podcasts to enhance auditory learning. Example: Playing
recordings of bird calls to teach about biodiversity. 2.
Visual Aids: Using charts, diagrams, and posters to aid
visual learners. Example: Displaying a chart of the
periodic table to teach chemistry elements. 3.
Audiovisual Aids: Incorporating videos, slideshows, and
animations for multimedia learning. Example: Showing a
video on the water cycle to explain environmental science
concepts. ---- 6.3 Principles of Using Teaching Aids ----
1. Clarity of Purpose: Ensuring teaching aids align with
learning objectives for effective communication. 2.
Relevance: Using aids that are directly related to the
topic being taught. 3. Engagement: Keeping students
actively involved and interested in the lesson. 4.
Accessibility: Ensuring all students can access and
benefit from the aids. 5. Integration: Seamlessly
incorporating aids into the lesson for enhanced
understanding. 6. Variety: Using a range of aids to cater
to different learning styles. 7. Preparation & Practice:
Adequately preparing and practicing with aids before
using them in class. 8. Flexibility: Being adaptable in
using aids based on student responses and needs. 9.
Feedback & Reflection: Seeking feedback and reflecting
on the effectiveness of aids for continuous improvement.
10. Safety & Ethics: Ensuring teaching aids are safe to
use and ethically appropriate for the learning
environment. ---- 6.4 Using Low-Cost Teaching Aids
1. Flashcards: Simple and effective tools for quick
review and reinforcement. 2. DIY Manipulatives:
Creating hands-on materials using everyday objects. 3.
Whiteboards & Markers: Interactive tools for
brainstorming and problem-solving. 4. Online
Resources: Accessing free educational materials and
videos for diverse subjects. 5. Recycled Material:
Repurposing items for creative and eco-friendly teaching
aids. 6. Puppets: Engaging students through storytelling
and role-playing. 7. Nature Walks: Utilizing outdoor
environments for experiential learning. 8. Board Games:
Making learning fun and interactive through educational
games. 9. Student-Made Materials: Encouraging
students to create their own aids for personalized learning.
10. Community Resources: Collaborating with local
resources for enriching educational experiences.
7. Characteristics of Effective Science Teaching: 1.
Characteristics of lesson planning 2. Characteristic
qualities of science teacher. 3. Effective questioning

8. Evaluation: 1. Designing a test 2. Administering &

scoring a test 3. Interpreting test results
Reviewing and revising test items
1. Matching the learning outcomes.. Specific learning
outcome: Identify the use of weather instruments. -- Item:
Describe how the hygrometer works. --- Improved: The
hygrometer is used to measure. (1) Air pressure (2)
Humidity (3) Rainfall (4) Wind Velocity.
2. Clarifying the point of the item and the desired
response… Item: Earthquake are detected by _____ .
Improved: Earthquake is detected by an instrument called
a(n) _____ (seismograph)
3. Removing excessive verbiage from multiple-choice
stems… Item: In which one of the following regions of
the United States can we expect annual rainfall to be the
greatest? --- Improved: In which region of the United
States is yearly rainfall greatest? (1) Midwest (2) New
England (3) Pacific Northwest (4) Southwest
4. Removing excessive verbiage from multiple-choice
alternatives… Item: In which direction do tornadoes
move? (1) They move toward the Northeast (2) They
move toward the Northwest. (3) They move toward the
Southeast (4) They move toward the Southwest. ---
Improved: Tornadoes move toward the….. (1) Northeast.
(2) Northwest (3) Southeast (4) Southwest.
5. Keeping the reading level low… Item: T - F --- There
is a dearth of information concerning the possibility that
life exists on Mars… Improved: T - F There is a lack of
information concerning life on Mars.
6. Removing verbal clues… Item: Evaporation is shown
by water changing to (1) Dew (2) Ice (3) Water vapor…..
Improved: (1) Dew (2) Ice (3) Steam
Helping Students Prepare for Tests and Assessments.
General Preparation: 1. Suggest ways of studying. 2.
Give practice tasks like those to be used. 3. Tech test-
taking skills. 4. Teach how to write well-organized essay
answers. 5. Stress the value of tests and assessments for
improving learning. --- Preparation for Each Test or
Assessment: 1. Announce in advance when the test or
assessment will be given. 2. Describe the conditions of
administration (e.g., 1 hour closed book). 3. Describe the
length and the types of items or tasks to be used (20
multiple choice, three essay items, or one extended-
response performance task). 4. Describe the content and
type of performance to be covered (a table of
specifications is useful for this). 5. Describe how the test
or assessment will be scored and how the results will be
used. 6. Give the students sample items and tasks similar
to those to be used (use a short practice test or present
items orally and discuss responses) 7. Relieve anxiety by
using a positive approach in describing the test or
assessment and its usefulness.
Steps to Prevent Cheating: 1. Take special precautions
to keep the test secure during preparation, storage, and
administration. 2. Have students clear off the tops of their
desks (for adequate work space and to prevent use of
notes). 3. If scratch paper is used (e.g., for math
problems), have it turned in with the test. 4. Proctor the
testing session carefully (e.g., walk around the room
periodically and observe how the students are doing). 5.
Use special seating arrangements, if possible (e.g., leave
an empty row of seats between students). 6. Use two
forms of the test and give a different form to each row of
students (for this purpose, use the same test but simply
rearrange the order of the items for the second form). 7.
Prepare tests that students will view as relevant, fair, and
useful. 8. Create and maintain a positive attitude
concerning the value of tests for improving learning.
Simplified Item-Analysis Procedure: A streamlined
method for analyzing test items by comparing the
responses of high-scoring and low-scoring students. --- 1.
Rank Test Papers: Arrange test papers from highest to
lowest score.2. Select Top and Bottom Papers: Choose
top 10 and bottom 10 papers for analysis. 3. Set Aside
Middle Papers: Exclude middle 12 papers from analysis.
4. Tabulate Responses: For each item, record upper and
lower group responses. 5. Compute Item Difficulty:
Calculate percentage of students who answered each item
correctly. 6. Compute Discriminating Power: Find
difference between upper and lower group responses for
each item.7. Evaluate Distracters: Assess attractiveness of
incorrect alternatives for each item. Example: Ranking
Papers: Arrange 32 test papers by score. Selection: Pick
top 10 and bottom 10 papers for analysis. Tabulation:
Record responses of upper and lower groups for each
item. Difficulty Calculation: Calculate percentage of
students who answered each item
correctly.Discriminating Power: Find difference between
upper and lower group responses for each item. Distracter
Evaluation: Assess effectiveness of incorrect alternatives
for each item. --- Item Difficulty: Formula: P = 100R/T
---- where “R” is number of correct responses and “T”
is total number of attempts. --- Example: For April 20,
1999, with 13 correct responses out of 20 attempts,
difficulty P= (100)(13)/20 --- 65%. ------ Discriminating
Power: Formula: D = (RU - RL) /5T where “RU” is
upper group correct responses, “RL” is lower group
correct responses, and “T” is total attempts. Example:
For April 1999, with 10 correct upper group and 3 correct
lower group responses, discriminating power is D = (10 -
3) / 5(10) = 70%.
Distracter Evaluation: Assess attractiveness of incorrect
alternatives for each item. No need for specific
calculation, inspection is sufficient.
Item Example with Table: Test Item: Question: What is
the main cause of seasons on Earth? Options: A. Earth's
distance from the sun. B. Tilt of Earth's axis. C. Rotation
speed of Earth. D. Earth's orbit shape.
Item Analysis Table:
Test Item Option Upper Lower
Group Group
(Correct) (Correct)
Seasons A 7 3
B 9 2
C 3 5
D 1 0
Calculation: Item Difficulty:
Option A: P =
Option B: P =
Option C: P =
Option D: P =
Discriminating Power:
Option A: D =
Option B: D =
Option C: D =
Option D: D =
Interpretation: Option B has the highest difficulty (45%)
and discriminating power (35%). Option A also has
moderate difficulty (35%) and discriminating power
(20%). Option C has low difficulty (15%) and negative
discriminating power (-10%), indicating it's not a good
distractor. Option D has the lowest difficulty (5%) and a
low but positive discriminating power (5%)
History of science education: 1. Ancient Civilizations:
Science education begins informally through oral
traditions and apprenticeships in civilizations like
Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece. 2. Middle Ages:
Science education is primarily dominated by religious
institutions, focusing on theology and philosophy. 3.
Renaissance: Interest in science is revived, leading to the
establishment of universities and the integration of
scientific subjects into the curriculum. 4. Scientific
Revolution: Pioneering scientists like Galileo Galilei,
Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton revolutionize
scientific thought, shaping the way science is taught and
understood. 5. 19th Century: Formalized science
education systems emerge with the establishment of
specialized schools, colleges, and universities. 6. 20th
Century: Advancements in science education include
standardized curricula, laboratory-based learning, and the
adoption of new teaching methodologies like inquiry-
based learning. 7. Modern Era: Science education
continues to evolve, with efforts focused on inclusivity,
accessibility, and engaging teaching methods to promote
scientific literacy in an increasingly complex world.
............
Challenges of implementing educational technology: 1.
Technical failures 2. Dependency on technology 3.
Distraction from learning 4. Cost of equipment and
maintenance 5. Complexity of setup and operation 6.
Lack of teacher training 7. Potential for misuse or
inappropriate content 8. Equipment maintenance issues 9.
Space requirements for setup 10. Limited accessibility for
all students 11. Cultural barriers to understanding content
12. Compatibility issues with existing technology 13.
Potential for ineffectiveness in enhancing learning 14.
Potential for misinterpretation of visual information 15.
Environmental impact of discarded equipment
............
General Objectives: Broad, overarching goals guiding
the lesson. Outline the overall purpose of the lesson.
Connected to broader curriculum or educational
standards. Example: Teach students the fundamentals of
essay writing. Specific Objectives: Detailed and focused
on particular skills, knowledge, or behaviors. Measurable
and provide clear criteria for assessment. Specify what
students should learn or achieve by the end of the lesson.
Example: Students will correctly identify and use three
different types of essay structures.
.........
In the Evaluation designing a test refers to the process of
creating a assessment tool to measure student learning and
understanding. Here are the steps to design a test: 1.
Define the learning objectives: Clearly state what students
are expected to know or be able to do. 2. Identify the test
type: Decide on the type of test, such as multiple-choice,
short-answer, essay, or performance task. 3. Develop test
questions: Write clear and concise questions that align
with the learning objectives. Ensure questions are valid
and reliable measures of student learning. Use a variety of
question types to assess different skills and knowledge. 4.
Determine the test format: Decide on the test format, such
as paper-based or online. 5. Establish test administration
procedures: Develop rules and guidelines for test
administration, such as time limits, instructions, and
scoring criteria. 6. Pilot test and revise: Pilot test the
assessment with a small group of students to identify and
revise any issues or ambiguities. 7. Set scoring criteria
and rubrics: Develop clear scoring criteria and rubrics to
ensure consistent and accurate scoring.
Additional considerations when designing a test include:
Validity: Ensure the test measures what it is intended to
measure. Reliability: Ensure the test produces consistent
results. Bias: Ensure the test is free from cultural, gender,
or other biases. Accessibility: Ensure the test is accessible
for all students, including those with disabilities.
-------------Administering and scoring a test are crucial
steps in the evaluation process. Administering a Test: 1.
Prepare the test environment: Ensure the testing room is
quiet, comfortable, and free from distractions. 2.
Distribute test materials: Provide each student with a copy
of the test, answer sheet, and any necessary materials
(e.g., calculators, pencils). 3. Explain instructions: Clearly
explain the test instructions, format, and timing to the
students. 4. Start the test: Begin the test at the scheduled
time, and ensure students understand they should not start
until instructed to do so. 5. Monitor the test: Circulate
around the room to ensure students are following
instructions, answer questions, and prevent cheating. 6.
Collect test materials: Collect all test materials from
students at the end of the testing period. Scoring a Test:
1. Develop a scoring key: Create a scoring key or rubric
that outlines the correct answers and scoring criteria. 2.
Score the test: Use the scoring key to score each student's
test, ensuring accuracy and consistency. 3. Record scores:
Record each student's score in a grade book or digital
platform. 4. Provide feedback: Offer constructive
feedback to students, highlighting strengths and areas for
improvement. 5. Analyze test results: Analyze the test
results to identify patterns, trends, and areas where
students may need additional support. 6. Use test data:
Use the test data to inform instruction, adjust teaching
strategies, and make data-driven decisions.
Some additional considerations when administering
and scoring a test include: Test security: Ensure the test
is secure and not compromised by cheating or other
unauthorized activities. Accommodations: Provide
accommodations for students with disabilities or special
needs. Scoring accuracy: Ensure scoring accuracy by
having multiple scorers or using automated scoring tools.
Feedback timeliness: Provide feedback to students in a
timely manner, while the test is still relevant to their
learning.
Interpreting test results is vital for guiding educational
decisions.
Understand the test scores: Familiarize yourself with the
test scoring system, including scale, range, and
benchmarks. -- Analyze individual student results:
Examine each student's scores to identify strengths,
weaknesses, and areas for improvement. -- Compare to
standards or benchmarks: Compare scores to established
standards to determine if learning goals are met. --
Identify patterns and trends: Look for consistent patterns
in areas of struggle or excellence. -- Consider error
margins: Account for margin of error to understand the
range of possible scores. -- Use norm-referenced
interpretation: Compare scores to larger normative group
for relative performance. -- Use criterion-referenced
interpretation: Evaluate based on specific criteria or
learning objectives. -- Use diagnostic interpretation:
Identify areas needing additional support or enrichment. --
Communicate results effectively: Share results clearly
with students, parents, and stakeholders. -- Use test data
to inform instruction: Adjust teaching strategies based on
results to improve learning. ---------Additional
Considerations: Contextual factors: Account for external
factors like motivation and test anxiety. -- Test validity
and reliability: Ensure tests accurately reflect student
learning. -- Cultural and linguistic diversity: Consider
diverse student backgrounds and needs. -- Growth and
progress: Focus on student progress over time, not just
one test score.
_

Unit 5 Teacher-Centered Professional Development

5.1 Models/Practices of Teacher-Centered Professional
Development
5.2. Activities to enhance teacher’s professional
development
5.3. Refresher Courses to enhance teachers’ professional
development
5.4. Role of Training, workshops, seminars to address
professional development
Unit 6 Trends in Teacher Professional Development
6.1. Global trends in teacher professional development
6.2. Role of Pakistan Teacher Associations
6.3. NGOs’ and Private organization role for teachers’
training.
6.4. Online/ Virtual platforms for teachers’ professional
development
Unit 7 Professional Standards for Teachers
7.1. Concept of Professional Standards for Teachers
7.2. Creating Evidence-Based Activities to implement the
areas of professional standards
7.3. Role Play to address the Professional Standards for
Teachers
7.4. Integrating Professional Standards with content-based
activities
Unit 8. National Accreditation Council for Teacher
Education, NACTE Pakistan
8.1. National Standards for Accreditation of Teacher
Education Programs.
8.2. Accreditation Standards and Procedures for Quality
Assurance in Teacher Education.
8.3. Accreditation for Quality Assurance in Teacher
Education.
8.4. Understanding about the International NECTE, USA,
UK, Canada, Australia
….………………