Chapter 4

Reference Models and Protocols

 Outline
➢Network Protocols
➢Layered Models
➢The OSI Model
➢The TCP/IP Model

➢Comparing OSI Model with TCP/IP Model

➢Overview & functions of each layer
➢Encapsulation and Decapsulation Process
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 Network Protocols
 In order for data packets to travel from a source to a
destination on a network, it is important that all the
devices on the network speak the same language or
protocol.
 A data communications protocol is a set of rules or
agreements that determines the data format, and how
transmission of data occurs.
 A network protocol is a set of standards that make
communication on a network more efficient.
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 Network Protocols
 Network protocols are formal standards and
policies made up of rules, procedures and formats
that defines communication between two or more
devices over a network or the Internet
 Protocols are Rules that specify:
 How the messages are sent
 How they are directed through the network, and
 How they are interpreted at the destination devices

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 Example of Network Protocols
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) suite
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 DNS (Domain Name System)
 FTP (FileTransfer Protocol)
 HTTP (HyperTextTransfer Protocol)
 HTTPS (HypertextTransfer Protocol Secure)
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
 IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
 IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol version 4)
 NTP (Network Time Protocol)
 SNMP2/3 (Simple Network Management Protocol version 2 or 3)
 SSH (Secure Socket Shell)
 POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
 RTP (Real-timeTransport Protocol
 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
 TFTP (Trivial FileTransfer Protocol)
 TLS (Transport Layer Security)
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 SMTP
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 Reference Models
 A reference model (Layered Model) is a
conceptual blueprint of how communications
should take place.
 It addresses all the processes required for
effective data communication and divides these
processes into logical groupings called layers.
 When a communication system is designed in
this manner, it’s known as layered architecture.
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 Advantage of Reference Models
 It divides the network communication process into
smaller and simpler components, thus aiding
component development, design, and troubleshooting.
 It encourages industry standardization by defining
what functions occur at each layer of the model.
 It allows various types of network hardware and
software to communicate.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other
layers, so it does not hamper development.
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 Types of Reference Models

OSI Reference model

 Open Systems Interconnection
TCP/IP Reference Model
 Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

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 Open System Interconnection
(OSI) Model
 OSI model has been developed by ISO –
'International Organization of Standardization',
in the year 1974.
 It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer
having specific functionality to perform
 The OSI isn’t a physical model. Rather, it’s a set
of guidelines that application developers can use
to create and implement applications that run
on a network.
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 Open System Interconnection
(OSI) Model
 OSI model also provides a framework for
creating and implementing networking
standards, devices, and internetworking
schemes.
 The OSI model defines a networking
framework to implement protocols in layers,
with control passed from one layer to the next

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 The OSI Model
 The OSI has seven different layers, divided into
two groups.
 The top three layers define how the
applications within the end stations will
communicate with each other and with users.
 The bottom four layers define how data is
transmitted end-to-end.

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 Layers of the OSI Model

Top 3 layers

Bottom 4 layers

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 The TCP/IP Model
 The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the
TCP/IP reference model, because it wanted to design a
network that could survive under any conditions,
including a nuclear war.
 In a world connected by different types of
communication media such as copper wires,
microwaves, optical fibers and satellite links, the DoD
wanted transmission of packets every time and under
any conditions. This very difficult design problem
brought about the creation of the TCP/IP model.
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 The TCP/IP Model
 The DoD model is basically a condensed version of
the OSI model
 It’s composed of four, instead of seven, layers:
Application layer
Transport layer
Internet layer
Network Access layer

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 OSI vs TCP/IP Model

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 TCP/IP vs OSI
Similarities include:
 Both have layers.
 Both have application layers, though they
include very different services.
 Both have comparable transport layers.
 Both models need to be known by networking
professionals.
 Both assume packets are switched.
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 TCP/IP vs OSI
Differences include:
 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session
layer issues into its application layer.
 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical
layers into the network access layer.
 TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
 TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which
the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP model gains
credibility just because of its protocols.
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 TCP/IP vs OSI
Although TCP/IP protocols are the standards with
which the Internet has grown, the OSI model is useful
for the following reasons:
 It is a generic standard.
 It has more details, which make it more helpful for teaching
and learning, and for troubleshooting.
 Networking professionals differ in their opinions on which
model to use. Due to the nature of the industry it is
necessary to become familiar with both.
 The OSI model will be used to describe TCP/IP protocols.
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 Two Models: Side-By-Side
7 Application
Application
6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport Transport

3 Network Internet

2 Data Link Network

Access Layer
1 Physical

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 Functions of each layers

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21
22
 Application Layer (Layer 7)
 The Application layer of the OSI model marks the
spot where users actually communicate to the
computer.
 This layer only comes into play when it’s apparent
that access to the network is going to be needed
 It consists of protocols that focus on process-to-
process communication across an IP network and
provides a firm communication interface and end-
user services.
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 Application Layer
 The application layer as the user interface
responsible for displaying received information
to the user.
 The application layer is used in both of the
standard models: (TCP/IP) and the OSI
models.
 The applications layer defines interface to user
processes for communication and data transfer
in network
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 Application Layer

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 Application Layer Protocols
Protocols available at the Application layer are:
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Post Office Protocol (POP)
 Telnet
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

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 WWW services and HTTP
(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
 When a web address (URL) is typed into a web
browser, the web browser establishes a connection to
the web server using the HTTP protocol.
 URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and URIs
(Uniform Resource Identifier) are the names most
people associate with web addresses.
(http://www.google.com/resources.html)

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 Cont’d
 Web browsers are the client applications our computers
use to connect to the WWW and access resources stored
on a web server.
 As with most server processes, the web server runs as a
background service and makes different types of files
available.
 Web clients make connections to the web server and
request the desired resources.
 The server replies with the resources and, upon receipt,
the browser interprets the data and presents it to the user.
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 Cont’d
 Browsers can interpret and present many data types,
such as plain text or Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML, the language in which web pages are
constructed). Example: user types
http://www.google.com/resources.html
First, the browser interprets the three parts of the URL:
1) HTTP (the protocol or scheme)
2) www.google.com (the server name)
3) resource.html (the specific file name requested).

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 Cont’d
 The browser then checks with a DNS server to convert
www.google.com <http://www.google.com > into a
numeric address, which it uses to connect to the server.
 Using the HTTP protocol requirements, the browser
sends a GET request to the server and asks for the file
resource.html.
 The server in turn sends the HTML code for this web
page to the browser. Finally, the browser deciphers the
HTML code and formats the page for the browser
window.
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 DNS (Domain Name System)
 In data networks each device has a unique IP address in
order to communicate with devices on the data
network. (198.132.219.25)
 Difficult to remember each and every IP address, hence
domain names were used as a solution
(www.google.com)
 As networks grew larger it became difficult to
maintain or resolve the domain names and IP addresses
manually, hence a system was formulated.
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 Cont’d
 The Domain Name System (DNS) was created for
domain name to address resolution for these networks.

 DNS uses a distributed set of servers to resolve

the names associated with these numbered addresses
(IP Addresses).

 The DNS protocol defines an automated service that

matches resource names with the required numeric
network address.
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 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
 FTP was developed to allow for file transfers between
a client and a server.
 An FTP client is an application that runs on a
computer that is used to push and pull files from
the FTP server.
 The file transfer can happen in either direction.
 The client can download (pull) a file from the server
or, the client can upload (push) a file to the server.

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 DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

 The Dynamic Host Confirmation Protocol (DHCP)

service enables devices on a network to obtain IP
addresses and other information from a DHCP
server.
 The DHCP service automates the assignment of:
 IP addresses
 Subnet masks
 Default Gateway and other IP networking parameters.

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 Cont’d
 The DHCP server is contacted and an address requested.

 The DHCP server chooses an address from a configured

range of addresses called a pool and assigns ("leases") it
to the client for a set of periods.

 On a larger local networks, or where the user population

(number of computers) changes frequently, DHCP is
preferred.
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 Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
The Presentation layer gets its name from its purpose:
 It presents data to the Application layer
 It is responsible for data translation and code
formatting.
 It is sometimes called the syntax layer
 Tasks like data compression, decompression,
encryption, and decryption are associated with this
layer.
 This layer is essentially a translator and provides
coding and conversion functions.
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 Presentation Layer
 A successful data-transfer technique is to adapt
the data into a standard format before
transmission.
 Computers are configured to receive this
generically formatted data and then convert the
data back into its native format for actual
reading.
 The presentation layer is the layer the
operating systems interacts with.
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 Presentation Layer

• Masks the differences of data formats

between dissimilar systems
• Specifies architecture-independent data
transfer format
• Encodes and decodes data;
• Encrypts and decrypts data;
• Compresses and decompresses data

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 Session Layer (Layer 5)
 The Session layer is responsible for setting up,
managing, and then tearing down sessions between the
sending and receiving entities.
 This layer also provides dialogue control between
multiple computers, or nodes.
 The session layer controls the connections between
multiple computers.
 The session layer tracks the dialogs between
computers, which are also called sessions.
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 Session Layer

• Manages user sessions and

dialogues
• Controls establishment and
termination of logic links between
users
• Reports upper layer errors

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 Transport Layer (Layer 4)
 The Transport layer segments and reassembles data
into a data stream.
 Services located in the Transport layer both segment
and reassemble data from upper-layer applications
and unite it onto the same data stream.
 This layer provides end-to-end data transport
services and can establish a logical connection
between the sending host and destination host on an
internetwork.
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 Transport Layer
 Transport layer, transports and regulates the flow of
information from the source to the destination,
reliably and accurately.
 Manages end-to-end message delivery in network
 Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery
through error recovery and flow control mechanisms
(TCP)
 Provides connectionless oriented packet delivery
(UDP)
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 Transport Layer

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 Transport Layer
The Transport layer services can be:
Connection-oriented (reliable).

Connectionless-oriented (unreliable)

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 Connection –Oriented (Reliable)
A service is considered connection-oriented if
it has the following characteristics:
A virtual circuit is set up
o(e.g. three-way handshake)
It uses Sequencing (sequence number)
It uses Acknowledgments
It uses Flow Control
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 Three-way handshake
 In reliable transport operation , a device that wants
to transmit sets up a connection-oriented
communication with a remote device by creating a
Session.
 The transmitting (sender) device first establishes a
connection-oriented session with its peer system
(receiver), which is called a call setup, or a three-way
handshake.
 Once the connection is established, data is then
transferred; when finished, a call termination takes
place to tear down the virtual circuit (VC).
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 Session establishment, maintenance,
and termination

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 Acknowledgment
 Reliable data delivery guarantees that the data
won’t be duplicated or lost. This is achieved
through something called positive acknowledgment
with retransmission (PAR).
 This technique requires a receiving machine to
communicate with the transmitting source by
sending an acknowledgment message back to the
sender when it receives data.
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 Acknowledgment
 The sender documents each segment it sends and waits for
this acknowledgment before sending the next segment.
 When it sends a segment, the sender starts a timer and
retransmits if it expires before an acknowledgment is
returned from the receiving end.
 A three-way handshake is a method used in a TCP/IP
network to create a connection between a sender and
receiver/server.
 It is a three-step method that requires both the client and
server to exchange SYN and ACK (acknowledgment)
packets before actual data communication begins.
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 Acknowledgement
• With a window size of three, the source
device can send three packets to the
destination.
• The source device must then wait for an
acknowledgment.
• If the destination receives the three packets,
it sends an acknowledgment to the source
device, which can now transmit three more
packets.
• If the destination does not receive the three
packets, because of overflowing buffers, it
does not send an acknowledgment.
• Because the source does not receive an
acknowledgment, it knows that the packets
should be retransmitted, and that the
transmission rate should be slowed.
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51
 Three-way handshake

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 Flow Control
 Flow control prevents a sender on one side of the
connection from overflowing the buffers in the
receiver—an event that can result in data lost.
 A buffer is a temporary area for data storage.
 As the transport layer sends data segments, it tries to
ensure that data is not lost.
 A receiver that is unable to process data as quickly as
it arrives could be a cause of data loss. The receiving
host is then forced to discard it.
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 Flow control

• Flow control avoids the problem of a transmitting host

overflowing the buffers in the receiving host.
• TCP provides the mechanism for flow control by allowing
the sending and receiving host to communicate. The two
hosts then establish a data-transfer rate that is agreeable to both.
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 Flow Control

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 Transport Layer Protocols

 TCP: Transfer Control Protocol

 (Connection Oriented/Reliable)

 UDP: User Datagram Protocol

 (Connectionless Oriented /unreliable)

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 TCP (Transfer Control Protocol)
 TCP is responsible for breaking messages into segments,
reassembling them at the destination station, resending
anything that is not received, and reassembling messages
from the segments.
 TCP acknowledges that data is successfully received and
guarantees the data is reassembled in the correct order.
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that computers use
to communicate over the internet.
 It is one of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks. TCP
provides error-checking and guarantees delivery of data
and that packets will be delivered in the order they were
sent.
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UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• UDP is the connectionless transport protocol in the
TCP/IP protocol stack.
• UDP is a simple protocol that exchanges datagrams,
without acknowledgments or guaranteed delivery.
• UDP doesn't establish connections as TCP does, so
UDP does not perform this 3-way handshake and for
this reason, it is referred to as an unreliable protocol.
• But that doesn't mean UDP can't transfer data, it just
doesn't negotiate how the connection will work,
UDP just transmits and hopes for the best.
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 Network Layer (Layer 3)
 It manages device addressing (IP Addressing)
 Tracks the location of devices on the network
and determines the best way to move data, which
means that the Network layer must transport
traffic between devices that aren’t locally
attached.
 Routers (layer 3 devices) are specified at the
Network layer and provide the routing services
within an internetwork.
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 Network Layer
• Determines how data are transferred between
network devices
• Routes packets according to unique network
device addresses
• Provides flow and congestion control to
prevent network resource depletion

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 Network Layer Protocol

• The network layer accepts and delivers

packets for the network.
• Internet Protocol (IP): The Internet
protocol suite is the conceptual model and
set of communications protocols used in
the Internet and similar computer networks

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 Network Layer

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 Data link Layer- Layer 2
• The data link layer handles the moving of data into and out of
a physical link in a network.
• The data link layer defines procedures for operating the
communication links
• The protocol data unit (PDU) on the data link layer is a
Frames
• It manages physical addressing (MAC: Media Access
Control) address
• Physical address (MAC) is a globally unique ID for your
device and is burnt in the NIC
• MAC address is useful for local communication

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 Data Link layer

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 Physical Layer
• Defines physical means of
sending data over network
devices
• Interfaces between network
medium and devices
• Defines optical, electrical and
mechanical characteristics

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 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
process
 Encapsulation is the process of moving data
from the upper layer to the lower layer and
each layer includes a packet of information,
called a header, with the actual data.
 Decapsulation: data moves from the bottom
layer to the top layers and removes the packet
information (header)

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 Encapsulation process
 All communications on a network originate at a source,
and are sent to a destination.
 The information sent on a network is referred to as data
or data packets.
 If one computer (host A) wants to send data to another
computer (host B), the data must first be packaged
through a process called encapsulation.
 Encapsulation is the process of taking data from one
protocol and translating it into another protocol, so the
data can continue across a network
 The protocol data unit (PDU) on each layer is different
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Top three layer • Build the data.
As a user sends an e-mail message,
its alphanumeric characters are
converted to data that can travel
across the internetwork.
• Package the data for end-to-
end transport.
The data is packaged for
internetwork transport.
• By using segments, the
transport function ensures
that the message hosts at
both ends of the e-mail
system can reliably
68 communicate.
 Network Layer
Add the network IP
address to the header.

The data is put into a packet

or datagram that contains a
packet header with source
and destination logical
addresses. These addresses
help network devices send
the packets across the
network along a chosen
path.
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 Data Link Layer
Add the data link layer
header and trailer.
Each network device
must put the packet into
a frame. The frame
allows connection to the
next directly-connected
network device on the
link. Each device in the
chosen network path
requires framing in
order for it to connect
70 to the next device.
 Physical Layer

Convert to bits for

transmission.
The frame must be converted into a
pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for
transmission on the medium. A
clocking function enables the devices
to distinguish these bits as they travel
across the medium. The medium on
the physical internetwork can vary
along the path used. For example, the
e-mail message can originate on a
LAN, cross a campus backbone, and
go out a WAN link until it reaches its
destination on another remote LAN.

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 Data Encapsulation Example

Once the packet has

been sent to the
destination, the protocols
undo the construction of
the packet that was done
on the source side. This
is done in reverse order.
The protocols for each
layer on the destination
return the information to
its original form, so the
application can properly
read the data.

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 PDU at Each Layer

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74