TCP Characteristics

Here, are the essential characteristics of TCP/IP protocol

• Support for a flexible TCP/IP architecture

• Adding more system to a network is easy.
• In TCP/IP, the network remains intact until the source, and destination
machines were functioning properly.
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
• TCP offers reliability and ensures that data which arrives out of sequence
should put back into order.
• TCP allows you to implement flow control, so sender never overpowers a
receiver with data.

Four Layers of TCP/IP model

In this TCP/IP tutorial, we will learn about different TCP/IP layers and their
functions
 TCP/IP Conceptual Layers

The functionality of the TCP IP model is divided into four layers, and each includes
specific protocols.

TCP/IP is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined

according to a specific function to perform. All these four TCP/IP layers work
collaboratively to transmit the data from one layer to another.

• Application Layer
• Transport Layer
• Internet Layer
• Network Interface
Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level
of OSI model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-
user. It means the OSI application layer allows users to interact with other software
application.

Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a

communicating component. The interpretation of data by the application program
is always outside the scope of the OSI model.

Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email,

remote login, etc.

The function of the Application Layers are:

• Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners,
determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
• It allows users to log on to a remote host
• This layer provides various e-mail services
• This application offers distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
Transport Layer
Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from
a process on a source system machine to a process on a destination system. It is
hosted using single or multiple networks, and also maintains the quality of service
functions.

It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer
builds on the message which are received from the application layer. It helps
ensure that data units are delivered error-free and in sequence.

Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control,
error control, and segmentation or de-segmentation.

The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data

transmission and sends the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-
known example of the transport layer.

Important functions of Transport Layers:

• It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and
numbers them to make a sequence.
• Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct
process on the destination machine.
• It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it
should be retransmitted.

Internet Layer
An internet layer is a second layer of TCP/IP layes of the TCP/IP model. It is also
known as a network layer. The main work of this layer is to send the packets from
any network, and any computer still they reach the destination irrespective of the
route they take.

The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring
variable length data sequences from one node to another with the help of various
networks.
Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable
network layer protocol.

Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:

1. Routing protocols
2. Multicast group management
3. Network-layer address assignment.

The Network Interface Layer

Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is
also called a network access layer. It helps you to defines details of how data
should be sent using the network.

It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which
directly interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or
twisted-pair cables.

A network layer is a combination of the data line and defined in the article of OSI
reference model. This layer defines how the data should be sent physically through
the network. This layer is responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
Differences between OSI and TCP/IP models

Here, are some important differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model:

OSI Model TCP/IP model

It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET (Advance

Organization) Agency Network).

OSI model provides a clear distinction between TCP/IP doesn't have any clear disting
interfaces, services, and protocols. between services, interfaces, and pro
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection. TCP refers to Transmission Control P

OSI uses the network layer to define routing standards TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
and protocols.

OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach

OSI model use two separate layers physical and data TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
link to define the functionality of the bottom layers.

OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.

OSI model, the transport layer is only connection- A layer of the TCP/IP model is both co
oriented. and connectionless.

In the OSI model, the data link layer and physical are In TCP, physical and data link are bo
separate layers. single host-to-network layer.

Session and presentation layers are not a part of the TCP There is no session and presentation
model.

It is defined after the advent of the Internet. It is defined before the advent of the

The minimum size of the OSI header is 5 bytes. Minimum header size is 20 bytes.

Most Common TCP/IP Protocols

Some widely used most common TCP/IP protocol are:

TCP:
Transmission Control Protocol is an internet protocol suite which breaks up the
message into TCP Segments and reassembling them at the receiving side.

IP:
An Internet Protocol address that is also known as an IP address is a numerical
label. It is assigned to each device that is connected to a computer network which
uses the IP for communication. Its routing function allows internetworking and
essentially establishes the Internet. Combination of IP with a TCP allows
developing a virtual connection between a destination and a source.

HTTP:
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a foundation of the World Wide Web. It is used
for transferring webpages and other such resources from the HTTP server or web
server to the web client or the HTTP client. Whenever you use a web browser like
Google Chrome or Firefox, you are using a web client. It helps HTTP to transfer web
pages that you request from the remote servers.

SMTP:
SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol supports the e-mail is
known as a simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol helps you to send the data
to another e-mail address.

SNMP:
SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework which is
used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol.

DNS:
DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address that is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. However, users prefer to use names
instead of addresses for that DNS.

TELNET:
TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the
local and remote computer. It established connection in such a manner that you
can simulate your local system at the remote system.

FTP:
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a mostly used standard protocol for
transmitting the files from one machine to another.

Advantages of the TCP/IP model

Here, are pros/benefits of using the TCP/IP model:

• It helps you to establish/set up a connection between different types of

computers.
• It operates independently of the operating system.
• It supports many routing-protocols.
• It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
• TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.
• It can be operated independently.
• Supports a number of routing protocols.
• It can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Disadvantages of the TCP/IP model

Here, are few drawbacks of using the TCP/IP model:

• TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.

• The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX (Internetwork Packet
Exchange).
• In this, model the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
• Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
• It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and protocols.

Summary:
• The full form or TCP/IP model explained as Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol.
 • TCP supports flexible architecture
• Four layers of TCP/IP model are 1) Application Layer 2) Transport Layer 3)
Internet Layer 4) Network Interface
• Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest
level of OSI model.
• Internet layer is a second layer of the TCP/IP model. It is also known as a
network layer.
• Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data
transport from a process on a source system machine to a process on a
destination system.
• Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This
layer is also called a network access layer.
• OSI model is developed by ISO (International Standard Organization)
whereas TCP/IP model is developed by ARPANET (Advanced Research
Project Agency Network).
• An Internet Protocol address that is also known as an IP address is a
numerical label.
• HTTP is a foundation of the World Wide Web.
• SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol which supports the e-mail is
known as a simple mail transfer
• SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.
• DNS stands for Domain Name System.
• TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local and remote computer
• FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a mostly used standard protocol
for transmitting the files from one machine to another.
• The biggest benefit of TCP/IP model is that it helps you to establish/set up a
connection between different types of computers.
• TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.

What is IP Subnetting?

IP Subnetting is a process of dividing a large IP network in smaller IP networks. In

Subnetting we create multiple small manageable networks from a single large IP network.

Let’s take an example.

To best utilize available addresses if we put more than 16000000 hosts in a single network,
due to broadcast and collision, that network will never work. If we put less hosts then
remaining addresses will be wasted.

Subnetting provides a better way to deal with this situation. Subnetting allows us to create
smaller networks from a single large network which not only fulfill our hosts’ requirement
but also offer several other networking benefits.

I have already explained the advantages of Subnetting along with why Subnetting is
necessary in previous parts of this tutorial. In this part, I will mainly focus on Subnetting
components and terminology.

This tutorial is the third part of the article “IP Subnetting in Computer Network Step
by Step Explained with Examples”. Other parts of this article are following.

Network portion vs Host portion

Identifying network portion and host portion in an IP address is the first step of
Subnetting. Subnetting can only be done in host portion. Subnet mask is used to
distinguish the network portion from host portion in an IP address.

An IP address and a subnet mask both collectively provide a numeric identity to an

interface. Both addresses are always used together. Without subnet mask, an IP address
is an ambiguous address and without IP address a subnet mask is just a number.

Both addresses are 32 bits in length. These bits are divided in four parts. Each part is
known as octet and contains 8 bits. Octets are separated by periods and written in a
sequence.
Subnet mask assigns an individual bit for each bit of IP address. If IP bit belongs to
network portion, assigned subnet mask bit will be turned on. If IP bit belongs to host
portion, assigned subnet mask bit will be turned off.

There are two popular notations to write the IP address and Subnet mask; Decimal
notation and Binary notation.

In decimal notation, a value range 1 to 255 represents a turned on bit while a value 0
(zero) represents a turned off bit.

In binary notation, 1 (one) represents a turned on bit while 0 (zero) represents a turned
off bit.
Examples of IP address with subnet mask in binary format

00001010.00001010.00001010.00001010
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000

10101100.10101000.00000001.00000001
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Examples of IP address with subnet mask in decimal format

10.10.10.10
255.0.0.0

172.168.1.1
255.255.0.0

192.168.1.1
255.255.255.0
In above examples network portion is formatted in bold text.

Reserve IP classes, network bits and host bits

Each IP address belongs to a predefined IP class. There are five predefined IP classes; A,
B, C, D and E. From these classes, class D and E are reserved and cannot be used in
Subnetting.

To learn more about IP address and its classes, you can see this tutorial.
 IP Address Classes and Definition Explained

It explains IP address, IP classes, Types of IP address, Private IP address, Public IP address and much more in detail.

In class A, B and C: -

• First 8, 16 and 24 bits are reserved for network portion respectively.

• Last 2 bits (31 & 32) are reserved for host portion.

Reserved network bits and host bits cannot be used in Subnetting.

IP Class First IP Address of class Last IP Address of class Default Subnet Mask De
A 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 Fir
B 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 255.255.0.0 Fir
C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 255.255.255.0 Fir
Subnetting eligible host bits

After excluding reserved network bits and host bits, remaining bits are considered as
Subnetting eligible host bits.
Subnetting can be done only in Subnetting eligible bits.

Subnet

A subnet is a single small network created from a large network. In Subnetting we break
a single large network in multiple small networks. These networks are known as subnets.

Network address and Broadcast address

In each network there are two special addresses; network address and broadcast address.
Network address represents the network itself while broadcast address represents all the
hosts which belong to it. These two addresses can’t be assigned to any individual host in
network. Since each subnet represents an individual network, it also uses these two
addresses.

In simple language, in a single network only two IP addresses will be used for these
addresses. But if we breaks this network in two small networks then four IP addressed will
be used for these addresses.
Network address and broadcast address are also known as Network ID and broadcast ID
respectively.

Valid host addresses

All addresses between Network address and Broadcast address are known as valid host
addresses. Only valid host addresses can be assigned to the devices in a network. These
devices include end user devices such as computes, laptops, tablets, smartphones, IP
phones, servers, printers, terminals, IP camera and networking devices such switches,
routers, firewalls and proxy servers. In short, any device that uses IP protocol for data
transferring needs a valid host address.

Block Size

Block size is the sum of network address, valid host addresses and broadcast address. For
example, if in a network there are 6 valid hosts than block size of that network is 8 (1
network address + 6 valid hosts + 1 broadcast address).

Power of 2

An IP address is built from the various combinations of IP bits. Understanding how many
combinations the number of bits provides or to get the number of combinations how
many bits we need is the second essential step of Subnetting.
• A combination of all 32 represents a unique IP address.
• A combination of network bits in IP address represents the number of networks or
subnets.
• A combination of host bits in IP address represents the number of total hosts.

To know how many combinations the number of bits provides or to get the number of
combinations how many bits are required, we use the power of 2.

For example, to break a single large network in 4 subnets, we need 2 (22 = 4) Subnetting
bits. This way if we have 3 Subnetting bits, we can make 8 (23 = 8) additional networks.

Following table lists the power of 2 till 32.

2X Value 2X Value 2X Value

1 2 9 512 17 131072
2 4 10 1024 18 262144
3 8 11 2048 19 524288
4 16 12 4096 20 1048576
5 32 13 8192 21 2097152
6 64 14 16384 22 4194304
7 128 15 32768 23 8388608
8 256 16 65536 24 16777216
In 2 the X is the number of bits.
X

Subnetting Direction

Subnetting always flows in single direction (left to right) without skipping any bit. This
simple rule gives us the exact location of Subnetting bits in an address space. Let’s take
an example.

A class C network is subnetted in 4 subnets. Find the number of host bits used in
Subnetting and their location in address space.

To create 4 subnets we need to 2 (22 = 4) Subnetting eligible host bits.

Since in class C network space Subnetting eligible bits starts from 25 and Subnetting
always goes from left to right without skipping any bit, the bits used in this network are
25 and 26.
Slash Notation

It’s a compact representation of Subnet mask. In this notation a slash (/) sign and total
number of the on bits in subnet mask are written with IP address instead of full Subnet
mask.

Following table lists some examples of IP addresses with Subnet mask in all three
notations.

In Slash notation In binary notation

10.10.10.10/8 00001010.00001010.00001010.00001010
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
172.168.1.1/16 10101100.10101000.00000001.00000001
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
192.168.1.1/24 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
192.168.1.1/28 11000000.10101000.00000001.00000001
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
Type of Subnetting

There are two types of Subnetting FLSM and VLSM. In FLSM, all subnets have equal
number of host addresses and use same Subnet mask. In VLSM, subnets have flexible
number of host addresses and use different subnet mask.

Following figure shows an example of FLSM and VLSM.

FLSM is easy in implementation and simple in operation but wastes a lot of IP addresses.
VLSM is hard in implementation and complex in operation but utilizes maximum IP
addresses.

Several steps involve in both types of Subnetting. Due to length of this tutorial, I will
explain both types of Subnetting individually in next parts of this article.

That’s all for this part. In next part, we will learn how to perform a FLSM Subnetting step
by step in detail with practical examples. If you have any suggestion or feedback regarding
this tutorial, please let me know. If you like this tutorial, please share it with friends.
Subnetting Worked Examples and Exercises
The best way of learning subnetting is to do it. Here are a selection of worked examples
to help you get started.

At the end are some links to online quizes so you can do it yourself.

1- You have been allocated a class A network address of 29.0.0.0. You need to create at least
20 networks and each network will support a maximum of 160 hosts. Would the following two
subnet masks Work?

255.255.0.0 and or 255.255.255.0

Yes both would work.

Mask 255.255.0.0 has 8 bits for the subnet and 16 bits for the host

8 bits would accommodate 28=256 subnets

16 bits would accommodate 216= over 64000 hosts

Mask 255.255.255.0 has 16 bits for the subnet and 8 bits of the host.

Have possible 28 -2 hosts =254 which is enough

2. – You have been allocated a class B network address of 135.1.0.0 and and need to create 4
subnets each with around 200 hosts what is the easiest mask to use to satisfy the criteria?

Easiest is to sub net on a byte boundary which would mean a subnet mask
of 255.255.255.0

This would allocate 8 bits for the subnet and 8 bits for the host.

We need to accommodate around 200 hosts which requires 8 bits which we have.

We need 4 subnets which require 4 bits and we have 8 bits. So we have more than
enough.

3. Write the IP address 222.1.1.20 mask 255.255.255.192 in CIDR notation

Decimal 192 =11000000 binary which means that 2 bits of this octet are used for the
subnet. Now add the 24 bits 255.255.255 and we have 26 bits. So we write:

222.1.1.20/26

4. Write the IP address 135.1.1.25 mask 255.255. 248.0 in CIDR notation

Decimal 248 =11111000 binary which means that 5 bits of this octet are used for the
subnet. Now add the 16 bits 255.255. and we have 21 bits. So we write:

135..1.1.25/21

5 – You have been allocated a class C network address of 211.1.1.0 and are using the default
subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 how may hosts can you have?

A class C address has 8 bits of the host which will give 28 -2 =254 hosts

6 .Subnet the Class C IP Address 195.1.1.0 So that you have 10 subnets each with a maximum
12 hosts on each subnet. List the Address on host 1 on subnet 0,1,2,3,10

Current mask= 255.255.255.0

Bits needs for 10 subnets =4 =24 =16 possible subnets

Bits needs for 12 hosts = 4 = 24 = 16-2=14 possible hosts.

So our mask in binary =11110000= 240 decimal

Final Mask =255.255.255.240

7. Subnet the Class C IP Address 205.11.2.0 so that you have 30 subnets.

What is the subnet mask for the maximum number of hosts?

How many hosts can each subnet have?

What is the IP address of host 3 on subnet 2 ?

Current mask= 255.255.255.0

Bits needs for 30 subnets =5 =25 =32 possible subnets

Bits left for hosts = 3 = 23 = 8-2=6 possible hosts.

So our mask in binary =11111000= 248 decimal

Final Mask =255.255.255.248

Address of host 3 on subnet 2 is

subnet 2 =00010000 host 3 =000000011

Add the two together =00010011=19

therefore IP address of host 3 on subnet 2 =205.11.2.19

8. Subnet the Class C IP Address 195.1.1.0 So that you have at least 2 subnets each subnet
must have room for 48 hosts .
What are the two possible subnet masks?

Current mask= 255.255.255.0

Bits needs for 48 hosts = 6 = 26 = 64-2=62 possible hosts.

Bits needs for 2 subnets =1 =21 =2 possible subnets

Total of 7 bits needed so therefore we can use either 1 bit or 2 bits for the subnet. So
we could have

1 bit subnet 7 bits hosts or 2 bits subnet 6 bit host

masks are 10000000 and 11000000 =128 decimal and 192 decimal.

Final possible masks are:

255.255.255.128 and 255.255.255.192

9 .Given the subnet Mask 255.255.255.192 What is the host address and subnet of the
following IP address 197.1.2.67.

192 in binary =11000000 gives 4 possible subnets of (showing 2 most significant bits):

00,01,10,11

67 in binary =01000011

So Applying Mask:
Super netting Tutorial: - Super netting Explained with
Examples
This tutorial explains Super netting, route summarization and route aggregation in detail
with examples. Learn how Super netting is done step by step along with the fundamental
and the basic concepts of Super netting such as what is Super netting, why Super netting
is done and what are the advantages of Super netting.

What is Super netting?

Super netting is the process of summarizing a bunch of contiguous Submitted networks

back in a single large network. Super netting is also known as route summarization and
route aggregation.

Following figure shows an example of Super netting.

In above example, 8 subnets are summarized in single subnet.

Why Super netting is done?

Super netting is mainly done for optimizing the routing tables. A routing table is the
summary of all known networks. Routers share routing tables to find the new path and
locate the best path for destination.
 Without Super netting, router will share all routes from routing tables as they are. With
Super netting, it will summarize them before sharing. Route summarization reduces the
size of routing updates dramatically.

Following figure shows an example of route summarization.

Advantage of Super netting

Super netting provides following advantages.

• It reduces the size of routing updates.

• It provides a better overview of network.
• It decreases the use of resources such as Memory and CPU.
• It decreases the required time in rebuilding the routing tables.

Super netting components

Each route advertises a certain number of addresses including network ID, broadcast ID
and subnet mask. We can use a term Block size to refer all these addresses collectively.
 In order to perform the Super netting, we need Network ID, CIDR Value, Broadcast ID,
Subnet Mask and Block Size of each route.

• Network ID and broadcast ID are used to check the alignment of routes. Super netting can be
performed only if routes are sequential.
• Block size is used to calculate the summarized route from given routes.
• Subnet mask and CIDR value is the same thing in different notations. Both are used to find the
ON network bits in IP address. In exam, question may use any notation. While preparing for
Cisco exam, you should practice with both.

Since an advertise route is the combination of network ID and CIDR value, we only need
to figure out the broadcast ID, subnet mask and block size.

For block size use following formulas:-

32 – CIDR Value = Number of host bits

Block size = 2Number of host bits
For example if CIDR value is 25 then block is 128.

32 -25 = 7
27 = 128
Broadcast ID is the last address of network. Once you know the block size, to calculate the
broadcast ID, simply count the addresses starting from network ID till the last address of
the block.

For example if network ID is 192.168.1.0/25 and block size is 128 and then broadcast ID
will be 192.168.1.127/25.

In counting, the 0 is used as a number. For example, [0, 1 and 2] are 3 numbers.

Following table lists all CIDR values along with subnet mask and block size.

Super netting chart

CIDR Subnet mask

/8 255.0.0.0

/9 255.128.0.0

/10 255.192.0.0

/11 255.224.0.0

/12 255.240.0.0
/13 255.248.0.0

/14 255.252.0.0

/15 255.254.0.0

/16 255.255.0.0

/17 255.255.128.0

/18 255.255.192.0

/19 255.255.224.0

/20 255.255.240.0

/21 255.255.248.0

/22 255.255.252.0

/23 255.255.254.0

/24 255.255.255.0

/25 255.255.255.128

/26 255.255.255.192

/27 255.255.255.224

/28 255.255.255.240

/29 255.255.255.248

/30 255.255.255.252

Key points of Super netting

Super netting can be done only in same address space. If address space is completely
different between two or more routes, they cannot be summarized in a single route. For
example, we can’t summarize the route 192.168.1.0/25 with the route 193.168.1.128/25.

A route can be summarized only in a route which is bigger than it in block size. For
example we can’t summarize a route of block size 64 in a route of block size 32 but we
can summarize two routes of block size 32 in a single route of block size 64.

The easiest way of calculating the summarized route is adding the block size of all
sequential routes and using the Subnetting which provides the block size that is equal to
the result of addition. For example if we have two sequential routes of block size 16, we
can summarize them in a single route of block size 32.

Summarization can be done only in available bock sizes. For example if we have 5 routes
of block size 8, we cannot summarize them in single route of block size 40 (8x5). 40 is not
a valid block size. For valid block sizes see the Supernetting chart give above. In this case,
the best choice is summarizing first four routes is single summarized route of block size
32 and keeping the fifth route as it is.

Just like block size, network ID of summarized route must be matched with the network
ID of first sequential route. To calculate the valid network in summarized block size, simply
count in block size starting from 0.

For example, if summarized block size is 32 then valid network IDs are 0, 32, 64, 96, 128,
160, 192 and 224. If the first sequential route of routes which we are summarizing doesn’t
start with any one of these network IDs, they can’t be summarized in a single route of
block size 32, even they satisfy the block size requirement.

For instance the route 192.168.1.16/28 and the route 192.168.1.32/28 can’t be
summarized in a single route of block size 32 even they are sequential and their collective
block size (16+16) is equal to the 32.

Any sequential routes which start with any one of these network IDs can be summarized
with this block size. For instance route 192.168.1.0/28 and the route 192.168.1.16/28 can
be summarized in a single route 192.168.1.0/27 of block size 32

Never select a block size which does not cover all addresses unless it is clearly mentioned
in question that remaining addresses will be used behind the router where summarization
will be performed.

For example, if we have two routes with block size of 16 and 8, we can’t summarize them
in a single route of block size 32. If we do that, router will advertise a summarized route
that says this router have network path for 32 addresses while in reality it have network
path only for 24 (16+8) addresses.

Let’s take another example. If we have three routes with block size of 16, instead of
summarizing all of them in single route of block size 64 (16+16+16 = 48), we should
summarize only first two routes in a single route of block size 32 (16+16 =32). In this case,
router will advertise two routes; one summarized route of block size 32 and other original
route. Advertising two correct routes is better than advertising a single incorrect route.
Supernetting Examples Explained Step by Step
Above we took the two examples of Supernetting. Let’s understand how Supernetting was
performed in them step by step.

Arrange all the routes in ascending order based on their after slash value (also known
CIDR value). If CIDR value is same in two or more routes, use their IP addresses for
ordering.

Supernetting Example 1 After slash value or CIDR Value Supernetting Example 2

192.168.1.0/25 25 10.0.0.0/23

192.168.1.128/26 26 10.0.2.0/24

192.168.1.192/27 27 10.0.3.0/25

192.168.1.224/28 28 10.0.3.128/26

192.168.1.240/30 30 10.0.3.192/27

192.168.1.244/30 30 10.0.3.224/28

192.168.1.248/30 30 10.0.3.240/30

192.168.1.252/30 30 10.0.3.244/30

10.0.3.248/30

10.0.3.252/30

Write the CIDR value, Subnet Mask, Network ID, Broadcast ID and block size of each route.

Supernetting Example 1
Route CIDR value Subnet Mask Network ID

192.168.1.0/25 25 255.255.255.128 192.168.1.0

192.168.1.128/26 26 255.255.255.192 192.168.1.128

192.168.1.192/27 27 255.255.255.224 192.168.1.192

192.168.1.224/28 28 255.255.255.240 192.168.1.224

192.168.1.240/30 30 255.255.255.252 192.168.1.240

192.168.1.244/30 30 255.255.255.252 192.168.1.244

192.168.1.248/30 30 255.255.255.252 192.168.1.248

192.168.1.252/30 30 255.255.255.252 192.168.1.252

Supernetting Example 2
Route CIDR value Subnet Mask Network ID

10.0.0.0/23 23 255.255.254.0 10.0.0.0

10.0.2.0/24 24 255.255.255.0 10.0.2.0

10.0.3.0/25 25 255.255.255.128 10.0.3.0

10.0.3.128/26 26 255.255.255.192 10.0.3.128

10.0.3.192/27 27 255.255.255.224 10.0.3.192

10.0.3.224/28 28 255.255.255.240 10.0.3.224

10.0.3.240/30 30 255.255.255.252 10.0.3.240

10.0.3.244/30 30 255.255.255.252 10.0.3.244

10.0.3.248/30 30 255.255.255.252 10.0.3.248

10.0.3.252/30 30 255.255.255.252 10.0.3.252

Group the routes based on sequence. If a route’s network ID starts from where previous
route’s broadcast ID ends, it is a sequential route. But if it does not start from where
previous route ends, it is not a sequential route.
Add the block size of all sequential routes.

In first example, sum of block sizes is 256 and in second example it is 1024.

Check the nearest valid block size which provides equal or less number of addresses. The
block size 256 and 1024 exactly match with our requirement. The Subnetting of /24 and
/22 give us the block size of 256 and 1024 respectively.

To write the summarize route, use the network ID of first route with the CIDR value or the
subnet mask of the summarized route.
In first example, network ID of the first route is 192.168.1.0 and the CIDR value of
summarized route is /24. Thus, the summarized route for first example will be
192.168.1.0/24.

Same way in second example, network ID of first route is 10.0.0.0 and the CIDR value of
summarized route is /22. So, the summarize route for second example will be 10.0.0.0/22.

Complex Supernetting Examples

If IP addressing is planed correctly, Supernetting is simple and straightforward as we have
seen in above examples. It becomes difficult only if unplanned IP addressing is used in
network.

If you are preparing for Cisco exam, you should practice with unplanned IP addressing.
To test candidates’ caliber, Cisco usually puts complex and unplanned networks in
Supernetting related questions.

To get an overview of how Supernetting questions could be difficult in Cisco exam, let’s
have two examples of complex Supernetting. These examples are based on Supernetting
questions asked in CCNA Routing and Switching exam.

Supernetting Example 3
Supernetting Example 4

Step 1: - Arrange all routes in ascending order.

Supernetting Example 3 Supernetting Example 4

Router A Router B Router A

172.168.1.32/28 172.168.1.64/28 122.128.58.0/29

172.168.1.48/28 172.168.1.80/28 122.128.58.48/29

172.168.1.128/28 172.168.1.96/28 122.128.58.64/29

172.168.1.144/28 172.168.1.112/28 122.128.58.72/29

172.168.1.160/28 172.168.1.192/28 122.128.58.80/29

172.168.1.176/28 172.168.1.208/28 122.128.58.56/29

Step 2: - Write the network ID, broadcast ID, CIDR value, subnet mask and block size of
each route.

Supernetting Example 3 (Router A)

Route CIDR Subnet mask Network ID
172.168.1.32 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.32

172.168.1.48 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.48

172.168.1.128 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.128

172.168.1.144 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.144

172.168.1.160 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.160

172.168.1.176 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.176

Supernetting Example 3 (Router B)

Route CIDR Subnet mask Network ID

172.168.1.64 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.64

172.168.1.80 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.80

172.168.1.96 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.96

172.168.1.112 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.112

172.168.1.192 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.192

172.168.1.208 28 255.255.240.0 172.168.1.208

Supernetting Example 4 (Router A)

Route CIDR Subnet mask Network ID

122.128.58.0 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.0

122.128.58.48 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.48

122.128.58.64 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.64

122.128.58.72 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.72

122.128.58.80 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.80

Supernetting Example 4 (Router B)

Route CIDR Subnet mask Network ID

122.128.58.8 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.8

122.128.58.16 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.16

122.128.58.24 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.24

122.128.58.32 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.32

 122.128.58.40 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.40

122.128.58.56 29 255.255.255.248 122.128.58.56

Step 3: - Based on network ID and Broadcast ID make the group of sequential routes.

Step 4: - Summarize each group of sequential routes in a single or multiple summarized

routes.

• Add the block size of all sequential routes in group.

• Find the valid block which is equal or less in size.
• Starting from 0, count in valid block size and check whether the network ID of first sequential
route exists in result or not.
• If network ID of first sequential route exists in result, use the valid block size to summarize the
routes.
• For summarization use the CIDR value which provides this block size.
• If network ID of first sequential route does not exist in result, use smaller valid block size and
count again. Repeat this step until the network ID of first sequential route does not fall in result.

Super netting example 3 (Router A)

As we can see in above figure, there are two groups of sequential routes in this router.

In first group, there are two sequential routes; 32 and 48. Both routes have a block size of
16. The sum of block sizes is 32 (16+16). 32 is a valid block size. The network ID of first
sequential route is 32 which is a valid network ID in block size 32 (0, 32, 64,…). Block size
32 is associated with CIDR value /27. Let’s use this block size for summarization.

Summarize the routes 172.168.1.32/28 and the route 172.168.1.48/28 in a single route
172.168.1.32/27 of block size 32.

In second group, there are 4 sequential routes 128, 144, 160 and 176 of block size 16. The
sum of all block sizes is 64. 64 is a valid block size. Network ID of first sequential route
(128) is also in the range of block size 64 (0, 64, 128, 192 ……). Thus, we can use the block
size 64 to summarize these routes. CIDR value of block size 64 is /26. Let’s use it to
summarize these routes.

Summarize the routes 172.168.1.128/28, 172.168.1.144/28, 172.168.1.160/28 and

172.168.1.176/28 in a single route 172.168.1.128/26 of block size 64.

Super netting example 3 (Router B)

This router also has the two groups of sequential routes. In first group there are 4
sequential routes 64, 80, 96 and 112 of block size 16 and in second group there are 2
sequential routes 192 and 208 of block size 16.

The sum of block sizes is 64 (16+16+16+16) in first group and 32 (16+16) in second group.
Both 64 and 32 are valid block sizes and the network ID of first sequential route in both
groups is also a valid network ID in both block sizes.

Summarize the routes 172.168.1.64/28, 172.168.1.80/28, 172.168.1.96/28 and

172.168.1.112/28 a single route 172.168.1.64/26 of block size 64.

Summarize the routes 172.168.1.192/28 and the route 172.168.1.208/28 in a single route
172.168.1.192/27 of block size 32.
Supernetting example 4 (Router A)
There are total 5 routes behind this router. Since first two routes 0 and 48 have no
sequential routes, we have to advertise them individually. We can’t summarize a route
which has no sequential route.

Remaining 3 routes 64, 72 and 80 are sequential with the block size 8. The sum of block
sizes (8+8+8) is 24. Since 24 is not a valid block size, we have to exclude the routes from
summarization until the sum of block sizes becomes equal to a valid block size. If we
exclude one route from summarization, the sum of block sizes reduces to 16 which is a
valid block size.

In block size 16, 64 (the network ID of first sequential route) is a valid network ID (0, 16,
32, 48, 64, 80……).

Summarize first two routes in a summarize route 122.128.58.64/28 of block size 16 and
advertise the remaining third route 122.128.58.80/29 independently.

Supernetting example 4 (Router B)

There are total 6 routes behind this router. Since last route 56 has no sequential route, it
can’t be summarized.

Remaining five routes 8, 16, 24, 32 and 40 are sequential. Total numbers of address in
these routes are 40 (8+8+8+8+8). 40 is not a valid block size. The nearest valid block size
is 32. So if we exclude one route (8+8+8+8-8 = 32), can we use the block size 32 for
remaining routes?

No, even 32 is a valid block size, still it can’t be used. In order to use it, network ID of first
route must be any one ID form 0, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160, 192 and 224. While in this case,
network ID of first route is 8. Thus the block size 32 can’t be used for summarization.

Our next valid block size is 16. If we use this block size, we have to create two summarized
routes and skip one sequential route from the summarization. Each summarized route of
block size 16 will summarize the 2 sequential routes of the block size 8.

Since in order to use the block size 16, we have to skip one route from the five sequential
routes and due to the same reason explained above in block size 32 we can’t summarize
the first route 8, exclude the first route from summarization.

Summarize remaining 4 routes (16, 24, 32, and 40) of block size 8 in two separate
summarized routes 122.128.58.16/28 and 122.128.58.32/28 of block size 16.
Following table lists the summarized routes for all four routers.

Example3 (Router A) Example3 (Router B) Example4 (Router A)

172.168.1.32/27 172.168.1.64/26 122.128.58.0/29

172.168.1.128/26 192.168.1.192/27 122.128.58.48/29

122.128.58.64/28

122.128.58.80/29