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Volume 1

Integrated Science

Editor-in-Chief
Nima Rezaei
Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

The Integrated Science Series aims to publish the most relevant and
novel research in all areas of Formal Sciences, Physical and Chemical
Sciences, Biological Sciences, Medical Sciences, and Social Sciences. We
are especially focused on the research involving the integration of two
of more academic fields offering an innovative view, which is one of the
main focuses of Universal Scientific Education and Research Network
(USERN), science without borders.
Integrated Science is committed to upholding the integrity of the
scientific record and will follow the Committee on Publication Ethics
(COPE) guidelines on how to deal with potential acts of misconduct and
correcting the literature.
More information about this series at http://​www.​springer.​com/​
series/​16554
.
For more FREE books, go to: textseed.xyz
Editor
Nima Rezaei

Integrated Science
Science Without Borders
1st ed. 2021
Editor
Nima Rezaei
Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran,
Iran

ISSN 2662-9461 e-ISSN 2662-947X

Integrated Science
ISBN 978-3-030-65272-2 e-ISBN 978-3-030-65273-9
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65273-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive

license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
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illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer

Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham,
Switzerland
This book series would not have been possible without the continuous
encouragement of my family. I dedicate this book series to my daughters,
Ariana and Arnika, hoping that integrated science could solve complex
problems and make a brighter future for the next generation.
Preface
I start this book with a few words regarding the borders; the walls, we
have surrounded ourselves with our dark walls; as it seems that there is
no light behind these walls.
Initially, I would like to take you through the journey of a dark
image. Have you ever contemplated in a dark image? Where can this
image be? Darkness? Honestly, I myself don’t know where it is, but it
could be a galaxy distant from us at approximately 13 billion light-
years.
Try to look deeper and magnify your view. The earth is seen; then
my country, but the image is still dark. Where can this image be? I asked
myself once again. Couldn’t it be where I am writing this preface? I
magnify the image with a higher power, and I see myself! You might
think that this dark image is an underexposed photo of me, but it is not!
Only with a bit more magnification, a cell, some chromatin, a
chromosome, two DNA strands, bases, quark, and the Higgs boson are
revealed, and then, again, the same darkness.
Frankly speaking, this dark image expresses the universe from a
mass of 1028 to 10−19, which was the product of hundreds of years of
scientists’ from different disciplines like astronomists, physicists,
chemists, biologists, medical scientists, and social scientists, who
attempted to put the pieces of this puzzle together, therefore bestowing
a better perspective of the universe.
Nowadays, who knows what is going beyond the borders? I think
our vision is dark, not only for the walls that were built around us not
only by others, but also the walls that we have surrounded ourselves
with in all sides and in all times.
Secondly, I want to begin the second journey and take you through
time. In the first journey, we traveled from the outside infinity to the
inside infinity. However, on the second journey, I don’t want to take you
from yesterday’s infinity to tomorrow’s infinity. I just want to go back
hundreds of years ago, when scientists like Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-
Razi, Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Avicenna lived. You have certainly heard about
them, but do you know what they have been doing? It is interesting that
if you look at the accomplishments of Jabir Ibn Hayyan, for example,
you will see this person as an astronomer, physicist, chemist, physician,
pharmacist, and philosopher. Currently, is it possible to expect that one
individual is an expert in all disciplines? I think, no! Why not? Because
science has been specialized, super-specialized, and disciplines walked
away from each other. If I am a clinical immunologist, I don’t dialogue
with a physicist, chemist, or psychologist.
Mawlana, Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi, has a poem that says, “The
elephant was in a Dark Room …”. You have certainly heard about it.
There are different interpretations of it, and I have my own
interpretation too. Mine is that in the world that is small and dark, we
are becoming super-specialized in several parts of this elephant; I have
become super-specialized in a small part of the elephant tusk, you have
been super-specialized in a small part of the elephant ear, and (s)he has
been super-specialized in a small part of the elephant tail, elephant
body, elephant pie, etc. All of these people do not really dialogue and
cooperate; therefore, the whole elephant remains ambiguous! What if
we could have taken a step backward and dialogued with each other
exactly like what the scientists used to do in history? We would have
certainly had a better image of the whole elephant. Eventually, you are
the slave of these perennial walls.

Open the windows, my dark room is looking for fresh air.

Open your arms, my dark heart is looking for loving pair…

A little bit later in time, about thirty years ago, when I was a
passionate child; why I came to this world? I thought to myself.
Probably I am going to do something, shouldn’t I invent something in
the world? I asked myself. Everything has been invented like electricity,
the telephone, and the airplane. Is there anything left to be invented? I
asked myself again. The answer was yes, there were many other
unexplored or non-invented things.
Thirty years later, which is today, I thought to myself that we would
certainly see some cars that fly in the sky. What if these cars crashed
and fell down? Fortunately and unfortunately, that hasn’t happened yet.
I thought to myself that what if we had a television that not only
transfers the light and the sound, but also transfers the odors of the
scenes! This appears not to happen too. I knew someone who was
mentally disabled. I thought to myself in the current century; it would
certainly be possible to transplant one’s brain into another’s brain and
treat him. This did not happen, too. But a phenomenon occurred:
“Networking”, which I haven’t even thought about. Different networks
came into existence, and humans became connected, trying to become
closer to each other. Indeed, I think in the present century, if we don’t
do networking, it would not be easy to move forward with our works.
Humans, I think, feel lonely, and to avoid distances, they are trying to
become close to each other and don’t come into their minds; they are
getting far from the close. Humans have begun building walls and
borders. They have defined borders between cultures, thoughts,
countries, states, cities, villages, homes, and even the people who live in
the same building don’t know who are living behind the walls! In
homes, there is a gap and a thick wall between the generations; so,
parents cannot dialogue with their children. On phones, they are
staying closely connected with far people while being apart from their
close people. I am almost concerned that these walls are extending to
our cells, which means that the immune system comes and builds thick
walls between itself and other organs, including the central nervous
system, joints, etc., and causes multiple sclerosis, lupus, rheumatoid
arthritis, and diabetes. We hope this does not happen that cells become
autonomous, which would become cancer. Whether we like it or not,
ourselves, our relatives, or our friends have to visit the hospital once
day. We hope this does not happen that a complex disease like cancer is
present within a family. Then you would see how much it changes the
order of priorities, and life forms a different form.
After years, since I became a full professor at the university,
published hundreds of scientific papers, thousands of citations to my
papers occurred, wrote tens of books that were published by
international publishers, and be selected as one of the top scientist of
the world, I wondered what is all this for? Why can’t we solve the
complex problems of mankind? And complex problems of mankind are
not only those related to medicine: climate change, a river floods
somewhere, while somewhere is drying up. I don’t know how much
your heart hurts when you see a child who is full length scavenging
something in the rubbish. Probably there is a thing that this child is
scavenging for. This is the problem of many countries, where you can
find someone holding a plastic cup standing at the crossroads and near
restaurants and asking you something. Child abuse, drug abuse,
addiction, pandemic and some other health issues are complex
problems humanity could not solve yet. Why? Because these problems
are not single disciplinary problems. They are the problems of every
single one of us. Their solution lies in multiple disciplines.
I usually travel a lot. Traveling by plane has two advantages. One is
when the plane is taking off, you find how small you are and also how
small your problems are. The other one is that in a world that has been
fast-paced, you will find the opportunity to think. I was in my thoughts
and wondered would it be possible to have a solution for the complex
problems of mankind? I thought that if we can remove the borders,
then it might be possible to make the world a better place for life. These
borders are not just geographical borders; borders between disciplines,
borders between the old and young people, and borders between
people. Why? Now that people are spending their time on virtual
networks, why not taking advantage of it for an Integrated Science
Without Borders Platform? That’s when I decided to create a scientific
network, named “Universal Scientific Education and Research Network
(USERN)”.
So, the Integrated Science Series aims to publish the most relevant
and novel research in all areas of Formal Sciences, Physical and
Chemical Sciences, Biological Sciences, Medical Sciences, and Social
Sciences. We are especially focused on the research involving the
integration of two of more academic fields offering an innovative view,
which is one of the main focuses of USERN; science without borders.
Life is too short. If one day you were ing heartbroken and lonely,
keep in mind when you were a child, you would like to fly. If now you
see yourself dealing with everyday life and as I say “captured by water
and seeds”, which means to only care about your financial and basic
desires, bear in mind that water and seeds mean the cage, and the cage
means the death of the freedom. Do not determine a flight-ceiling
neither for yourself nor for others. We should bear in mind that “The
Sky Has Room for Every Bird that Dares to Fly.”
I cannot end my words without thanking all, who made this
initiative possible, while USERN was nothing without them. Flying alone
in the sky looks like a prison, without any sense of reunion,while the
colorful flying is impossible without a companion Flying together, making
the way easier,to go farther, in any weather Flying higher, showing how
much smaller,however still lier to be a true lover...
Nima Rezaei
Tehran, Iran
Acknowledgment
I would like to express my gratitude to the Editorial Assistant of this
book series, Dr. Amene Saghazadeh. Without a doubt, the book would
not have been completed without her contribution.
Abbreviations
ADP Adenosine diphosphate
AI Artificial intelligence
AMP Adenosine monophosphate
ANT Actor Network Theory
AOGCMs Atmosphere‐ocean general circulation models
AQIs Bits of absolute quantum information
ASD Autism spectrum disorder
BBB Blood‐brain barrier
BDNF Brain‐derived neurotrophic factor
COVID‐19 Coronavirus disease 2019
CSP Corporate social performance
CSR Corporate social responsibility
DICE Dynamic Integrated Climate Economy model
EPR Einstein‐Podolsky‐Rosen
GBD Global burden of diseases
HPA Hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal
HRI Human–robot interaction
IASP International Association of Science Parks and Areas of
Innovation
ICT Information and communication technology
IMMERS Immunoemotional regulatory system
IMR Indigenous Management Research
JAR The Journal of Artistic Research
LHC Large Hadron Collider
LIGO Laser Interferometer Gravitational‐Wave Observatory
MSF Médecins sans frontières
NCDs Noncommunicable diseases
NGOs Nongovernmental organizations
NHST Null hypothesis significance testing
NPIs Non‐pharmaceutical interventions
OECD The organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
RBA Research based on the arts
RCAP Rejection, contestation, adaptation, and anticipation
SOA Sociology of Organized Action
SRL Societal readiness level
SSE Social and solidarity economy
SSI Socio‐Scientific‐Issues
STEAM Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics
STP Science and Technology Parks
STS Science-Technology-Society
STSE Science‐Technology‐Society‐Environment
TRL Technology readiness level
UN United Nations
WFP World Food Pogramme
WHO World Health Organization
WWI World War I
WWII World War II
Contents
1 Introduction on Integrated Science:​Science Without Borders
Nima Rezaei and Amene Saghazadeh
2 The Human Person as an Integrated System
Jan Kłos
3 On the Nature of Qualitative Research in Process
Transformations:​The Changing Man in the Changing World
Ewa Rzechowska
4 Integrated Science:​Ambitions, Practicalities, Misunderstanding​s
Henry H. Bauer
5 The Integration of the Sciences and Integral Human Knowledge
Chris van Haeften
6 The Indelible Stamp of Our Lowly Origins:​An Epistemic
Architecture Between the Sciences and Humanities
Dustin Hellberg
7 Transdisciplinar​y Approaches to Understand and Facilitate
Transformations Towards Sustainability
Ortwin Renn
8 Models and Integration
Henrik Thorén
9 Unlaws:​The Missing “Dark Matter” in the Philosophy of Science?​
Rory Allen
10 Life—Stabilization of the Unstable Through Controlling
Influence of Quantum Information
Thomas Gö rnitz
11 The Sustainable Humanist Concept in Art and Science Synergies
Silvia Nuere, Laura de Miguel Á lvarez, Adela Acitores Suz and
Raú l Díaz-Obregó n Cruzado
12 From Being One to Being Many.​Understanding the Diversity of
Bio-Life:​Human, Nonhuman, and Liminal Beings in Bio Art and
Body Art
 Monika Michałowska and Karolina Żyniewicz
13 Composite Bodies in Times of Revolt.​On Socio-Material
Assemblies in Social Uprisings
Pedro E. Moscoso-Flores and Antonia Viu
14 Life, Complexity, Communication:​Integrating Social Systems
Theory and Consciousness
Tilia Stingl de Vasconcelos Guedes
15 Instrumentality Versus Awareness:​Rethinking the Reverse Side
of Artificial Intelligence
Ž ilvinas Svigaris
16 The Question of Transdisciplinar​ity Between Modern Science
and Critical Thought
Christopher Ryan Maboloc
17 Adaptive Networks at the Crossroad of Artificial Intelligence
and Formal, Biological, Medical, and Social Sciences
Jan Treur
18 Are We Ready for “Them” Now?​The Relationship Between
Human and Humanoid Robots
Xiao Dou and Chih-Fu Wu
19 Integrating Computer Simulation and Social Theory for the
Planning and Managing Complex Problems
Leonardo G. Rodríguez Zoya
20 Rethinking Managerial Control in the Contemporary Context
Jean-Yves Le Corre and Thierry Burger-Helmchen
21 Innovation and Altruism:​A New Paradigm Defining the Survival
of Corporations?​
Sophie Bollinger and Marion Neukam
22 Integrated Science 2050:​Science Without Borders
Amene Saghazadeh, Adela Acitores Suz, Antonia Viu, Chih-Fu Wu,
Christopher Ryan Maboloc, Dustin Hellberg, Ewa Rzechowska,
Henrik Thorén, Henry H. Bauer, Jan Kłos, Jan Treur, Jean-
Yves LeCorre, Karolina Żyniewicz, Laura de Miguel Á lvarez,
Leonardo G. Rodríguez Zoya, Marion Neukam, Monika Michałowska,
 Ortwin Renn, Rory Allen, Pedro E. Moscoso-Flores, Raú l Díaz-
Obregó n Cruzado, Silvia Nuere, Sophie Bollinger, Thierry Burger-
Helmchen, Thomas Gö rnitz, Tilia Stingl de Vasconcelos Guedes,
Xiao Dou, Ž ilvinas Svigaris and Nima Rezaei
Index
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
N. Rezaei (ed.), Integrated Science, Integrated Science 1
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65273-9_1

1. Introduction on Integrated Science:

Science Without Borders
Nima Rezaei1, 2, 3, 4 and Amene Saghazadeh1, 2
(1) Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific
Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
(2) Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children’s Medical
Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
(3) Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University
of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
(4) Children’s Medical Center Hospital, Dr. Qarib St., Keshavarz Blvd,
14194 Tehran, Iran

Nima Rezaei
Email: [email protected]

“We cannot solve our problems with the same thinking we used
when we created them”.
Albert Einstein

Summary
We argue that complexity is the nature of problems. The first section of
the chapter moves from a simple beginning, complex problems, to an
end that both complex problems and complex problem-solving give
birth to a depressed thinking society. The next section addresses what
science is, what non-science (parascience and pseudoscience) is, what
bad science is, what good science is, and what science education is for.
It is followed by tracing the demarcation of science from non-science in
philosophy, sociology, and history. Then, we see global borders
classified as important and more important borders by the selective
function of thinking. Also, we see how globalization has influenced
global borders to be classified as borders to connect and borders to
divide. The section on global issues recognizes ten burning questions
and challenges on the imperfection of the world that, if failed to be
treated effectively, would result in risks to humanity nobody wants to
see. It would prepare us not to be surprised by the fact that health
issues that are difficult to treat are those that are also difficult to define
because they cross the borders between nations (infectious
pandemics), body systems (multisystem diseases), tissues (metastatic
diseases), in the mind and between the mind and environment (mental
disorders), and even the borders between brain and body
(immunoemotional disorders). We see science education when it is at
cultural borders dealing with the duality of learning science or living
everyday life, and also when crossing borders yielding both science and
life. The importance of schools and universities without borders is
noted. Then, we understand how science and technology control each
other while both trying to come into a given society. Finally, we see the
procedure and practice of integrated science and conclude that a cross
between disciplines and a connection between scientists is a necessity
for building metaknowledge and proposing metaperspectives.
 Integrated science
[Adapted with permission from the Association of Science and Art
(ASA), USERN; Made by Sepideh Sargoli, Shaghayegh Khodabakhshian,
and Mahsa Yousefpour].
The code of this chapter is 01000011 01110100 01101111 01101110
01101110 01101110 01100011 01101001 01100101 01101111.

Keywords Borders – Boundaries – Cancer – Complexity – Complex

problem-solving – COVID-19 – Culture – Depression – Discipline –
Economic – Education – Geopolitical – Globalization – Health –
Infections – Information – Integrated science – Interdisciplinary –
Internationalization – Knowledge – Life – Mental disorders – Metadata
– Metaknowledge – Metaperspective – Metastructure –
Multidisciplinary – Networking – Real-world problems – Rebordering –
Science – Scientific collaboration – Society – Teamworking –
Technology – Transdisciplinary – Tuberculosis – Without borders
Nima Rezaei gained his medical degree (MD) from Tehran University
of Medical Sciences (TUMS) in 2002 and subsequently obtained an
M.Sc. in Molecular and Genetic Medicine and a Ph.D. in Clinical
Immunology and Human Genetics from the
University of Sheffield, UK. He also spent a
short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical
Immunology and Bone Marrow
Transplantation in the Newcastle General
Hospital. Since 2010, Dr. Rezaei has worked
at the Department of Immunology and
Biology, School of Medicine, TUMS; he is now
the Full Professor and Vice Dean of
International Affairs, School of Medicine,
TUMS, and the co-founder and Deputy
President of the Research Center for
Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding
President of Universal Scientific Education
and Research Network (USERN). He has edited more than 30
international books, has presented more than 500 lectures/posters in
congresses/meetings, and has published more than 800 articles in
international scientific journals.

Amene Saghazadeh gained her MD from

the Tehran University of Medical Sciences in
2019. She does research on clinical
immunology, genetics, epigenetics, and
nutrition at the Research Center for
Immunodeficiencies, Children’s Medical
Center, TUMS.
1 Introduction
The changing world has placed the man to new complex problems,
watching for him at the garden between the era of complex national
problems and complex globalized problems. The garden looks
beautiful. However, on the one hand, focusing on the era of complex
national problems might be trouble given the awareness about
globalized problems has already happened. On the other hand,
wandering alone in the garden cannot raise awareness of information
required to approach the complex globalized problems. So, what is the
solution, then? The man needs to move beyond boundaries, a
movement that would help him to achieve sustainable development
and improve mental health and decision making.

1.1 Problems and Complexity

1.1.1 Problems: Well-Defined (Simple), Ill-Defined
(Complex), and Non-Defined (Undecidable)
Broadly, decidable problems are of two types: well-defined and ill-
defined. Well-defined or simple problems can be solved by limited
resources of time and space. Ill-defined or complex problems require a
considerable amount of time and space to be solved. There is another
type of problem that is thought to require unlimited sources to be
solved. For example, many real-world problems remained undecidable
since they have been in the world. So, they pose a problem above the
complex level. If a problem lacks definition, then that would remain
undecidable, and it is for this that defining a problem may be as difficult
as solving it.

1.1.2 Complexity Relates to the Value of

Interconnections the Observer Can Define
Complexity is said to be the nature of problems. In this view, each
problem relates to symptoms, and that which is seen is only a symptom
of a deeper underlying problem. Moreover, each problem has
connections with other problems, and these interconnections make
problems complex. We agree that the problems are interconnected, as
some authors have thought, but we have two reasons to argue that
complexity is inherent. First, if we suppose interconnections as the only
law governing complexity, then the complexity would not be inherent
given that interconnections an eye can draw are different from those
the other eye can detect. As Maulana’s Poet, Elephant in the Dark
(Fig. 1), says, “Each of us touches one place and understands the whole in
that way.” Second, we believe that the complexity is governed by laws
other than interconnection, for example, the external conditions of life;
as the gap between different conditions of life worldwide has become
gradually expanded, so as the real-world problems get more and more
complex.

Fig. 1 Elephant in the dark: poetry by Jalal al-Din Rumi, Maulana. The image shows
townspeople, who have never seen an elephant, examine its appearance in the dark
“Some Hindus have an elephant to show.

No one here has ever seen an elephant.

They bring it at night to a dark room.

One by one, we go in the dark and come out.

saying how we experience the animal.

One of us happens to touch the trunk.

“A water-pipe kind of creature.”

Another, the ear. “A very strong, always moving.

back and forth, fan-animal.”

Another, the leg. “I find it still,

like a column on a temple.”

Another touches the curved back.

“A leathery throne.”

Another, the cleverest, feels the tusk.

“A rounded sword made of porcelain.”

He’s proud of his description.

Each of us touches one place.

and understands the whole in that way.

The palm and the fingers feeling in the dark are.

how the senses explore the reality of the elephant?

If each of us held a candle there,

and if we went in together,

we could see it.”

Translated by Coleman Barks.

(Adapted from https://​commons.​wikimedia.​org/​wiki/​File:​Jalal_​al-Din_​
Rumi,_​Maulana_​-_​Townspeople,_​Who_​have_​Never_​Seen_​an_​Elephant,_​
Examine_​its_​Appearance_​in_​the_​Dark_​-_​Walters_​W626117B_​-_​Full_​
Page.​jpg).

1.2 Complex Problem-Solving

Therefore, the degree of the complexity of a problem corresponds to
the number of variables and the degree of the connectivity between
variables in the system. The solving of a complex problem requires (i)
simplification, by a reduction of all variables to essential; (ii) modeling
interconnections, to understand current connections between all
variables; (iii) time management, the consideration of system dynamics
and that the system will change over time (not stand for the solution
and decision of the problem solver); (iv) transparency, by supplying all
the required information and for the identification of the system; and v,
priority definition, to choose the goal(s) of high priority (Fig. 2) [1].

Fig. 2 What does a complex situation demands from the problem solver? (Prepared
with data from [1])
 The system and the individual(s) are the main parties involved in a
complex problem-solving situation (Fig. 3). Therefore, personal
(processing capacity, motivational parameters, emotion regulation
capacities, system knowledge, control knowledge, and strategic
knowledge), situational (transparency, training, and deadline), and
system (the type of feedback, knowledge acquisition, and knowledge
implementation) aspects play a role in solving the problem.

Fig. 3 Two main approaches to complex problems: experimental and correlational

(Prepared with data from [1])

1.3 The Best Solutions for the Complex Problems

Give Birth to the New Complex Problems
1.3.1 Technology, Computation, and Generational
Conflict
With increasing complexity, the weight of uncertainty the people’s mind
witnessed about the world and life became heavier. It was heavy to the
extent that motived the man to increase exponentially investment in
technology, computer, and machine interfaces to facilitate effective
communication and teamwork, transfer knowledge dynamically, and
promote systematic knowledge production. In this way, he could (or at
least felt it!) come nearer and nearer to certainty and know as much as
possible. The man could succeed, and looking at today’s world, that
computation is ubiquitous is a full proof of his success.
The ubiquitous technology is so pervasive that it is accepted as a
fundamental principle in our homes. Since the twentieth century, the
six distinct generations of the human species have been born, and
conflict of interest is as much as two of different generations might no
longer live together. These generations have not originated by
themselves, but it is possible to attribute their origin to the difference
(in their skills and desire) to implement technology and computation
methods in everyday life. In this way, the increasing ubiquity of
computation globally, in turn, corresponds to the complex problem of
the separation of the two generations.

1.3.2 Specialization and Isolation in Science

Early cultures that focused on the human living on his home, the Earth’s
surface, evolved in the science we today see, which is highly specialized
in terms of the context and scale. The evolution of such a highly
specialized academic study aims at having a deeper and deeper view of
the root problems. As the number and complexity of problems we face
in daily life have grown, so has the extent to which we feel uncertainties
in the science. Given this and the assumption that the more the science
becomes specialized, the greater the scale of vision, interest in the new
branches and disciplines of science would continue to increase.
Specialization is originated from complexity. The specialized
working could improve labor efficiency and labor productivity and help
saving time, so [2]. It was by means of new technologies that we today
can see photos from to in the scale of nature. However, a

deeper scale is threatened with one-sidedness and should not be

mistaken by an extended view of point. Other common side effects of
overspecialization include monopoly, monotony, and isolation.
1.4 Complex Problem-Solving Give Birth to a Blue
Thinking Society
People who are depressed describe the sad mood, anhedonia,
irritability, anxiety, changes in sleep patterns and appetite, and less
energy and interest in their daily function. The rates of depression have
increased and still are on the rise. Both older adults and individuals
with low-income are at about a two-fold increased risk of depression
than younger adults and high-income individuals [3, 4].
Recent research put forward a hypothesis of the origin of
depression that it should not be considered a disease, but depression is
an adaptive state being evolved when complex problem processing [5].
It is simple to be on this view; complex problems are the action that
forces the individual to react, and this reaction is to sit ruminating on
the nature and processing of complex problems. For this, the individual
had to ban himself/herself from the environment and any activities to
experience the pleasure that is anhedonia and commonly seen with
depression.
Real-world problem solving is a process of creative thinking which
comes with the solution of the actual problem, but its bigger
achievement is to promote the formulation of other questions that are
more profound and more important in the real-world [6]. There is no
conclusive evidence of how much light ruminating thoughts might
throw on the real-world problems.
The present chapter aims to briefly introduce science, the problems
of demarcation in science, global borders, global issues, complex health
problems, science education, and science and technology, and
integrated science as a solution to the problem.

2 Science
2.1 What is Science?
Applications of the word “science” are not the same in different
languages [7]. In English, the word “science” is applied to activities
concerned with natural sciences and similar fields of research. Political
economy and sociology, but not literature and history, fall under this
definition of science. In German, the word “Wissenschaft,” which means
science, is defined as the “systematic pursuit of knowledge, learning, and
scholarship.” In this way, the word “science” incorporates all academic
activities moving onto the road of investigating critically and producing
knowledge systematically, and this would include social sciences and
humanities as well.

2.2 What is Non-science?

2.2.1 Pseudoscience
The prefix pseudo-means lying, false. The word “science” combines
with the prefix “pseudo-” to mark “a collection of beliefs or practices
mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method” [8]. In 1796,
the historian James Pettit first wrote the term “pseudoscience” when
describing the fantastical pseudoscience of alchemy. Since then,
pseudoscience is characterized based on activities that are non-
scientific and overvalued as a basis for scientific purposes.

2.2.2 Parascience or Alternative Science

However, there are non-scientific activities that are not false. Such, for
example, contribute to the production of systematic knowledge related
to metaphysics and religion. Parascience is the recently developed word
to use for non-scientific activities which are not pseudoscientific. It
became known as “the field of study concerned with phenomena
assumed to be beyond the scope of scientific inquiry, or for which no
scientific explanation exists” [9].

2.3 What is Good Science, and What is Bad Science?

Transparency is what distinguishes good science from bad science.
Science needs to be committed to taking perfect transparency based on
data, beyond results, and publication bias. On the ground of bad
science, the haziness of being clear about an association versus
causation and the misuse of non-significant results makes recurring
errors in science frequently [10].

2.4 What is Science for?

It is a question of philosophy with different answers for each of the
general population and scientists, depending on the experiences they
have with science in the general and selected scientific sense.
Nevertheless, both scientists and other people behave with science as a
process of human activity aimed to “give correct answers to questions
that we feel have correct answers” [10], gather “knowledge and
answering questions about the world and how it works” [10], or “find
satisfactory explanations of whatever strikes us as being in need of
explanation” [11]. This process is featured by collaboration, clarity and
precision, open-mindedness, impartiality, and reproducibility [10]. It
uses multiple methods to discuss topics in science, plan and implement
investigations, and analyze and publish findings [12].

2.5 What is Science Education for?

Science education that works with the larger system of education is
essential for integrating science into society. As Maddock states in [13],
“science and science education are cultural enterprises which form a part
of the wider cultural matrix of society and that educational
considerations concerning science must be made in the light of this wider
perspective.” In this sense, what a culture we live in determines which
science education needs to be built to connect science to society,
including major and minor cultural groups [14]. This makes nations to
develop their own science education standards in agreement with their
culture and subcultures to satisfy their goals. For example, standards
for science education in schools in the United States (Table 1) aim to
provide a literate society and promote achievement, understanding,
learning, and science literacy for all students (equity) while constantly
moving on to improve the science education system [15].

Table 1 National Science Education Standards (NSES) developed by the National

Research Council in the United States [15]

Principle Goal
The principle of All students regardless of gender, cultural or ethnic
equity background, physical or learning disabilities, aspirations, or
interest and motivation in science should have the opportunity
to attain higher levels of scientific literacy than they do
currently
Principle Goal
The principle of All students will learn all science in the content standards
achievement
The principle of All students will develop science knowledge as defined in the
understanding content standards and an understanding of science that enables
them to use their knowledge as it relates to scientific, personal,
social, and historical perspectives
The principle of Learning science is an active process
learning
The principle of For all students to understand more science, less emphasis
“less is more” must be given to some science content and more resources,
such as time, personnel, and materials must be devoted to
science education
The principle of School science must reflect the intellectual tradition that
science literacy characterizes the practice of contemporary science
The principle of Improving science education is part of systematic education
education reform reform

3 Demarcation of Science from Non-science

It exists as the result of joined essentialists and constructive
understandings of science culture and its demarcation in social
sciences [16]. The essentialist perspective is talking about science that
to achieve all it wants, i.e., reliable and valid measures for diagnoses
and treatments of the real-world problems, it would require features
that are as “unique, necessary, and invariant” as the individual. The
constructive perspective sees demarcation as a result of the fact that
the growth of knowledge in science is context-dependent and that
accomplishments expressed as the pragmatic function of each context
are clustered by attributes that might be represented as ambiguous to
the other contexts (Fig. 4). The origins of the demarcation of science
from non-science occur in philosophy, sociology, and history.

3.1 Philosophy
It is easy to accumulate confirmatory evidence, but how can change the
future when all related statements come from the past. This strategy,
i.e., verifying statements, in turn, gives birth to a new problem, the so-
called problem of induction that comes along with the generalization
process of predicting future behavior based on past and present
observations.
Karl Popper thought that science should offer the most valid and
reliable knowledge if it is presumed that science is superior to other
knowledge-producing cultures. Knowledge is different from absolute
claims and belief and certainty; reliable knowledge is falsifiable and
uncertain. And what makes science advance is the falsifiability of
statements that can be invoked by critical thinking, refuting theories,
and proposing conjectures. In this manner, falsification is a good
solution to avoid cumulative repartition effects, and instead, can help
identify errors and serve as an error-eliminating system. For
falsification to operate, it would require scientific, empirical evidence,
pushing Karl Popper to define the problem of demarcation of science
from non-science [16].

3.2 Sociology
Popper’s essentialist perspective is seen in Merton’s thought of science
when laying out “the extension of certified knowledge,” that is,
“empirically confirmed and logically consistent statements of regularities
(which are, in effect, predictions)” as the institutional goal of science. A
frame structuring of this institutional goal of science—which is what
demarcates science from non-science in Merton’s view [17], as
falsifiability for Popper—critically involves technical (methodological)
and social (moral) norms. While technical norms are based on
empirical evidence, social norms are “held to be binding on the man of
science.” Such a structure entertains the man who is a scientist,
contributing to the development of empirical evidence, and
simultaneously is a social being, reacting to social norm violations. The
four main norms as proposed by Merton are as follows; communicating
the work to other contributors to science (communism), the equal
allocations of resources to all contributors to science (universalism),
not taking the actions out of self-interests that might affect the
institutional goal of science (disinterestedness), and critically assessing
the evidence and developing arguments with claims (organized
skepticism). In this way, knowledge-producing activities are scientific if
and only if they are housed in this frame; otherwise, they are not-
scientific practices, e.g., politics [16].

3.3 History
Thomas Kuhn was the other pioneer who theorized demarcation,
neither with falsifiability nor with social norms, but by defining two
puzzle problems and proposing paradigmatic consensus as a solution
to these problems [16]. One puzzle appeared when he explored the
arguments social and behavioral scientists make and compared them
with those of physicists, leading him to identify the importance of
agreement on first principles endorsed by physicists, not by social and
behavioral scientists. A quest through history posed to Kuhn the other
puzzle that challenges us to handle the rejection of old facts and beliefs
and good explanations accepted so far in the science of nature, and can
we call practices for rejecting these claims as scientific activities.
Accordingly, Kuhn put forward a paradigmatic consensus considering
historical trajectories associated with revolutionary changes in science
content and their influence on evaluating normal science. First
principles and models simplifying assumptions for working in the
context are the key components of a paradigm that seeks to define a
problem and optimize solutions. The success of such a paradigm varies
over trajectories, and this makes mature science being demarked from
immature science and non-science.

4 Global Borders
Different dictionaries agree that the adjective “global” means “relating
to or involving the whole world.” A “border” is a “line,” “strip,” “margin,”
“outer part,” “edge,” or “boundary” that “divides one country from
another,” “goes around or along the edge of something, often as
decoration,” or separates “two countries, administrative divisions, or
other areas” [18–20].

4.1 On the Selective Function of Thinking:

Important Borders Versus More Than Important
Borders and Visible Versus Non-Visible Borders
World-defining borders are borders that define the edge of a nation-
state but also critically function to determine the geopolitical
relationships of the given nation-state with its neighbors. Among which
are the Berlin Wall, the border between the United States and Mexico,
the “Great Wall of Europe,” the “Wall around the West,” and the border
between Israel and Palestine [21]. These are two or more parties who
think of such borders as borders and admit the fundamental
characteristics (location and form) of these borders [22]. Reaching a
high level of consensus would permit the world-defining borders to
occupy a geopolitical role that is important or more than important.
The important borders correspond to the determination of divisions
which are of local importance, while those borders which are more
important correspond to the (over)determination of divisions which
are of global importance. Moreover, there are borders on which some
work, live, and play, while others cannot see them. Such borders are
accumulated by the selective thoughts of them [22].
There are difficulties in the “world-defining” character of borders,
become correlated with `world-defining’ divisions resulting in the Cold
War inertia from cultural geopolitics that contrast the goals of
globalization for which the world must certainly be thought of as a
whole place so that peace is purely kept in various parts of the world.

4.2 On the Effect of Globalization: Contemporary

Borders (Borders to Connect) Versus Traditional
Borders (Borders to Divide)
On the theory, it should be kept in mind that globalization was to afford
us a single worth world culture to warrant a borderless world where
networks, not divisions, are everywhere, allowing the international
flow and mobility of cultures, students, patients, health care workers,
suppliers, employees, consumers, goods, supplies, and finances to any
target environment and to where they are needed. However, it was
found difficult to take place when in the journey of raising awareness of
the degree of the connectivity between all, including the borders itself,
in the world, the man found joy in security and was guided to
appreciate visible borders and, more frequently, think of innumerable
non-visible borders, so breaking through traditional divisions [21, 22].
Inevitably, an intermediate form of globalization program must have
existed, enabling us to at least reorder the traditional borders, adding a
new sort of borders. It seems that globalization, which aimed to solve
global issues, has multiplied global borders to become a new complex
problem. Indeed, various divisions of borders have turned into a world
of borders.

5 Global Issues
There is no formal consensus on what is a global issue. There are
different definitions for the word “issue” as follows;
“a subject or problem that people are thinking and talking about” or
“most important in what is being discussed” in the Cambridge dictionary
[23];
“a vital or unsettled matter,” “a matter that is in dispute between two
or more parties,” or “the point at which an unsettled matter is ready for a
decision” in Meriam-Webster dictionary [24]; and.
“an important topic or problem for debate or discussion” in the
Oxford dictionary [25].
It seems the third definition considers three main aspects of an
issue, i.e., it is a problem (or a matter), it is important (even vital), and it
is unresolved (and therefore under discussion or debate). In this way, a
global issue can be defined as an important unresolved problem of the
entire world. The literature contains various short and long lists of
global issues developed by different disciplines and organizations, of
which some are available in [26]. For example, global catastrophic risks
include climate change, artificial general intelligence, biotechnology
risk, ecological collapse, molecular nanotechnology, global pandemics,
overpopulation, and nuclear holocaust. Also, the World Economic
Forum [27] recognizes ten burning questions and challenges on the
imperfection of the world that, if failed to be treated effectively, would
result in risks to humanity nobody wants to see. The recognized
challenges would demand from the public and private organizations the
perfect power of global cooperation and action. These questions and
potential risks are as follows;
1. Question: “Which regions waste the most food?” and risk:
“Malnutrition, hunger, and even conflict;”
2. Question: “Why should growth be inclusive?” and risk: “Income
inequality and economic and social ills;”

3. Question: “What will the world of work look like?” and risk:
“Hundreds of millions of unemployed people around the world;”

4. Question: “Climate change: can we turn words into action?” and

risk: “Catastrophic climate change;”

5. Question: “What is the future of global finance?” and risk:

“significant drop in levels of public trust and confidence in financial
institutions;”

6. Question: “What is the future of the internet?” and risk: “not

fulfilling the goal of connecting all the world’s inhabitants to
affordable internet;”

7. Question: “Will the future be gender equal?” and risk: “not

achieving the gender parity;”

8. Question: “What is the deal with global trade and investment?” and
risk “growing unease over globalization;”

9. Question: “Long-term investing: how can we plug the gap?” and

risk “lack of function in a difficult financial climate;” and

10. Question: “How can we make healthcare fit for the future?” and risk
“dealing with pandemics to the rise of noncommunicable diseases
(NCDs) to the prohibitive costs of care, particularly in developing
countries.”

6 Complex Health Pathologies Cross Borders

Progress in every key aspect of human health and sciences is affected
by national and intellectual borders [28]. However, health issues that
are difficult to treat are those that are also difficult to define because
they cross the borders between nations (infectious pandemics), body
systems (multisystem diseases), tissues (metastatic diseases), in the
mind and between the mind and environment (mental disorders), and
even the borders between brain and body (immunoemotional
disorders).

6.1 Emerging Infections

The ongoing battle of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is such a
complex problem. Approaching one year of the outbreak, there is no
definite treatment and prevention for the disease. Yet, the literature is
amazingly welcomed to the COVID-19; as of writing this, the number of
published papers goes beyond one million as much as the number of
deaths associated with the condition. Different factors—except its
pathogenesis of not fully understood—come to play, among which the
publication of low-quality research papers—which cast doubt of
findings from high-quality papers and therefore lead the decision-
making process deviating from what it could be—and conducting
golden time-consuming clinical research that is far apart from what has
already been recommended by fundamental research, rather properly
translating fundamental research into clinical research, are most
important [29, 30]. Instead, such a condition calls for public data
sharing to shed effective light on hitherto obscure aspects of COVID-19
[31].
An example of old is tuberculosis. The word “tuberculosis” goes
back to 1834. Much research is devoted to the fighting against
tuberculosis. Nevertheless, the disease remained one of the top ten
causes of death worldwide, with 1.5 million victims worldwide in 2018.
The World Health Organization (WHO) says that developing countries
bear to greater than 95% of new and death cases of tuberculosis. Such
difference reveals that the mission of international groups created to
enhance health among people with tuberculosis is not working.

6.2 Multisystem Diseases

They are of unknown origin associated with a spectrum of
manifestations of different body systems and response to therapy. The
role of the immune system, as well as genetic correlates, is widely
appreciated in mediating multisystem diseases, which mostly consist of
immune deficiency disorders, and autoimmune diseases, and infections.
For example, congenital and genetic defects affecting the immune
system referred to as primary immunodeficiency disorders, can present
with neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms and increase
vulnerability to infections, autoimmune disorders, and malignancies
[32]. Similarly, both COVID-19 and tuberculosis, which earlier
mentioned as examples, can involve multiple systems, making patients
difficult to treat.

6.3 Metastatic Diseases

According to the Cancer Atlas [33], more than 18 million new cases of
cancer happened in 2018. It is projected to grow to about 30 million in
2040, given the aging and growth of the population. Cancer has been
ranked in first or second place in more than 130 countries in the
ranking that evaluated premature mortality events in 2016 [33].
Metastasis, which results from cancer cells trying to break away
from the primary tumor, travel through intravasation, i.e., penetration
into the circulatory and lymphatic systems, and then extravasation, i.e.,
escaping from the circulatory system, and proliferation into other
organs [34]. In this way, the primary tumor can invade surrounding
tissues and even spread to distant organs, and we can explain 90% of
deaths from cancer [35]. The origin of metastasis remains unknown,
though it is said that fusionicity hastens metastasis [34]. By the process
of fusionicity, cells can fuse and share their genetic material. This
process essentially takes place to make development and fertilization
possible. However, the ability of tumoral cells to fuse each other and
also normal somatic cells would enable the primary tumor to modify
and act on surrounding and distant healthy cells [34].

6.4 Mental Disorders

Mental illnesses, including mental and substance use disorders, account
for about one-third of the global disability [36]. The Institute for Health
Metrics and Evaluation states that a mental health disorder or
substance use disorder is present in nearly one billion people
worldwide. The most common mental disorders are anxiety disorders
and depression, with a prevalence of 3.8 and 3.4% in the global
population [37], which along with schizophrenia, dysthymia, and
bipolar disorder, are among the top 20 causes of the global burden of
diseases (GBD). The reports say that suicide is the cause of death for
about 1.5% of all deaths and that a mental or a substance use disorder
is present in about 90% of cases died from suicide [37]. Mental issues
are more likely to affect old age, though they correlate with a
considerable burden in children and adolescents [38]. Therefore,
mental disorders are recognized as problems of global concern that
matter both the youth and old age.
Patients with mental illnesses are difficult patients. Many people
present with features that we can put into more than one disorder. Such
a problem lies on the same ground where both genetic and
environmental factors and both internalizing and externalizing
dimensions promise to compose a spectrum of psychopathologies. In
this manner, individual mental disorders co-occur with each other; the
internalizing-externalizing is the model of psychopathology that
explains mental disorders as borderless, justifies their co-occurrence in
multiple combinations, and proposes a meta-structure to, along with
the inclusion of the currently identified disorders, define new disorders
based on the integration of neurogenomic data into psychiatry [39].
Another reason to treat mental disorders as complex problems is
the high prevalence of these disorders in the graduate population, as
estimated to be about 40% for moderate to severe depression and
anxiety separately [40]. Interestingly, the study investigated the
significant effect of perceived quality of work-life balance and
relationships with their mentor. Between 47 and 56% of the graduate
population who suffered from anxiety and depression expressed their
disagreement with the statements, including “they have a good work-
life balance,” “their PI or advisor provides “real” mentorship,” “their PI
or advisor provides “real” mentorship,” “their PI/advisor positively
impacts their emotional or mental well-being,” “their PI/advisor is an
asset to their career,” “they feel valued by their mentor.” It looks like a
crisis coming with the graduation, asking us if the education, in its
current state, is deteriorating the mental health of graduate students
who are about to be the next generation of faculty (so what is it for?).
These findings pinpoint the problem of borders between the trainer’s
mind and trainee’s mind and, therefore, scientific training, mental
health, and well-being.
Mental problems can even get worse with any action in the
conditions of life. For example, during the pandemic of COVID-19, the
whole society, especially health care workers in the frontline, has been
under great pressure, and we see that the symptoms of depression,
anxiety, insomnia, and distress have highly increased to about 50, 45,
34, and 71% [41]. Moreover, the symptoms of mental illnesses are
strong enough to long-term resist and affect the different domains of
functioning in family and community. These pieces of evidence directly
bear the question, why mental illnesses that know no borders both at
the global and individual level are mostly treated unimodally, and also
explain the fact that such unimodal approaches offer limited efficacy in
practice. We cannot hope to see a mentally improved humanity in the
future unless knowledge, policy, and practice are integrated, and this
integration would apply to all medical, academic, and societal settings
[42].

6.5 Immunoemotional Disorders

The brain and body are intertwined regardless of age, sex, race,
ethnicity, nation, and religion and are continually being absorbed in and
affected by each other. There have ever been interesting which
pathways are responsible for and how they handle this communication
between two very different characters. The research proposes an
immunoemotional regulatory system (IMMERS) where the blood–brain
barrier (BBB), hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, microbiota,
and neuronal circuits serve as intermediates between the two main
compartments, i.e., emotions and immunity [43]. A little reflection
reveals why mental illnesses occur to people with immune-mediated
conditions, e.g., allergic rhinitis and asthma, autoimmune diseases,
cardiometabolic diseases, old age, cancer, infections, neuroimmune
diseases, and following vaccination [44]. Also, this system would
explain why immune abnormalities occur to people with mental
illnesses, making them prone to a variety of medical conditions [45]. It
implies the power of the brain and body to cross their borders and
constitutes an obligation for us to consider and provide solutions to
prevent mental issues when treating patients with physical diseases
and vice versa.

7 Health Without Borders

History reveals to us once people have chosen to cross borders, they
could develop products and takes actions superior to the quality they
usually obtain when keeping borders.

7.1 Doctors Without Borders: Doctors of the World

In 1971, Doctors Without Borders, also known as Médecins sans rontiers
(MSF) (URL: https://​www.​msf.​org/​), was established as a
humanitarian medical non-governmental organization to provide
assistance for caring emergencies to people who have been the “victim
of conflict, natural disasters, epidemics, or healthcare exclusion.” Such
cross-border collaboration could directly help improve human health
and well-being and was the winner of the 1999 Nobel Peace Prize for
pioneering humanitarian work in the world. Also is the United Nations
(UN) World Food Pogramme (WFP) (URL: https://​www.​wfp.​org/​),
which is funded in 1961 and woks in over 80 countries. The WFP could
provide food assistance to about one hundred million people
worldwide. It was recently awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Peace for
its efforts to fight hunger. The development of telemedicine could pave
the way for the practice of health promotion in conflict zones [46].

7.2 Patients Without Borders: Medical Tourism

The term “medical tourism” is referred to as “the practice of patients
exercising their personal reproductive choices in other less restrictive
states” [47, 48]. According to the data from Patients Beyond Borders
(URL: https://​www.​patientsbeyondbo​rders.​com/​media), the top
countries designated for medical tourism are Costa Rica, India, Israel,
Malaysia, Mexico, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey,
and United States. The top specialties for patients seeking medical care
abroad are cosmetic surgery, dentistry, cardiovascular, orthopedics,
cancer, reproductive, weight loss, scans, tests, health screenings, and
second opinions. Medical tourism is a fast-growing market globally
projected to increase at a rate of 15–25%. Access to medical procedures
and cost discrepancies are the main reasons patients travel for medical
care [48]. Although previously, medical travelers were mostly of the
upper social classes of the people, looking at current trends, both
middle and upper social classes hold a great deal of medical tourism
[49]. Trends that have eased medical tourism include improved quality
of care in developing countries, internet communication and signaling,
privatization of health care sectors abroad, and globalization of related
industries in health care [48].

8 Science Education at and Across Borders

8.1 At Cultural Borders: Learning “Science for All”
or Living “Everyday”?
Some science teachers strictly adhere to the habit of scientism, that
science is “non-humanistic, objective, purely rational and empirical,
universal, impersonal, socially sterile, and unencumbered by the vulgarity
of human bias, dogma, judgments, or cultural values” [50]. This teachers’
habit would often give the students nothing more than the advantage of
the hidden habit of absorbing knowledge and values [50]. At least the
genesis of the character to identify the subjective language in the school
classroom, which is a response under the act of social environment, is
not expected [50]. Therefore, the equity base of science education is
undermined due to weak self-esteem to carry a socioculturally effective
dialogue in society. Instead, an enriched environment is essential for
students to learn to implement cognitive constructivism, i.e., to
integrate the recently presented information into their current
knowledge to create personal meaning, and then to communicate their
constructivist ideas within the classroom—an effective classroom
demands from educators and teachers both cognitive and social
constructivist methods [51].
Struggle for establishing an agenda to provide access to science
learning across subject areas and on a sustained direction is long-
discussed under the slogan of “science for all.” It is brief, but enough to
include desires from diverse people, particularly science educators and
teachers, and satisfy the needs of diverse projects. However, research,
particularly over the last two decades, has shown that “science for all,”
on itself, is an inadequate idea [52]. Many countries worldwide have
moved towards the reform of national education systems for providing
“science for all” curricula. However, they meet with variable success
rates because while the reform education programs have presented a
conceptually different aspect, they may ignore the essential
characteristics of social constructivism. This ignorance would be costly
and additive to the effect that multiple cultures (e.g., related to the
home, peers, school, and classroom) students must encounter with
have on the learning science and, therefore, students’ achievement in
science.

8.2 Cultural Border Crossing: Learning “Science for

All” and Living “Everyday”
Accordingly, the world of school science is separated from the world of
everyday life by socio-cultural barriers, which can lead students to feel
that school science is going to happen in a foreign land [53]. Such a
feeling is common to students living in both developed and developing
countries; however, being of more frequent occurrence in developing
countries. It can induce cognitive conflicts for students when
simultaneously negotiating the acquisition of the culture of science and
the culture of everyday life [54]. This negotiation can precede two main
very different processes (i) enculturation, the cross-bordering process
of learning the culture of science and its implementation in everyday
life in a harmonious fashion; and (ii) assimilation, the process of
removing or moving everyday life concepts from their place to put new
scientific ways for conceptualization in their place. More precisely,
when coming back and forth from the school science to everyday life
and exploring the different cultural borders between these two worlds,
students can be categorized into the six groups (Table 2) according to
how much they find the culture of the school, science, and everyday life
congruent and to which extent they can make the cultural transition
smoothly and achieve understanding science [55]. When crossing
cultural borders, it would be an opportunity for students to learn
collaterally [54]. Corresponding in type to the conflicting ideas, the
degree of interaction between them, and the degree of conflict
resolution, collateral learning occurs in a spectrum between two
extremes. At one is the parallel type (compartmentalization technique),
when neither interaction between conflicting ideas exists nor
integrates the school instruction into everyday life. At the other is the
secured type, when there is a conscious interaction between conflicting
ideas, converging in a new conception towards one idea; this point, in
turn, acting on the other idea. Besides observation and learning,
students experience cultural awareness and cross-cultural
communication when working with groups of different cultures [56].
Table 2 Six groups of students according to how much they find the culture of the
school, science, and everyday life congruent and to which extent they can make the
cultural transition smoothly and achieve understanding science (Prepared with data
from [50, 55])

Cross- The property of relations between Level of

cultural cultures understanding
transition science
The culture of The culture of
family and family and
friends relative friends relative
to the culture of to the culture
the school of the science
Potent Smooth Congruent Congruent In-depth
scientists
I want to Adventurous Congruent Inconsistent Modest yet
know effective
students
Other Manageable Congruent Inconsistent Memorization
smart kids
I do not Hazardous Inconsistent Inconsistent Superficial
know
students
Outsiders Impossible Discordant Discordant None
Inside frustratingly Irreconcilable Potentially None
outsiders difficult compatible

8.3 Cross-Cultural Unit of School Science Education

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toward the earth; but should his planes suddenly give way, he would
drop like a plummet!
Frank was a cautious lad, who never forgot that a chain is only as
strong as its weakest link. And he would certainly omit nothing that
could add to the safety of himself and his chum.
They had just concluded it must be time for dinner, when Andy, who
had started for the house to wash up and be the first to partake,
uttered a loud cry that brought his companion hurriedly forth.
“I guess it’s all true, Frank,” the other was crying, as he pointed his
finger at some unwieldy object that seemed to be moving unsteadily
along just over the tops of the trees where the balloon had vanished;
“because there’s Puss and Sandy in their new biplane, starting out to
make their first little flight. Oh, my! look at that dip, would you? I
thought it was going to smash that time, but they lifted her all right.
You see, Frank, they’ve got us beat a mile in being first afloat!”
 CHAPTER VIII.
THE NOVICE FLIGHT OF THE BIPLANE.

There no longer existed the slightest doubt in the mind of Frank Bird
that their rivals had indeed stolen a march on them and were the first
of the Bloomsbury brand of aviators to mount upward in the realms
of space.
“It’s Puss Carberry beyond a question, and he’s flying all right,” he
said.
Naturally there was a trace of disappointment in his voice, for he had
never dreamed, while working at the monoplane, but what he and his
cousin would be the pioneers along these lines in that part of the
state.
Still, Frank was a good loser. He knew how to fight down that feeling
when it threatened to grip him.
“They certainly deserve a lot of credit,” he continued.
“What for—stealing our thunder?” demanded the indignant Andy.
“Oh!” Frank remarked, laughingly, “I guess they had as much right as
any one to build an aeroplane. And if they managed to keep the
secret it was to their credit. Perhaps we’ve been doing a little too
much talking. And it looks as if Puss did pick up some points down at
the aviation field. He seems to be managing the biplane fairly well for
a new beginner.”
“Well,” admitted Andy, grudgingly, “he is going around after a
fashion; but lots of times it makes a swoop down at the ground like it
meant to whack them into a cocked hat. But somehow the fellow at
the wheel, which I reckon must be Puss, manages to recover just in
time.”
“And he’s doing better all the while,” Frank pursued, still watching.
“When he gets used to it that fellow will run an aircraft decently, and
we’d better make up our minds to that. I only hope we come out as
well when our turn arrives to make the trial spin.”
Indeed, the biplane seemed to be behaving quite handsomely. Its
evolutions, as it was sent around the field where Puss must have
taken it for a trial, were by degrees assuming a more positive form. It
no longer dodged and shot sideways, but acted more like a wild colt
that has recognized the hand on the bridle rein.
So deeply interested were the Bird boys in watching that they even
forgot how the lunch hour had arrived. The ringing of a bell from the
back stoop of the Whympers domicile aroused them, and Andy, with
a look of disappointment on his face, trotted off to eat first, since they
would not leave the hangar together.
“I wonder,” said Frank to himself, noticing his cousin’s downcast
appearance, “whether that boy is really disappointed because we’re
not the first in the aviation field here at Bloomsbury, or if he feels a
bit sore because the Carberry biplane failed to get in trouble on its
novice flight. But I’d better get to work on those planes. We must
have our machine ready today and if tomorrow looks good, try it out.”
So he went energetically to work, trying to put the other aeroplane
out of mind for the time being. And yet it might have been noticed
that several times Frank found an excuse to issue forth from the
shed on some errand, and that on every occasion his eyes naturally
sought that region where the strange bird had been so lately soaring.
On his last trip it had vanished and he supposed that the boys,
satisfied with having shown what they could do, had alighted again.
Just then Andy came hurrying forth, devouring a wedge of pie as he
advanced and crooking his neck in the vain endeavor to locate the
biplane.
“Where did she go to?” he exclaimed. “Don’t tell me they took a
cropper and that it’s all off? That would be a big disappointment, for
I’ve made up my mind that I don’t want to see Puss and Sandy get
hurt. Because, in that case there couldn’t be any race on Old Home
day. And I’ve just set my heart on beating ’em to the top of the
mountain.”
Frank laughed.
“I must say your heart has become mighty tender of late, Andy,” he
remarked, as he washed his hands at the tin basin they kept at the
shed. “But make your mind easy, for I reckon they only dropped
down to get dinner. You’ll see them enough this afternoon. And ten to
one they fly over us here, just to laugh.”
“I’ll make sure to be inside then,” grumbled Andy, dejectedly. “But get
along with you, Frank. Colonel Josiah is dying to ask you a whole lot
of questions. He tired me out, and besides, I wasn’t feeling like
explaining just how we came to play second fiddle to those sneaks.”
Evidently Andy felt pretty “sore,” as he expressed it. When Frank
later on came out of the house he found that Elephant Small had
arrived, being deeply interested in the construction of the
monoplane.
Elephant had, of course, seen the biplane in the air. He had even
increased his customary snail’s pace in order to reach the field of the
flight before the boys came down.
Andy had evidently been pumping him for all he was worth, because
just as Frank arrived the newcomer was saying:
“Why, yes; they did come down with something of a bump, but
nobody was hurt, and Puss said he’d know how better next time.
She’s a dandy, too, boys, I tell you. Of course, not any finer looking
than the one you’ve got here, but built along entirely different lines.
Ginger! I’d be tempted to go into this flying business myself, only I’m
afraid the pace would be a little too hot for me.”
Those who knew Elephant’s slow ways and habits of procrastination
would have certainly agreed with him. He could never keep up with
the procession. Aviators must necessarily be built on the order of
athletes, for their very lives may depend on instantaneous action and
speedy thought that springs from intuition. It is not the profession for
a lazy or clumsy individual.
Soon the two were hard at work, with Elephant looking on, crouched
in his favorite attitude of sitting on his haunches and encircling his
knees with both arms.
The talk, of course, soon turned upon the great race of such aircraft
as had been fashioned by enterprising sons of Bloomsbury.
“It’s going to be a pretty race,” ventured Elephant.
“Huh!” grunted Andy, without looking up, “that remains to be seen.
I’ve got a hunch right now that it will be a clean walkaway; if a fellow
can say that about an aeroplane that makes circles around another
aircraft.”
“I was just thinking, Andy,” continued the other, reflectively and
soberly, as if he really meant every word, “that when you do make
that landing up on the little plateau crowning Old Thunder Top, you
can satisfy yourself of one thing anyhow.”
Andy did raise his head at that.
“Now, what in the dickens do you mean, Elephant?” he asked.
“Why,” went on the other, to the secret amusement of the listening
Frank, “don’t you recollect what I said yesterday when we were
talking about your missing that cute little aluminum monkey wrench
you invented—and how I believed that old robber of a bald eagle
might have grabbed it, because it was shiny. Well, you know that pair
have a nest somewhere on the cliffs up on Thunder Top. What’s to
hinder you taking a peek to see if I wasn’t right?”
“Oh, rats!” said Andy, with a shrug of his shoulders. “You know I don’t
take any stock in that yarn, Elephant. I’m only afraid Larry hit closer
when he said I might have dropped that jewel out of my pocket at the
time I was hanging from that limb over the sink hole.”
Frank put down his knife which he had been using.
“Now that the subject has come up again,” he said, quietly, “I might
mention something that occurred to me while you were in at dinner,
Andy.”
“About my lost wrench?” demanded the other, quickly.
“That’s it. Stop and think now—do you remember laughing at me for
trying my big tool on that tiny nut that holds the main guy of the
rudder?”
“Sure I do,” replied the other, promptly.
“And you did the job like a charm with your little wrench, for I
complimented you on the way it worked. You remember that, of
course?” Frank went on.
“Sure I do,” repeated Andy, his eyes beginning to glow with
anticipation.
“Well,” Frank continued, “it wasn’t last Friday that happened, nor yet
Saturday. I’m positive it was on Monday of this week, just the day
before the glorious Fourth, and if you doubt it I can prove the same.”
Andy sprang up, cracked his heels together, and gave a shout.
“You’re right, Frank; it was Monday!” he cried.
“Say, what’s all this row about?” demanded Elephant, looking
puzzled. “I don’t see what difference it makes whether it was Friday
or Monday, so long as the little wizard wrench is lost, dead sure.”
“Why, you slow coach!” cried Andy, “don’t you understand that if I
sure had it right here in the shop on Monday it never could have
been lost on Saturday. So both you and Larry guessed off the hook.
It didn’t drop from my pocket into that blessed old muck hole.”
“And then the old eagle couldn’t have lifted it either!” observed
Elephant, with a look of disappointment on his face, as he saw the
one bright idea of his life vanishing in smoke.
“And if I had it here it ought to be around somewhere!” observed
Andy; whereupon he started overturning everything that chanced to
be lying on table or floor, until Frank begged him to desist or else
they would find themselves in a peck of trouble regarding other
things that could not be found.
“But hope has revived, anyhow,” asserted Andy, doggedly, “and I’m
never going to give over the hunt. That invaluable little tool has just
got to be found. And I’m the Peary that will get there sooner or later.”
“All right,” said Frank; “but I can see Larry coming whooping along
the road out yonder on his wheel, and he looks as if he had
something to tell us. Yes, whenever Larry grins like that all over his
face he is bursting with information. So get ready to be surprised,
fellows.”
 CHAPTER IX.
THE NEWS LARRY BROUGHT.

“Don’t you take too much stock in Larry bringing news,” observed
Andy, still letting his eyes rove all around the walls of the shed, as
though striving to discover somewhere the object of his dearest wish.
“Oh, come!” said Frank, “you’re going to run him down just because
his guess about your wrench falling in that mudhole turned out bad.
Why, at the time I thought it must be the truth.”
“But Larry is always a false alarm,” declared Andy. “Like as not now
he thinks we don’t know a thing about that plagued old biplane, and
he’s just bursting with importance.”
The object of this conversation now came wheeling up to the door of
the shed. He did seem to be trembling from some cause or other. It
might have been his rapid pedaling over the road from town or else
the immensity of the news he was bearing.
“Hey, fellows!” he cried, as he came puffing inside, “don’t suppose
you’ve heard about it.”
“Punk! You’re a back number, Larry,” exclaimed Andy, quickly. “Why,
we watched ’em circle around the field from here; and Elephant saw
’em come down. You can’t tell us anything new about Puss
Carberry’s new biplane, I guess!”
Larry looked surprised.
“Why,” he said, “I hadn’t heard anything about that. Do you mean to
tell me they’ve been and beat you up? And actually got back to solid
earth again without breaking their necks? Well, that is news!”
“But look here,” said Frank, “you were going to tell us something.
Has there been another prize offered? Perhaps there may have
cropped up a dozen other aeroplanes that are being built for the
competition. Seems to be the rage around Bloomsbury just now.
What is it all about, Larry?”
“Oh! what I had to tell don’t seem to have any connection at all with
airships,” said Larry. “The funny thing about it is how they ever
managed to keep it a secret all morning, up to noon. And Chief
Waller has been working hard all the time. Possibly now, you may
have seen some of his men passing along the road here, mounted
on motorcycles? They’re scouring the whole blessed county for the
rogues!”
“Rogues!” exclaimed the impetuous Andy; “now you have got us
wondering to beat the band! What’s going on in Bloomsbury? Sure
the old town is waking out of her Rip Van Winkle sleep with a rush.”
“You just bet she is,” affirmed Larry, with a grin. “And when Old
Home Week comes along, everybody in the whole U. S. will be
talking of the great doings here.”
“But get along with you, Larry. Sure, you’re slower than molasses in
winter. Do you want to have us drop in a fit? Can’t you see we’re just
trembling with anxiety? No more chaff now, but put us wise!” and
Andy shook the newcomer, as though really believing he ought to be
aroused from a trance.
“There was a robbery last night!” began the other.
“What! in Bloomsbury?” asked Frank, surprised, for such a thing was
seldom known in connection with the town on Lake Sunrise.
“Leffingwell’s jewelry store was entered, and cleaned out! They say
the thieves must have taken thousands of dollars’ worth of stuff.
They carried it off in two suit-cases, too; though I don’t know just how
the police found that out. It was kept quiet up to noon in the hope
that the rascals might be apprehended. Every neighboring town has
been informed by ’phone or wire. Police are on the lookout
everywhere, trains are being watched, and it is believed that the
thieves are still hiding somewhere near Bloomsbury, waiting till the
chase cools down to make their escape.”
Larry got this off much after the manner of a small boy at school. He
had evidently rehearsed his speech while booming along on his
wheel.
The three boys stared at each other.
“Why,” remarked Frank, “seems to me they’re beginning early. We
had warning that the chances were there would be a raft of thieves
wander this way next week, on account of the big crowds expected.
Everybody was told not to leave things around loose, and to lock
their houses when out on the streets. But these sly fellows knew
enough to slip in ahead of time, when folks were napping.”
“My! but they must have made a great haul,” observed Elephant.
“I’ve often looked in at that window display of diamonds and
bracelets and watches, thinking that it must be worth a heap. And do
you mean to say they’re all gone up the flue?”
“Cleaned the safe out. They were experienced crooks too, because
they knew how to open that big safe without the police hearing the
explosion!” Larry went on.
“Explosion!” echoed Andy, his mouth opening in astonishment.
“Sure. They blew the doors off with dynamite, covering the safe with
blankets in the most up-to-date style. Must have timed it to go off just
when that freight puffs up the hill, and makes such a big row. It’s
waked me many a night.”
“I know,” declared Andy, “it goes along at half-past two in the
morning. Then it must have been at that time the job was pulled off.
And there isn’t any train until six. Are they sure the robbers didn’t go
on that?”
“Yes,” Larry continued, “because Chief Waller happened to be at the
station then, and nobody got on that he didn’t know. Besides, they
have found out several other things.”
“Tell us what they were, please?” asked Elephant, edging closer.
“Well, a little runabout of an auto was found broken down and
abandoned not more than half a mile away from here. It was headed
out of town. No owner has turned up for it as yet. And the Chief says
he is sure it must have belonged to the two robbers. Something
happened just when they were leaving town with their boodle; and
they had to duck into the woods to hide.”
“Well, I only hope they find ’em then,” said Andy. “Because I don’t
just like the idea of having such fellows hanging around. Makes you
have a queer feeling if you happen to be out late on the road. Ugh!
guess I’ll stick close till they get some news about that bunch.”
“I heard the Chief had a clue that may turn out valuable,” Larry went
on. “On the floor of the back room where the safe was located they
picked up a crumpled paper. It didn’t belong to anybody in
Leffingwell’s, and is believed to have fallen out of the pocket of one
of the robbers while at work. You know that could happen, boys.”
Whereupon the Bird cousins exchanged glances, and smiled; for
they remembered the card which had been found on the floor of the
shed, and which they felt positive had been carelessly dropped by
one of those vandals to whom they owed the destruction of the
canvas covers of the planes.
“But what was the paper?” questioned practical Frank.
“Oh! yes,” Larry replied, “and that ought to interest you boys,
because, you see, it was a pilot’s license, granted by some French
Society of Aviators to a Jules Garrone. So it looks like the owner
might have been reduced to robbing a store. Of course, when they
find out who he is, and where he stays, he’ll have to explain how his
license happens to be lying around loose in a place that has been
robbed.”
“What beastly luck,” grunted Andy. “Here we’re just breaking into the
honored ranks of air navigators, when some scamp has to go and
disgrace his calling. Don’t I hope they get him, though, and send him
up for a good term.”
“You blood-thirsty chap,” laughed Frank. “Just as if it had anything to
do with the honor of the calling we’ve adopted as our own. Every
profession has its black sheep—ministers, lawyers, doctors, all alike.
All we have to do is to make good, and leave the rest. But let’s get
busy, Andy. If we expect to have everything in apple-pie trim by
tonight, we have little time to lose discussing things, even if they are
thrilling.”
Frank seemed to be a trifle more thoughtful than ordinary as he
continued his interrupted labors. Andy kept up a running fire of
comment with the other boys as long as they remained. Finally both
Elephant and Larry went away, and the cousins were left to their
work.
Although they stepped outside about every half hour religiously
during the afternoon, and each time scanned the tree-tops over in
the quarter where the biplane had appeared just before noon, they
saw no more of the flier.
Frank was of the opinion that, having tested it out, Percy Carberry
had discovered certain weak stays that needed strengthening; and
that the owners of the new air craft were putting in their time doing
this.
Andy showed his gratification plainly.
“I was afraid they’d just come hovering over us here,” he said, as the
sun drew closer down toward the horizon, and the biplane had not
been sighted. “And it would have badgered me some to have the
guys mocking us, and taunting us. Now they can’t go up, because
there’s too much wind for greenhorns to buck against. And by
tomorrow we’re just going to be on the map ourselves, mark me.”
“We certainly are,” added Frank, “if nothing happens to prevent it.”
“Why,” said the other, “what could happen to break us up?”
“Oh! I don’t know, but there’s many a slip between the cup and the
lip.” And that was all he would say; but Andy felt that his cousin must
be thinking of something definite, to have spoken as he did.
Evening arrived. As before the boys took turns going in to meals.
This time Andy insisted that his cousin be the first to break his fast.
“I’m as hungry as a wolf,” he admitted, “but all the same you’ve just
got to go in first this time. We’ve got gasolene in the tank, the planes
are finished, and if it was tomorrow, there’s nothing to prevent our
shoving the little beauty out into the open right now, and taking a
slant off over the field. However will I manage to sleep tonight, I don’t
know.”
Frank, knowing the stubborn nature of his cousin, did not waste time
in trying to combat his wish, but started for the house at once.
 CHAPTER X.
SIGNS OF TROUBLE.

“I just knew how it would be!” said Andy, as he came in an hour later,
after having eaten his dinner at the house.
Frank, who was still pottering around the aeroplane, though careful
about having the lamp anywhere close to the gasolene tank attached
to it, looked up.
“What’s ailing you now?” he demanded. “Got a line on that
disappearing monkey wrench yet?”
“Shucks! I only wish I had,” replied his cousin. “But I was referring to
what Larry told us about those bold, bad men, who cleaned out poor
Leffingwell. You know he said they must be hanging around
somewhere not many miles from Bloomsbury, and that the police
were hunting everywhere for traces of their hangout?”
“Why, yes, I believe he did say something like that,” Frank went on.
“But what’s that worrying you for? Have you got an idea you know
where they’re hiding? If so, why not call police headquarters up on
the phone, and let the Chief know? I’m sure he’d thank you, Andy.”
“It wasn’t that at all, you see,” explained the other. “But what Larry
said has got on my nerves, just as I expected. I’m seeing things,
that’s what!”
“Things that don’t happen to exist, you mean, I reckon?” asked
Frank.
“Well, I suppose so. That’s always the way with me when I get
anything on my mind. I just imagine I see it everywhere. Now, would
you believe it, when I was coming across the field just now in the
dark, for the old moon is just peeping up over the trees, I thought I
glimpsed a figure that scuttled out of sight.”
“You did, eh?” said the other, eyeing him closely.
“Sure,” replied Andy. “Of course it was an optical delusion, as
Professor Jarvey at high school would say, and there wasn’t
anything there at all. But it gave me some start all the same. Hope I
don’t dream about those desperate chaps tonight. If I wake you up
by shouting, you’ll know it’s only a mild attack of nightmare. Just
douse me with the contents of that water pail, and I’ll come out of it
all right. I always do.”
“I’ll remember,” grinned Frank. “And as the bucket is nearly full just
now, make up your mind, my boy, that you’re in for a jolly good swim
if I’m compelled to upset it over you. I’d advise you to go slow about
dreaming such things.”
“I will,” remarked Andy. “You give me cold feet already; but that isn’t
a circumstance to what a beaut of a chill I’ll get if you douse me
tonight.”
“But see here, perhaps you did see something?” observed the other,
seriously.
“Nope,” said Andy. “The more I think of it the more I’m inclined to
believe it was just my imagination that made me think I saw a fellow
duck down behind that fence corner.”
“Did you go over to investigate?” continued Frank.
“Nixey. That would have been your way, I know, old fellow; but I don’t
happen to be built along the same plan. If it was one of those crooks
I didn’t want to meet up with him; and if my brain was only working
overtime why, what was the use bothering.”
“You can argue yourself out of any hole, Andy. But I think I’ll just take
a little walk out, to see if I can glimpse anything,” and Frank picked
up his cap.
“Be careful, Frank,” said the other, a little alarmed. “Just remember
Larry said the Chief called them desperate characters. So if you do
run up against the precious pair, let ’em have the better part of the
road. We’re not looking for any share in that reward, you know.”
“Oh! I’ll take care,” smiled the other, as he passed out.
Left alone, Andy grew nervous. He would go to the door and listen
every minute or so; for he had taken the pains to close the means of
entrance, and put up the long heavy bar that secured it from the
inside.
Finally, unable to stand the suspense any longer he picked up the
big monkey wrench.
“I think I’d better step out myself,” he muttered. “Perhaps Frank may
run across those scoundrels, and need help. There, was that a call?
Did he mean to signal to me then?”
His heart beating wildly, Andy halted just back of the doors. If there
came a repetition of the sound he meant to throw them open and
rush out, regardless of everything.
Instead there came a faint tapping, just as though some little
woodpecker were getting in his work, boring holes in which to hide
grains of corn. Andy listened.
“It’s our code,” he whispered, with a sense of relief. “Frank is there,
and he wants me to open up. Yep, there it goes again—‘open the
door!’ Hello! Frank, is that you, and are you coming in?”
“It’s all right, so open the door, Andy,” came the voice of his chum.
“Did you find anything?” demanded the keeper of the fort, as Frank
glided in through the opening.
“No, not exactly,” replied Frank, dropping into a seat.
“But you say that as if you weren’t quite sure,” expostulated his
cousin.
“I went over to the place you mentioned. There was certainly nobody
there,” continued the late scout, positively.
“Just as I said,” declared Andy, “it was one of my freaks. I’ll just have
to put a brake on that imagination of mine. It’ll get me in trouble one
of these days.”
“But the grass seemed trampled down, and in one place I found
where it looked as if somebody might have been stretched out
looking through between the bars of the fence. I struck a match, and
picked up this thing.”
Frank held up a partly burned cigarette.
“Which shows,” he went on, “that after all perhaps some one was
hiding in that corner, watching the hangar. And when you stopped to
look, it alarmed him, so that he scurried off.”
“A cigarette, eh? Well, we know who uses that sort of thing all the
time. And his name is spelled Sandwith Hollingshead, too,” Andy
declared emphatically.
“Perhaps,” admitted Frank; and he would not continue the discussion
further.
Andy knew from the signs that his chum must be thinking about
something connected with this matter; but if so, Frank kept his
suspicions to himself. He really had nothing sound on which to base
them, and did not wish to alarm Andy unnecessarily. Andy was an
explosive sort of fellow, and at times only a spark was needed to set
the magazine off.
Both the boys expressed their intention of getting to bed early, being
tired, and not having slept any too well on the preceding night.
Frank took to his board pile again, though Andy had fetched out
more blankets so that he could stack a lot beneath him to relieve the
hardness.
He heard the regular breathing of his cousin close by, long before he
could get to sleep himself. The moon had begun to mount quite high,
and sent more or less light through the little window. Frank several
times raised himself on an elbow, and looked around the dim shop;
but nothing seemed amiss.
Finally he must have dropped off, nor could he imagine how long he
had slept, when he opened his eyes suddenly. It was no loud bang,
as on the preceding night, that aroused him this time. Indeed, he did
not believe he could have heard any sound at all, and that it was
only some intuition that made him awaken.
He seemed to just be possessed with a conviction that some sort of
danger was hovering over them. There was no tangible reason why
he should believe this; but the fact seemed to be impressed upon his
sub-consciousness as he lay there and listened, almost holding his
breath with suspense.
Had there come no sound, doubtless, after lying there for five
minutes, Frank must have become sleepy again, and laughing at his
fears, turned over on his rude bed to drop off again.
But he did hear something. It sounded like a whisper, too, and
positively came from over toward the doors. Frank looked closely,
but so far as he could see, they were closed and barred, just as the
boys had left them.
There it was again. Could it be Andy murmuring in his sleep? He
was sometimes given to talking at such times; but Frank felt sure the
sound did not come from the cot at all.
He slipped quietly off his bed. Fortunately the night was warm, and
not like the preceding one, when they had shivered in their pajamas.
So he crept over toward the double doors.
As Frank bent his head close to the rough wood in order to listen he
felt the door quiver. It went through him like a shock of electricity that
some one was trying to see if the entrance to the hangar was kept
locked, since there was nothing in sight outside to indicate the fact.
Could it be Puss Carberry and his shadow, coming back again to
attempt further destruction? Frank had another suspicion flash
through his brain that gave him more of a shock than this first
thought. The two robbers who were said to be in hiding somewhere
close by—might they not have conceived the idea of stealing the
completed aeroplane of the Bird boys, and in this fashion making an
escape, outwitting the officers of justice, who would never dream of a
flight through the air?
He listened further. They seemed to be whispering together again,
though he was quite unable to catch a single word of what was said.
But he fully believed that if his last thought proved to be the truth
these desperate men would not give up a cherished scheme
because of such a little obstacle as a barred door.
Then his first duty must be to arouse Andy, and without making any
noise, if it could be accomplished. After that they would have to
adapt their movements to circumstances.
So Frank cautiously made his way back to the cot where his cousin
was peacefully slumbering, possibly dreaming of future triumphs that
would fall to the portion of the Bird boys when they became masters
of the air.
 CHAPTER XI.
THE AEROPLANE THIEVES.

“Sh!”
Andy would have undoubtedly cried out on being so suddenly
aroused by a shake, only that Frank hissed in his ear; and also held
a hand over his mouth, so that he could not utter a sound.
He immediately put out a hand and touched Frank on the arm. It was
intended to reassure the other, and convince him that the sleeper
understood.
“What is it?” whispered Andy, as soon as the hand was removed
from his mouth.
“Keep still! There are some persons outside. They tried the door, and
I believe they’ll soon find the open window.”
Frank said this so close to Andy’s ear that any one five feet away
could never have caught a sound.
“Oh!” gasped the other, as he began to get up. “Whatever will we do,
Frank?”
“Sh! don’t speak again. Listen to me. We must try and hide behind
something, or under the work bench. Come, there’s no time to lose,
and be careful not to stumble.”
Frank drew his cousin on. Still, Andy had sense enough to stoop
over and lift the big monkey wrench from the place where he had
carefully deposited it before taking to his cot.
They crawled across the shed to the work bench, avoiding the
extended wings of the aeroplane.
Just as they gained the shelter of the bench, and were pushing
under it, there came a crackling noise from the further end of the