Download Intelligent Computing Theories And Application 17Th International Conference Icic 2021 Shenzhen China August 12 15 2021 Proceedings Part I Lecture Notes In Computer Science Book 12836 2Nd Edition Kat online ebook texxtbook full chapter pdf
Download Intelligent Computing Theories And Application 17Th International Conference Icic 2021 Shenzhen China August 12 15 2021 Proceedings Part I Lecture Notes In Computer Science Book 12836 2Nd Edition Kat online ebook texxtbook full chapter pdf
Download Intelligent Computing Theories And Application 17Th International Conference Icic 2021 Shenzhen China August 12 15 2021 Proceedings Part I Lecture Notes In Computer Science Book 12836 2Nd Edition Kat online ebook texxtbook full chapter pdf
Intelligent Computing
Theories and Application
17th International Conference, ICIC 2021
Shenzhen, China, August 12–15, 2021
Proceedings, Part I
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 12836
Founding Editors
Gerhard Goos
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
Juris Hartmanis
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Intelligent Computing
Theories and Application
17th International Conference, ICIC 2021
Shenzhen, China, August 12–15, 2021
Proceedings, Part I
123
Editors
De-Shuang Huang Kang-Hyun Jo
Tongji University University of Ulsan
Shanghai, China Ulsan, Korea (Republic of)
Jianqiang Li Valeriya Gribova
Shenzhen University Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy
Shenzhen, China of Sciences
Vladivostok, Russia
Vitoantonio Bevilacqua
Polytechnic University of Bari
Bari, Italy
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
grateful to the International Neural Network Society and the National Science Foun-
dation of China for their sponsorship.
General Co-chairs
De-Shuang Huang Tongji University, China
Zhong Ming Shenzhen University, China
Tutorial Co-chairs
Kyungsook Han Inha University, South Korea
Prashan Premaratne University of Wollongong, Australia
Publication Co-chairs
Vitoantonio Bevilacqua Polytechnic of Bari, Italy
Phalguni Gupta Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, India
viii Organization
Workshop Co-chairs
Yoshinori Kuno Saitama University, Japan
Jair Cervantes Canales Autonomous University of Mexico State, Mexico
Publicity Co-chairs
Chun-Hou Zheng Anhui University, China
Dhiya Al-Jumeily Liverpool John Moores University, UK
Program Committee
Mohd Helmy Abd Wahab Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia
Nicola Altini Polytechnic University of Bari, Italy
Waqas Bangyal University of Gujrat, Pakistan
Wenzheng Bao Xuzhou University of Technology, China
Antonio Brunetti Polytechnic University of Bari, Italy
Domenico Buongiorno Politecnico di Bari, Italy
Hongmin Cai South China University of Technology, China
Nicholas Caporusso Northern Kentucky University, USA
Jair Cervantes Autonomous University of Mexico State, Mexico
Chin-Chih Chang Chung Hua University, Taiwan, China
Zhanheng Chen Shenzhen University, China
Wen-Sheng Chen Shenzhen University, China
Xiyuan Chen Southeast University, China
Organization ix
Additional Reviewers
Information Security
Short Video Users’ Personal Privacy Leakage and Protection Measures . . . . . 317
Haiyu Wang
Neural Networks
Pattern Recognition
Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer for Vehicle Routing Problem with Multiple
Time Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
Nan Li, Rong Hu, Bin Qian, Nai-Kang Yu, and Ling Wang
Flight Control for 6-DOF Quadrotor via Sliding Mode Integral Filter . . . . . . 145
Zinan Su, Aihua Zhang, and Shaoshao Wang
Fuzzy PID Controller for Accurate Power Sharing and Voltage Restoration
in DC Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Duy-Long Nguyen and Hong-Hee Lee
Machine Learning
Multi-view of Data for Auto Judge Model in Online Dispute Resolution . . . . 490
Qinhua Huang and Weimin Ouyang
Predicting Course Score for Undergrade Students Using Neural Networks . . . 732
Ming Liu, Zhuohui Li, Runyuan Sun, and Na Zhang
Abstract. With the rapid development of technologies such as IoT and 5G, the
Internet industry has undergone significant changes and posed new challenges to
the traditional computing model. Mobile edge computing (MEC) is considered as
an effective solution to the challenge. However, as mobile devices generally have
limited computing power and battery storage to cope with the increasing latency-
sensitive and computationally intensive tasks, how to allocate computation and
communication resources in the edge cloud to improve the quality of service
(QoS) for mobile users is a challenging research. In this paper, we first formulate
the optimization model of multi-user offloading and transmitted power control,
aiming to reduce the energy consumption, task delay and price cost of mobile
devices in a multi-channel wireless interference environment. Then we propose a
multi-objective optimization algorithm based on theoretical analysis of the model
and design a multi-objective offloading strategy based on NSGA-II. Our approach
is able to obtain best trade-off among energy consumption, task delay and price.
Experimental results on test instances shows the effectiveness and efficiency of
our proposed algorithm.
1 Introduction
In recent years, cloud computing and wireless communication technologies have made
rapid progress. With the continuous growth of devices connected to wireless networks,
a large amount of data has been generated along the network edge [1]. At the same time,
with the evolution of innovative applications such as face recognition [2], intelligent
driving [3] and virtual reality [4], users have also put forward higher demands for service
quality. The majority of these applications are high energy computation, computation-
intensive and latency-sensitive [5], which are hard to accomplish on mobile devices
with limited computing power and battery storage. This greatly limits the development
of emerging industries.
Mobile cloud computing (MCC) systems have been proposed to address the compu-
tational power issue so that mobile devices can make the most of the strong computing
power of cloud to reduce the local computational pressure, resulting in lower latency of
task execution [6]. However, geographic location and network condition can also cause
high latency during data transmission, and those latency-sensitive tasks such as work-
flow applications are likely to be impossible to complete. To further reduce latency and
ensure these tasks can be executed smoothly, fog computing [7–9] has been proposed as
a new research area. Cisco defines that fog computing as complementing cloud comput-
ing can migrate tasks to execute in the network edge. Edge computing is similar to fog
computing, their terms are usually used interchangeably. MEC has received a high level
of attention in recent years, and it reduces task latency and local energy consumption of
mobile devices by building edge servers between the cloud and edge devices [10–12].
However, there are still many challenges in designing effective MEC systems [13].
To maximize the efficacy of the MEC system, we need to consider which user tasks
should be offloaded to the edge and also decide on the optimal transmission power for
offloading. In addition, the energy consumption, time delays and possible additional
costs of task execution in the edge cloud also need to be considered in the system
design. Most of the existing MEC methods focus on the study of a single objective and
rarely consider multi-objective optimization. Swarm intelligence algorithms such as ant
colony algorithm [14], bee colony algorithm [15] bring new ideas to solve multi-objective
optimization problems.
Therefore, we detailed study the above problems and propose an efficient computa-
tion offloading scheme in MEC, while the corresponding optimal transmission power is
given. Our main contributions include:
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. In Sect. 2 we summarize the rele-
vant work. Section 3 describes the system model. Then, we propose the multi-objective
computation offloading and transmitted power algorithm in Sect. 4. Section 5 gives
simulation study to verify the performance of our proposed algorithm. Finally, Sect. 6
outlines the conclusion and describes our future work.
2 Related Work
In recent years, researchers have proposed multiple offloading schemes. Some of these
studies focus on minimizing energy consumption. [16] proposed a joint radio resource
allocation and offloading decision optimization to minimize the energy consumption.
Xu et al. [17] considered data compression while solving the computation offloading and
Multi-objective Optimization-Based Task Offloading 5
resource allocation problems to optimize the energy consumption. Yu et al. [18] proposed
a novel mobile-aware partial offloading algorithm to dynamically calculate the amount
of offloaded data using short-term mobile user’s movement prediction, which minimizes
the energy consumption while satisfying the delay constraint. Zhang et al. [19] schedule
mobile services based on the particle swarm optimization algorithm (PSO) to minimize
the total energy consumption of mobile devices.
Similarly, certain studies have worked on minimizing task latency. The delay mini-
mization problem in a multi-user system with communication resources and computation
resources allocation was studied by Ren et al. [20]. [21] given extra consideration to the
problem of user mobility to minimize the task delay in MEC.
Some studies also consider energy consumption and task latency at the same time, but
these studies tend to combine the two sub-problems into a single problem. [22] exploited
the finite property of sensors to minimize processing delays and energy consumption
of tasks in IoT. Since the wireless communication situation can have an impact on
the data transmission process, Liu et al. [23] considered transmission power control
while designing the offloading decision. Similar to the above, [24] proposed solutions
in ultra-dense networks [25].
With the rapid development of multi-objective evolutionary optimization algorithms
[26], these are often used to solve practical application problems. A multi-objective
computation offloading approach was designed in [27] for workflow applications. In
[28], an evolutionary algorithm is designed to find the best trade-offs between energy
consumption and task processing delay. The optimization of joint energy consumption,
processing delay, and price cost are further discussed in [29]. However, none of them
consider the impact of transmission power on system performance.
3 System Model
In this section, we first introduce the MEC model as illustrated in Fig. 1. We assume that
system consists of N mobile devices and one edge could server located at the edge of
the network such as a radio base station, where each mobile device has a computation-
intensive task waiting to be processed. These tasks can be performed locally or offloaded
to the adjacent edge cloud. Next, the communication model, the computation model and
the cost model are detailed described.
Mobile Devices
Fig. 1. Illustration of the multi-user MEC system in a multi-channel wireless environment.
where σ 2 denotes the background noise power. When mobile user un choose to compute
the task locally, the transmission power should be denoted by yn = 0, there is no need
to allocate the transmission power. From the above formula, we can see that as the
transmitted power yn increases, the uplink data rate rul n increases accordingly. However,
if the yn is too large, it will cause interference to other user tasks transmitted through the
same sub-channel.
Then the transmitted delay of mobile user un during offloading can be given by:
sn
tnt = (2)
rnul
Multi-objective Optimization-Based Task Offloading 7
Aiming at the limited wireless communication resources in the system, the limited battery
storage and the limited computing resources in mobile devices. We mainly study the
following three problems:
1. Task Placement Problem. We need to determine whether the mobile users’ tasks will
be executed locally or offloaded to the edge cloud. This is a binary decision problem.
2. Resource Allocation Problem. When the mobile user decides to offload, we have to
determine how the edge cloud allocates communication resources and computation
resources.
3. Transmission Power Control Problem. When the mobile user decides to offload, we
have to determine how the mobile device determines the appropriate transmission
power.
N
minimize E= [(1 − xi )εiexe,L + xi εit ] (8a)
i=1
N
minimize T= [(1 − xi )tiexe,L + xi tit + xi tiexe,C ] (8b)
i=1
N
minimize C= [xi ri ] (8c)
i=1
0 ≤ yi ≤ pmax , ∀i = 1, . . . , N . (8e)
yi = 0, ∀xi = 0. (8g)
Multi-objective Optimization-Based Task Offloading 9
Di ≤ ti , ∀i = 1, . . . , N . (8h)
where pmax stand for the maximum transmission power, and Dn = (1−xn )tnexe,L +xn tnt +
xn tnexe,C denotes the task delay spent on the actual execution of task Tn . We let E define
the energy consumption of mobile devices, let T define the computation delay of task,
and use C define the total cost of all mobile users. It’s worth noting that each task’s time
delay for completion must not exceed its given upper limit.
The joint optimization problem is a multi-objective hybrid coding problem, and is
difficult to solve directly. In what follow, we utilize NSGA-II [30] to solve this problem.
Multi-objective optimization algorithms have advantages in solving large-scale high-
dimensional problems [31]. Compared with other multi-objective genetic algorithms,
NSGA-II has the advantages of fast operation and good convergence of the solution set.
We design the MOPCA method in Algorithm 1. The populations are first generated
randomly and calculated the fitness functions. Then, fast non-dominated sorting is used
to stratify the individuals, and then the crowding distance of each individual is calculated
to better distinguish the individuals’ strengths and weaknesses. Finally, we generate
new populations by binary tournament selection, crossover and mutation operations,
after several iterations, until the termination condition is satisfied, which are described
below:
Encoding. In this paper, genes in genetic algorithm stand for the offloading strategy for
computational tasks, and multiple genes make up a complete individual, representing a
solution to the optimization problem. In order to simultaneously consider the sub-channel
selection during task offloading, for encoding we combine the offloading decision and
channel selection into a single integer encoding, denoted by xn = {0} ∪ SC in the range
of {0, 1, · · · , M }, and the corresponding power variable yn is a floating point variable in
[0, pmax ], a hybrid coding is used for the above two variables. The hybrid encoded gene
string contains two types of variables, which is encoded as shown in Fig. 2. The former
is coded in integer and the latter is coded in floating point, as shown by V = [xn , yn ]. A
set of candidate solutions constitutes (individuals) a population.
xn yn
Fig. 2. Gene string by hybrid coding.
10 Y. Chen et al.
Fitness Functions and Constraints. The Fitness functions are the indicators used to
determine the degree of merit of individuals in a group and is indicated by the formulas
(8a), (8b) and (8c). The three equations represent the energy consumption, the total
latency, and the total cost of mobile devices, respectively. Constraints are given by (8d),
(8e), (8f), (8g) and (8h). This means that the actual completion delay of a task cannot
exceed the upper limit of the delay for that task, while the transmission power cannot
exceed the maximum value for that mobile device.
F
P[i]dis tan ce = P[i]E + P[i]T + P[i]C = (|E[i + 1] − E[i − 1]|)
f =1
(9)
F
F
+ (|T [i + 1] − T [i − 1]|) + (|C[i + 1] − C[i − 1]|)
f =1 f =1
where E[i+1], T [i+1] and C[i+1] represent the offloading strategy si+1 to the functions
(8a), (8b) and (8c), respectively.
Elitist Retention Strategy. To prevent the Pareto optimal individuals of the current
population from being lost in the next generation, resulting in the genetic algorithm
not converging to the global optimal solution, an elitist retention strategy is used. First,
the parent population Ci and the offspring population Di are synthesized into a new
population Ri (Line 4). Then the whole layer is put into the parent population Ci+1 in
the order from lowest to highest according to the Pareto rank until the individuals in a
certain layer cannot all be put in (Line 6–9), subsequently, they are arranged in order
from largest according to the crowding distance of the individuals and put into the parent
population Ci+1 in turn until Ci+1 is filled (Line 10–12).
The traveler gives this account: “The Indian had secured at Fort
Snelling, near St. Paul, a bit of broken looking-glass, and there he sat
on deck, painting his face and neck. A daub of the brightest red paint
went down the line marking the parting of his hair. [32]
“He worried and worked as much over the daubs on his cheeks as
some very civilized girls would over a naughty curl. First, a daub of
yellow with red at the edge; then red on the yellow, and yellow on the
red, until his eye was satisfied.
“In the tuft of hair on his crown he stuck an eagle feather; the mirror
showed it was not in a becoming place. Out it came and was poised
at a different angle. Still, it was not just the style he wanted, and out it
came again. At last it stood straight up, and the dandy finished his
toilet.
It seemed strange to the traveler for the Indian to take so much pains
with the colors of paint and the place where he put them upon his
face, but it is now known that each color has its meaning with them.
The Indians paint their faces very differently when they are going on the warpath. The warriors of
each nation have their own fashion of painting their faces and bodies.
The war chiefs have a very noble look when they come out with their feather war bonnets
reaching from [33]the crowns of their heads down to their feet. Their bearing is dignified; their
faces are earnest and solemn; and each one treads the earth as a king.
Indian women are sometimes very handsome when young; but the quantity of colored earth they
use as paint does not hide half the dirt upon their faces. They wear blankets and buckskin skirts,
and make a pretty picture if the wigwam is in the background. Many of the babies have a
decidedly Japanese look and are attractive little creatures, as babies are apt to be.
The Indian squaw is a good helpmate to her husband. His work is to hunt; her work is at home in
the teepee, where he can find rest and food after his hunting. An Indian brave will not do his
squaw’s work, and his squaw does not wish her brave to be different from other men.
The Indian pony seems like a part of the family. He is not petted nor fed like the Arabian horse,
but is just as necessary to his master’s happiness. Indian ponies know what little food and what
no food mean. The rank prairie grass is usually easy for them to get, but sometimes it is burned
off. The pony must search for his own food in summer or winter.
The Indian pony or cayuse sometimes carries a load under which a donkey could hardly move;
but he takes his own gait, and keeps it too. He is suited by [34]inherited years of hard work to his
master and his home. The Indian pony is thought to be descended from the horses brought to
America by the Spanish explorers.
The dogs belonging to an Indian camp or village are numerous and often nearly starved.
Whenever a stranger makes his appearance, his coming is announced by furious barks and
howls of these hungry sentinels. The white hunter has reason to dread the attacks of these dogs,
for they are much like the coyotes and wolves of the forests. Unless his gun is ready, or their
masters call them back, it is usually best for the stranger to find refuge in a tree; but the braves,
squaws, and children give the white visitor a kind welcome as soon as they know that his visit is
friendly. [35]
[Contents]
MEANING OF INDIAN TOTEMS AND NAMES
An Indian, while hunting, followed a bear a long way into the forest. The rain
came and he was lost, so he cut the bark from a tree and made with his
tomahawk a picture of a fox. He put a ring under one foot in the picture. He
belonged to the Fox tribe and had been lost one day. He made more such
marks on the trees as he went on.
Another hunter from the same tribe found him after three days. He had
trailed him by the little marks on the trees; by bent twigs and branches; by
his footprints in the mud or sand. He knew the lost one was very weak and
hungry, for the last fox picture had three circles to show that he had been
lost three days, and other marks to show that he had shot nothing. An
untrained white hunter would not have seen one sign of the lost Indian. [36]
If the Fox Indian had been asked why he used the fox picture, he would
have said, if ready to talk: “My grandfather was a fox.” This would mean to
us that his totem or first ancestor was a fox.
Other tribes believe they are descended from bears, wolves, cranes, or
other creatures. They nearly all have their totems, or sign-pictures. We write
our names with letters; they use pictures. It is their coat-of-arms. Our
names also have meanings.
The tall, curiously carved totem poles of Alaska are really carved family
histories. Where two or more animals are pictured on one pole it shows the
marriage or other union of different bands to which the family belongs.
These totem poles are usually put up before each native house. The
natives will not sell them, for they are valuable family records.
A Dakota warrior shot an arrow into the sky; the clouds parted just as his
arrow turned to fall. He was thought to have shot the clouds; he was called
Hole-in-the-sky.
Old Chief Sleepy-eye had a bright mind, but his eyelids did not serve him
well; hence his name.
In some tribes the little ones are named after the first object that is seen, as
Buffalo Horn, White Pony, Lame Dog, and names that are sometimes better but more often seem
to us not so good.
Alaskan Totem Poles
From a Photograph
The Sioux have names for their boys or girls [38]according to their order of birth. The first boy is
called Chaska, until by some feat of bravery he changes it himself. The second son is Harpam;
his next brother is Hapeda; the fourth son is Chatun; and the fifth boy has the name of Harka all
ready for him.
The first girl has the musical name of Winona, and her next younger sister takes the name of
Harpan. Harpstena will be the name of the third girl baby. Waska and Weharka are for the fourth
and fifth girls of a family, and other names are provided for a greater number of children.
The Indians have titles and descriptive names for the white people whom they know. A certain
military surgeon who has been among them and has keen, dark eyes and gray hair is always
called Gray Eagle. Their senses are trained to observe very keenly, and they quickly know each
person. Perhaps the paleface might be startled if he understood the name they gave him.
Some Indian tribes call the horse Foot-with-one-toe. Few white Americans would have noticed
the horse’s foot so closely. [39]
[Contents]
THE INDIAN NAMES FOR THE MONTHS OR MOONS
If you were spending the year among the Sioux or Dakotas, little Winona might tell you that
January is the Hard Moon.
February is when the braves and the boys take their dogs and hunt the raccoon; hence, they call
it the ’Coon Moon.
The Sioux have lived for a long time in the north. They know the effect of the bright sunshine of
March when it shines upon the snowdrifts. It is called the Moon of Snow-blindness.
April is the Egg Moon. It is the moon when the wild geese lay their eggs, and the Indians gather
them for food. The next time you watch the dark triangle of wild geese flying northward, you can
say it is near the time of the Egg Moon of the Dakotas.
May is the Planting Moon. What! You did not know that the copper-colored people planted
anything? Oh, yes, they do! Remember our maize, or Indian corn, is one great gift from them.
June has the prettiest name. Bright, beautiful June that we all love. It is the Strawberry Moon. The
[41]luscious wild strawberries are more delicate in flavor than any grown in the gardens. The wild
Indian has many dainties.
July, our red-white-and-blue month, is their Moon of Red Lilies. Has it ever been your good
fortune to see a vast tract of land covered with these gorgeous wild tiger-lilies? O Moon of Red
Lilies, how beautiful you make our western prairies! In this same moon the wild cherry is ripe, and
many tribes know it as the Cherry Moon.
August is the Ripe Moon. Have you ever heard of the Harvest Moon? Is not that nearly the same
name? Seeds from thistle and the milkweed are filling the air with their downy carriers. Wild
grasses and grains are ready for the gatherers, and the maize will shortly be ready for the
harvest.
While at Lake Superior, some time ago, we saw Chippewa Indians in their birch-bark canoes,
anchored in what seemed to be a very reedy bay. We found out that the bay was filled with wild
rice instead of reeds and rushes. It was the time of their wild-rice gathering. Two moons are given
names referring to wild rice: September is the Ripe-rice Moon; October is often called the Harvest
Moon. With plenty of maize and wild rice the winter is not dreaded. The Indian puts away his
winter stores with much the same care that his white brother uses; he stores corn in pits [42]that
he digs in the earth. He could learn this from the squirrel.
November is the Moon of Michabo, or Indian Summer. Michabo is another name for Menabozho,
the Chippewa Indian’s manitou friend; he has given them this second summer of the year, they
believe.
December is the Moon of Dropping Horns. The deer lose their long antlers about this time, and
the Indians can find them in the forests where the deer trails are.
The Indians have twelve moons in their year, the same number that we have in our calendar. [43]
Mokis ready for a Sacred Dance
From a Photograph
[44]
[Contents]
CUSTOMS OF KICKAPOO, SEMINOLE, AND OTHER TRIBES
The Kickapoo Indians first lived in what is now Illinois. Their present home is in the Indian
Territory. One of their peculiar customs is that they have a tribe whipper who makes his weekly
rounds with his whip to punish children, and in this way the parents save themselves from the
pain of inflicting punishment upon their children. Indians dislike rudeness or noisy behavior when
there should be quiet. Fire-water, as they call whiskey, makes them forget the manners their
parents taught them.
Many of the Seminole Indians live in the Everglades of Florida. They are a tall, dignified,
intelligent race, and resent the visits of white people unless it is shown that the visitor is a friend,
for they have been driven to these Everglades by reason of conquering whites. They live in
roofed huts and cultivate several kinds of crops. They once owned rich lands in upper Florida and
Alabama. Their language is said to be very musical. [45]
The Cherokee and Natchez tribes once lived in Mississippi and Louisiana. They were very wise in
war and had many things which they manufactured in times of peace. They carved curious shell
ornaments, which are often found in southern mounds.
The Flathead Indians of the west bind a piece of stiff board upon the forehead of their papooses.
The child’s head flattens as it grows, and he carries his race mark through life.
The Blackfoot Indians were so called because during a retreat the burnt prairie grass stained their
moccasins as black as the blackest cayuse or pony.
The term Digger Indians has been given to various tribes conquered and driven from their fishing
and hunting grounds. They live almost wholly upon roots of weeds or the few insects and small
animals found in the plains of eastern Utah and the surrounding country. The stronger tribes will
not let them fish in lake or stream, and their whole life is miserable.
The Indians of California were originally very brave and warlike, but the remnants of the tribes are
broken in spirit and seem broken-hearted. Those which have drifted or have been driven by
whites and red men into the peninsula of southern California are much like the Diggers.
The different tribes and nations scattered over America seemed to have known much about
metals, [46]although they used stone arrow points and stone axes when the first explorers visited
their homes.
The copper mines of Lake Superior show yet where the Indians have mined in them. Gold and
silver ornaments were used in many tribes to decorate the braves and their squaws. Shells were
carved with sharp tools and used as ornaments, or cut small into wampum.
Arrowheads were of flint or jasper and were made by the arrow makers of the tribe. It is said each
nation had its own shape of arrowhead. Some preferred very small points; some chose the larger
ones.
The early races of white people in all ancient lands used stone for many purposes. This first
period has been called the Stone Age; this was followed by the Copper Age; then came the Iron
Age. The Indians do not seem to have used iron before white men came, and were living in what
history would call the Stone Age. [47]
[Contents]
THE INDIANS WHO LIVE IN BRICK HOUSES
The native Indians of the southwestern part of the United States were much more civilized when
discovered than the wandering tribes in other parts of the country. They have built adobe houses
for many centuries. These houses of mud, brick, and hewn timbers cannot be removed like the
wigwams, teepees, or wickiups of the other tribes. The Spaniards named these Indians Pueblos,
for pueblo is the Spanish word for village. There are twenty-seven Pueblo towns.
The Pueblos are a peaceful people. They have had time to invent things that astonish the white
men who have seen only the Indians of the wandering tribes.
The pueblo of Zuñi is in New Mexico, about two hundred miles southeast of Santa Fé. This Indian
town was sought for by Coronado and his Spanish soldiers. They had heard marvelous stories of
the silver, gold, and jewels owned by the red people living north of Mexico; but the Pueblos were
brave as well as wise, and the history of that Spanish expedition is sad reading.
The town of Zuñi is built upon a hill, about forty feet above the bank of the river Zuñi; it covers
about [48]fifteen acres. The town is like a great beehive, for the houses are merely rooms built one
over the other, each family living in a few small rooms which are reached by means of ladders.
Some houses are only two stories high, while others are fully five stories. The wealthier Indians
live in the lower houses, except the official whose duty it is to give the orders of the governor from
the housetop. He lives with his family in rooms near the roof. These Zuñi houses are built around
two plazas, or squares, with several streets and covered ways to connect them with the other
parts of the town. The mesa called Thunder Mountain, upon which similar homes were built by
them in ancient times, is very near their peaceful village.
Cliff-dwellings have been found that are entirely deserted, built by a very ancient people of whom
we know little. Curious relics of dishes, cloth, and ornaments are found in these cliff-dwellings, but
no one knows how many centuries since the empty houses were filled with living people, and no
one knows why they were deserted. Some have thought the Zuñis are the descendants of this
lost race; others think them to be like the mound-builders.
The Zuñi Indians weave handsome wool blankets in handmade looms. They invented these
looms themselves. They sell or trade these blankets to Indians of many other tribes. [49]
Three-storied Pueblo Houses in Oraibi
From a Photograph
[50]
The Zuñi and other Pueblos make very good dishes of red clay. Their common cooking ware is
much like the dishes seen in wigwams. They make handsome pitchers, vases, and table dishes
of a brown color. They understand the working and coloring of clay, and the value of the different
kinds. They make a common black ware, which is sometimes used instead of the red ware.
Their very best work is of a cream-white color, and the vases and dishes are handsomely
decorated with colored borders and pictures. Many travelers have brought home fine specimens
of Zuñi dishes, for their town is not far from the railroad.
The Navajos live near the Zuñis. Their hogans, or homes, are not so well made as the Zuñis’
adobe houses; they are low adobe huts. The Navajos find time and have the skill to do some very
good work in metals, although their tools are rude. They make some use of iron, but their best
work is shown in the making and carving of ornaments and other articles of silver. They also have
invented hand looms and are blanket weavers.
All the Pueblos make handsome water-tight baskets of elegant shape from the fibers of the yucca
plant. This plant, sometimes called the Spanish bayonet, from its sharp-pointed leaves, grows to
a great size on the plains. The Pueblos color the fibers in some manner [51]and weave handsome
borders of black, white, or yellow into their baskets. These are used for flour or meal holders, or
for holding water, and are called ollas.
They grind their maize or other grain by hand between stones. They raise turkeys, and, as they
are good weavers, they sometimes use the turkey feathers in weaving a downy cloth.
The Apaches live near the Pueblos and are well known for their love of the warpath. They are not
Village Indians, yet are noted for their fine basket weaving. They use the willows found in their
country instead of the yucca fibers.
The different tribes of Pueblos often use stone axes. It is believed that these are not made by
them but were found in the deserted cliff-dwellers’ homes.
These Village Indians make use of a plant called soaproot, the root of which will make water foam
and will cleanse one’s skin the same as the white man’s soap. The Indian who lives in a teepee
does not know the use of soap and is not anxious for a bath.
White people have lived for years among the Zuñi and other Pueblos and have found them
patient, kind, and intelligent. Some of these whites have returned and have written books about
the people of whose home life they have learned so much.
Some of the habits of the Navajos are very odd. After the death of one of their tribe, his house, or
[52]hogan, is pulled down; if this is not done, every one who enters it fears danger.
A Navajo will not look into the face of the mother of his wife; when they talk together he looks on
the ground or in another direction. It is said a Navajo once forgot himself and, looking up, became
blind. They believe that the souls of the women of their tribe enter fish when they leave this world;
and they rarely eat fish for that reason. Indian customs and manners are taught to their children
with just as much earnestness as white people teach their little ones.
All the Pueblos make curious images or dolls of clay. These may possibly be idols, but are not
always, for both old and young sometimes play with them as toys. They are a religious people.
They believe in a Great Spirit and in a future life. Their forms of worship are very strange and
sometimes cruel.
The tribes called Pueblos of New Mexico are not included with those which continue to live in the
twenty-seven Pueblo towns, for whatever may have been their customs in past centuries, they
are now very different from the Village Indians, who still live and worship after the manner of their
ancestors. [53]
Moki Maiden in Native Costume
From a Photograph
[54]
[Contents]
THE MOKI INDIANS
The Moki Indians live in pueblos the same as the Zuñi people. Their name is also spelled Moqui
and Hopi. The Moki pueblo of Walpi is in Arizona. It is at the end of a mesa or plateau which rises
abruptly seven hundred feet above the desert. It is here that the great snake dance is held each
alternate autumn.
The Moki weave blankets and cloth for dresses, which they exchange with other Pueblos for
ponies, turquoise beads, and silver ornaments for neck or hair.
The Moki maidens, like those of a few other tribes, do not leave their straight black hair hanging
down their backs. These maidens put up their locks in huge puffs over each ear. These puffs are
to represent squash blossoms. The married women braid their hair and sometimes fasten it in a
knot at the back of the head.
All the water used in this elevated pueblo is carried up the seven hundred feet in clay ollas by the
women. It is like a scene in Asia to see them gathered at evening about the springs at the foot of
the mesa. [55]
The Mokis are a very devout people, and their young men are taught daily in the kivas, or secret
rooms, by the wise old men all the sacred rites and wisdom of their fathers.
Among the Mokis the kiva, or estufa, as the Spanish call it, is underground; among the Zuñis it is
above the ground, but entered at the top by a ladder. In it is a sacred flat altar, usually surrounded
by prayer-sticks called bahos. These sticks have a feather fastened at the top, to show that
prayer rises.
These bahos are always planted two or three times a year by the water ways, to do reverence to
the water god who shows himself in the lightning. They believe [56]a serpent is the form lightning
takes when on earth; hence the pictures of these on the prayer-sticks, and sometimes on the
sides of rocks.
There is an order of nuns among the Pueblos called Ko-Ko. These go to the springs in the early
morning and place the bahos in the banks, so that rain may come on the corn, beans, and
pumpkins which have been planted. No one dares to remove one baho.
The Moki Indians have stories of Coronado’s people, who battled with them in 1540. [57]
[Contents]
DAKOTA OR SIOUX
The name the French gave the fierce, strong Dakotas is Sioux, which is the way they pronounced
the name given them by their Algonquin neighbors. This has become the name of the people, and
Dakota is the language which they speak.
They are divided into many bands, each with a chief for a leader. His friends and relatives move
their teepees wherever this chief thinks best on the land the Great Father in Washington has
reserved for them.
They are very brave and have many wise men among them. The chiefs of the bands are always
ready to follow what the head chief of the nation commands. The head chief has learned that the
Great Father in Washington has more warriors than he, and so the Sioux are not sent on the
warpath any more.
The buffalo and antelope are gone from the prairie. There is not meat enough in the woods, and
the warlike Sioux has now to come to the Indian agency to get his rations. It is a fine sight to see
the teepees of the bands when they have gathered at the agency. Even [58]here they show their
respect to the head chief and his followers, for his teepees are placed in the center of the camp.
The greatest chief comes next, and so on, till the weakest band places its teepees last.
The Sioux who have been long in the south do not speak like their northern relatives. For
example, they say Lakota instead of Dakota. The northern bands laugh at their southern brothers,
and think they have been trying to become different. Many Sioux boys and girls are in the schools
at the agencies learning to write and to read in English. They are very quick to learn and can
draw very well.
The Sioux women make such beautiful beadwork that a white woman thought it wise to teach
them to make lace of the choicest kind. The young squaws and some of the Indian boys have
learned to make this rare point lace with care and wonderful neatness. They cannot use it; but the
money they get for it buys food and clothes for them and their relatives. [59]
[Contents]
INDIAN GAMES
The center of the ball ground is chosen. Stakes are set many feet away from the center, on
opposite sides, as the bounds for the game. Two parties of equal numbers are chosen. Each
party chooses its own leader or chief. [60]
The chief of one side drops his ball into the pocket of his bat and tosses it toward the center
ground between the stakes. Both sides rush toward the place where the ball may fall, each brave
hoping he may be the lucky one to catch it; whoever gets the ball tosses it with his bat into the air
toward his side of the grounds. Then the screaming, howling mob of players tears across the field
to the place where the ball may fall again. The ball is thrown and contended for until one side
succeeds in throwing it beyond the bounds of the opposite party.
The prizes for the winning side have hung all this time on the prize pole; and dangling in the air,
waiting the finish of the game, are the knives, tomahawks, blankets, moccasins, fine buffalo and
deerskin robes which the winners will divide among themselves. Indian girls play the same game
and with nearly as much vigor and skill as their brothers.
Always, at these games, the old men and squaws sit or stand at the outside of the ball ground, a
mass of interested spectators.
The ball game in some form, it seems, has been the national game on American soil since before
American history began.
The plum-stone game was and is yet played by the northern Indian tribes. The Dakotas call it
kansookootaype, which simply means “shooting plum-stones.” [61]Each plum-stone is painted
black on one side and red on the other side. The stones are also cut on one side to make them of
different value according to the meaning of the marks cut.
These black and red stones are put into a large shallow dish of clay or metal. The dish is struck
against the nearest object with a sharp blow. The stones fall black or red side up, and the betting
on the number of black or red stones makes the game.
It is pure gambling. The prizes are valuable,—furs, clothing, food, everything goes in the
excitement of the game. An Indian may be beggared in a minute.
Father Hennepin describes the excitement of the game in his Descriptions of Louisiana,
published in Paris in 1683. This book is a description of his travels at that time in the valley of the
Mississippi to the Falls of St. Anthony and beyond. Father Hennepin said:
“There are some so given to the game that they will gamble away even their greatcoat. Those
who conduct the game scream at the top of their voices when they rattle the platter; and they
strike their shoulders so hard as to make themselves black and blue with the blow.”
The Indian boys have their pony races and running matches. They play much like white boys, but
with more cruelty. [62]
[Contents]
SIOUX AND CHIPPEWAS OF MINNESOTA
Each band of Chippewas has yet many stories to tell of the terrible battles with the “nadoway-
sioux,” as the French trappers and hunters call the Algonquin word which means “hidden
enemies.” This warfare began years before the time of our war of the Revolution and did not end
for nearly a century. The Chippewas fought for their new home very bravely, and the Sioux were
just as brave in trying to hold what they believed to be the center of the world and nearest like the
Happy Hunting Grounds of the future life. There is a very extensive view of the Mississippi at its
junction with the Minnesota which is called by the Indians Mendota, or the “gathering of the
waters.” The contending tribes fought fiercely to hold or to obtain this place, for here these red
men, with their love for the beautiful in nature, had decided was where many of their gods liked
best to stay. The building of Fort Snelling at this point and the arrival of white men put a stop to
the battles, and neither tribe could claim Mendota.
The Great Father in Washington made a treaty with the Chippewas whereby they hold much of
their hard-won lake region as long as they keep their treaty promises; now that there is peace
between the Indian [64]nations they are willing to admit that each had many heroes in war and
council.
During the conflict a trader attempted to bargain with the Sioux for furs, after having had dealings
with a band of Chippewas. This band, wild with fury at what they called the trader’s treachery,
broke open his storehouse and destroyed or took all his stores of furs and other articles. They