Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Research paper

Creative Drama and Forum Theatre in initial teacher education:

Fostering students’ empathy and awareness of professional conflicts
Elena Briones, Teresa Gallego*, Raquel Palomera

n, Universidad de Cantabria, Av. de los Castros, 52, 39005, Santander, Spain
Departamento de Educacio

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Two studies examined the impact of a programme that used Creative Drama and Forum Theatre on the
Received 14 July 2021 social, emotional, and ethical skills of student teachers. The first study qualitatively analysed 49 teaching
Received in revised form conflict situations devised by 280 students. The second analysed the programme's effect on 626 students’
5 April 2022
empathy and perception of their teaching-learning processes. The types of conflicts, contexts, and ethical
Accepted 16 June 2022
Available online 30 June 2022
dilemmas involved were categorised. Pedagogical tools and their effect on self-knowledge, perspective-
taking, and socio-moral sensitivity and reflection were favourably assessed. The emotional under-
standing component of empathy significantly improved. The results support a more comprehensive
training of future teachers.
© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction positive actions (Etxebarria, 2020; Read, 2019; Stocks et al., 2009).
Bouton (2016) reviewed some studies on the role that empathy
Conflict is part of school interpersonal relationships, which are plays in teaching (2016) and concluded it should be part of initial
essential in the teaching profession, and often affects the quality of teacher training programmes to enable student teachers to learn to
teaching and relationships and the well-being of the entire manage pupil diversity and develop their social and moral skills.
educational community (Newland et al., 2019; Rodríguez-Mantilla Thus, there is a need to reinforce empathy as an important part of
& Ferna
ndez-Díaz, 2017; Rudasill et al., 2018). However, interper- SEE education, given its usefulness in coping with the conflicts
sonal conflicts are not the only types of conflicts that can be dis- typically found in the teaching profession (Fern
andez Dominguez
tressing; internal moral imperatives in conflict with one another et al., 2009; Murphy et al., 2018; Whitford & Emerson, 2019).
can also cause moral stress, with the ensuing consequences for Drama-based strategies are increasingly used to do this. These
teaching practice and associated feelings such as burnout strategies include Creative Drama (CD) (García-García et al., 2017)
(Colnerud, 2015). and Forum Theatre (FT), both of which are based on the Theatre of
Social, Emotional, and Ethical (SEE) learning provides an op- the Oppressed (Boal, 2006). In CD students fully engage in
portunity for student teachers in Higher Education (HE) to seek emotional, intellectual, verbal, and social processes, as it involves
self-improvement and prepare for coping with the conflicts their taking on other people's roles and deepening their perception
inherent in teaching (Buxarrais et al., 2015; Esca
mez et al., 2008; of the world; and in doing so, they become aware of different hu-
Malm, 2009; Shapira-Lishchinsky, 2011). man values and problems (Gonen & Veziroglu, 2010). For Zillman
The contribution of empathy to responsible decision-making (1994) and Slade (1998), empathy is an essential part of drama, as
has been extensively studied within the context of social and it involves putting ourselves in the situation of others, comparing
emotional skills training (Hoffman, 1992, 2002). Despite the various their moods, motives, and character. Drama also compels people to
existing controversies (Prinz, 2011), there seems to be a consensus communicate with the group, thus developing interpersonal in-
that empathy (or empathic concern) is a source of other moral telligence (Gardner, 1999). The methodology of the Theatre of the
emotions that have a great motivational force and consequent Oppressed has been used to cultivate empathy through dramatic
experimentation, where the spectator becomes a spect-actor and
explores different alternatives for understanding and solving issues
* Corresponding author. (Corsa, 2021). Neuroscientists have found new links between the
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (E. Briones), teresa.gallego@unican. imagination, high-quality learning, high-quality thinking processes
es (T. Gallego), [email protected] (R. Palomera).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103809
0742-051X/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
E. Briones, T. Gallego and R. Palomera Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

and drama (Baldwin, 2004). Along the same lines, novel biological involvement in, and commitment to, the community refers to
evidence has been provided for the impact of drama-based values such as real participation, an open institutional dialogue
improvisation (Seppa €nen et al., 2021). Despite cognitive aware- which includes the families and the community. The ethic of
ness of fictionality, dramatised social rejections elicited psycho- community makes the entire paradigm possible, as it concerns the
physiological reactivity, indicating emotional arousal and negative active involvement of teachers through projects that facilitate the
valence. participation of students, families, and other community agents.
The research question in this paper is focused on assessing the Shapira-Lishchinsky (2011) identified five main categories of
impact that a CD and FT based programme would have on SEE ethical dilemmas by analysing teachers' critical incidents: (1) caring
learning among student teachers. The first hypothesis is that the climate and formal climate, when the teacher's dilemma lies in
programme will raise student teachers' awareness about the con- choosing between personal needs and obeying school rules; (2)
flicts in their profession. The second hypothesis is that the pro- distributive justicedrewards appropriate for effortdand school
gramme will have a positive effect on student teachers‘ empathy standards which follow clear criteria regarding decision-making at
and on their assessment of the teaching-learning process itself. school; (3) confidentiality versus school rules, which depicts the
The theoretical framework for this article builds on several key dilemma between teachers' desire to be discreet and their obliga-
concepts and provides an overview of the conflicts faced by prac- tion to obey school rules; (4) loyalty to colleagues and school
tising teachers. It then goes on to identify the importance of SEE norms; and (5) the educational agenda of the pupil's family versus
learning for student teachers by using various pedagogical re- the school's educational standards. In this classification the formal
sources, in particular, CD and FT. aspect of schools was a component of all ethical dilemma categories
(school rules, school norms, school standards, educational stan-
2. Theoretical background dards), denoting its importance in teachers' decision-making.
Several studies on conflicts faced by teachers have identified the
2.1. Conflicts in the teaching profession relationships between influential agents in work placement edu-
cation (mainly in teacher-student and teacher-teacher relation-
Conflict has been defined as a situation in which an interaction ships) that often experience conflict situations, specifying their
system has two incompatible goals (Galtung, 1965). In intraper- main controversies (e.g., Aultman et al., 2009; Levin, 2002;
sonal conflict, a person has two or more incompatible goals, that is, Lindqvist et al., 2020; Tahull & Montero, 2015).
they have a dilemma. An ethical dilemma involves a choice be- Previous studies have shown a consensus that initial teacher
tween two or more courses of action, when obstacles on either side training should help prepare student teachers so that, when faced
make it difficult to decide which course to follow (Berlak & Berlak, with conflicts, they can choose a course of action that enhances
1981; cited in Shapira-Lishchinsky, 2011). In contrast, interpersonal their work and their well-being (e.g., Colnerud, 2015; Davies &
conflict entails an opposition between the constituent parts of an Heyward, 2019; Ehrich et al., 2011; Shapira-Lishchinsky, 2011).
interactive system (Barrios, 2016), and can be understood either as
something negative, or as a process in the individual's socialisation, 2.2. Social, emotional, and ethical (SEE) skills in initial teacher
development, and moral education. Fransson and Granna €s (2013) training to deal with conflicts in the teaching profession
conceptualised this situation as a dilemmatic space in the context
of teaching practice and the interpersonal relationships that ensue. Literature reviews of initial teacher education have identified
Therefore, there may be ethical implications for the events that some gaps regarding the moral character of education and the
are part of intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts. We can speak professional ethics of teachers (Bolívar, 2005). They have also found
of an ethical conflict or a ‘critical ethical incident’ when a situation that unequal attention has been paid to social and emotional skills
involves a need for reflection on its underlying ethical meaning and education (Lo
pez-Gon ~ i & Gon
~ i, 2012). Although it is a requirement
can be deemed to be a turning point (Shapira-Lishchinsky, 2016). for initial teacher training curricula, this has not resulted into the
Conflicts in the teaching profession have attracted a great deal of development of specific socio-emotional skills subjects and content
research interest, as shown by the efforts to discern and categorise

(Avila France
s, 2016). Additionally, SEE education in teacher
them (Berkowitz, 1995; Colnerud, 1997; Shapira-Lishchinsky, 2011; training curricula in different European countries (Germany, Spain,
Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2005; Veugelers & Vedder, 2003; Windschitl, France, England, and Portugal) gives priority to interpersonal and
2002; Yin, 2015; Zhu et al., 2019). communication skills, followed by professional development skills.
Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) used multiple paradigms to On the contrary, intrapersonal skills receive minimal attention and
approach educational dilemmas: (1) the ethic of justice; (2) the are practically non-existent in the curricula in some countries
ethic of critique; (3) the ethic of care; and (4) the ethic of the (Lo
pez-Gon ~ i & Gon~ i, 2012). This contrasts with findings that per-
profession. This model provides a broad perspective for dealing sonal growth and balance foster healthy and lasting professional
with conflicts caused by complex ethical dilemmas. Along these development (Palomera et al., 2008; Me
rida-Lo

pez et al., 2017;
lines, Escudero (2011) added a fifth type of ethic to these four, Me
rida-Lo
pez & Extremera, 2017).
namely, the ethic of community, developed by Furman (2004). He SEE education for teachers comprises contents, methodological
defined them as follows: (1) the ethic linked to the value of justice principles, and effective techniques to promote SEE skills and an
involves the recognition of, and commitment to, the right to edu- interest in ongoing training. The SEE skills that have been identified
cation, and leads teachers to combat school dropout, and social and as being essential for teachers can be based around intrapersonal,
educational inequalities; and to make organisational and peda- interpersonal, decision-making, and responsible behaviour skills
gogical decisions that encourage cognitive, personal and social (e.g., Collaborative for Academic, Social, & Emotional Learning,
learning; (2) social and critical educational awareness involves CASEL, 2005; Bisquerra, 2005; Buxarrais et al., 2015; Ferna
ndez
critically analysing the aspects that are conducive to education as a Domínguez et al., 2009). Intrapersonal skills lead to self-
locus for reproducing or transforming inequalities; (3) care, sup- knowledge and involve self-awareness and self-management abil-
port, responsibility and personalised education derive from the ities related to learning to be and become a balanced role model
cultivation of values emanating from the ethic of care; (4) training both at school and in life. Interpersonal skills to establish and
and professional development entails constantly developing maintain satisfactory relationships include competences related to
teaching skills and pedagogical renovation projects; and (5) being and living together, such as empathy. Finally, decision-
2
E. Briones, T. Gallego and R. Palomera Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

making skills and responsible behaviour in personal and profes- teaching. This may be useful for student teachers to better cope
sional contexts foster a successful adaptation to the environment with critical incidents in the future (Levin, 2002; Shapira-
and promote the well-being of teachers and pupils. They concern Lishchinsky, 2011). Richards and Farrell (2010, cited in Joshi,
the ability to take action and master how to be and live together. 2018) pointed out that this analysis contributes to increased self-
The capacity for socio-moral reflection enables a critical under- awareness, poses critical questions about teaching, and brings be-
standing of reality and a commitment to ethical and moral liefs to the level of awareness, among other forms of learning.
reasoning, which are essential for dealing with ethical conflicts. Therefore, some in-depth research has been conducted on the
Several principles are used in the design of interventions to specific actions needed for critical incident analysis to lead to
effectively strengthen SEE skills. These are characterised by their successful teacher professional development (Joshi, 2018).
sequential contents and the use of active methodologies, which are The research reviewed highlights the need for initial teacher
focused on distinct constructs and specifically linked to each social training education to ensure that student teachers can find their
and emotional skill (Durlak et al., 2011). The intervention model own authentic ethical voice. This can be done by examining ethical
based on the framework of adult emotional intelligence proposes conflicts and dilemmas via critical thinking and conducting a
various good practices aimed at fostering assessment and reflec- broader analysis of the political, historical, and social contexts that
tion, guided experience, transfer, ongoing support, and follow-up lead to dilemmas, as these are strongly contextualised (e.g., Davies
evaluation (Kornacki & Caruso, 2007). The specific proposals & Heyward, 2019).
made for teacher training include personal experiential training,
theoretical education about the conceptual framework of emotions, 2.3. Creative Drama and Forum Theatre: pedagogical resources to
and the acquisition and teaching of socio-emotional skills (e.g., work on conflicts faced by teachers
Bisquerra, 2005; Fern
andez Domínguez et al., 2009).
Approaches to values education have emphasised the need to Davies and Heyward (2019) encouraged further examination of
provide university students with a solid ethical foundation, both as the use of the problem-based, unscripted theatre scenarios
individuals and as group members (Buxarrais et al., 2015). Dialogue explored by students. They argued that these techniques could
has been identified as an essential part of ethics education, not only unravel the fears and uncertainties that they are likely to encounter
as a procedure but also as a value in itself, since it is a means of in their placements and future professional practice.
promoting one's autonomy and respect for the other (Veugelers, Within the pedagogical potential of the performing arts, CD is a
2008; Veugelers & Vedder, 2003). Students are therefore invited way of using drama that is not focused on delivering an outcome.
to practise and optimise their argumentation and critical thinking CD is centred on the educational process and is aimed at having
skills in order to apply them to life decisions, construct their own learners gradually create a play in a light-hearted way. Improvisa-
sense of morality, make ethical decisions, and participate in a tion is appraised and interpreted to look at contemporary problems
democratic society as citizens (Buxarrais et al., 2015; Gonza
lez- analytically and creatively, thus reflecting and constructing mean-
Geraldo et al., 2017; Puig et al., 2011). Furthermore, promoting ing (Navarro, 2009). One tool to complement CD is FT, a technique
moral sensitivity and self-knowledge seeks to provide an under- used within Augusto Boal's Theatre of the Oppressed (2006). It is
standing of values, and encourage the ability to identify, be aware aligned with Freirean pedagogy in that it empowers spectators and
of, and feel those situations where values are at stake (Buxarrais transforms them into spect-actors (people who both see the play
et al., 2015). and act in it). In FT, a facilitator (joker) discusses the play after the
Evidence from SEE skills education notably draws on pro- performance, and then invites spect-actors to act out their pro-
grammes based on ethical dilemmas, Problem-Based Learning posals for improving the situation, replacing the character of their
(PBL), and teachers' critical incidents, as they contribute to solving choice in the performance space, thus changing the events in the
professional conflicts. The use of moral dilemmas as a didactic script.
strategy in HE leads students to reflect on and analyse different Evidence of the usefulness of CD to enhance SEE skills among
perspectives in depth, respecting and evaluating arguments that trainee teachers includes improved dialogue and listening skills, by
differ from their views, and therefore mobilises critical thinking engaging in clear, effective verbal and non-verbal communication.
skills (Aalberts et al., 2012; Briones and Lara, 2016). Some studies This promotes collaboration and empathy; greater understanding
have shown their potential even for moving towards a post- of human behaviour, its motivations and school situations; greater
conventional morality (Lozano et al., 2006; Meza, 2008; Su
arez & ability and confidence to handle complex situations involving
Meza, 2008) and for forming the identity of student teachers, anxiety and uncertainty; improved self-confidence, self-esteem,
thanks to the emotional and ethical experiences they give rise to self-respect, and self-awareness; and a more meaningful and
(Zhu et al., 2019). These approaches based on moral dilemmas, or rewarding view of teaching, which generates greater motivation
an educational treatment of conflict, are usually accompanied by a and well-being for teachers, thus facilitating their pedagogical
socio-emotional approach that employs other methodologies (e.g., competence (for a thorough review, see García-García et al., 2017).
cooperation dynamics, dialogic literary gatherings). These meth- Moreover, the use of FT in initial teacher training has resulted in
odologies foster awareness and an understanding of the global positive evaluations by participants, due to its great potential to
situation (Torrego et al., 2018), self-esteem, and (the fantasy and stimulate discussion and criticism by promoting complex analyses
empathic concern components of) empathy (Palomera et al., 2017). (Briones et al., 2019; Calvo et al., 2015). The effectiveness of FT in in-
Using PBL in HE has also helped develop critical thinking service teacher training has also been proven. Studies have shown
(Hincapie
Parra et al., 2018; Nún ~ ez-Lo

pez et al., 2017; Quintero that it fosters the understanding of, and the search for solutions to
et al., 2017). Four central learning processes are involved here, social, interpersonal, and individual problems. Other findings have
namely, learning to learn (associative memory and critical been that FT encourages reflection on action and a positive class-
thinking); learning to do (conflict resolution); learning to live room climate (Motos-Teruel & Navarro-Amoro
s, 2012, 2015).
together (group work); and learning to be (fostering autonomy, Studies focused on initial teacher training have agreed that the
judgement, social and personal responsibility, respect) (Di Ber- effectiveness of these techniques depends on their ability to meet
nardo et al., 2004; cited in Nún ~ ez-Lo

pez et al., 2017). Teachers' participants’ needs and to use these experiences as a reference for
critical incident-based education programmes contribute to transfer to real-life situations. Both CD and FT were used in SEE
awareness and understanding of the ethical dilemmas faced in skills education in this study.
3
E. Briones, T. Gallego and R. Palomera Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

3. Overview of the studies above concepts and strategies. This led to the second phase, where
students first engaged in improvised rehearsals of their conflicts in
The University of Cantabria runs a one-semester course entitled each group, in order to perform the conflict in the classroom using
‘Training in Values and Personal Competences for Teachers’ FT techniques.
(TVPCT), which is part of the Basic Training Module for the degrees
Step 5. Once a team acted out their conflict, the facilitator asked
in Early Childhood Education (ECE) and in Primary Education (PE).
the spect-actors (the rest of the students) ‘What happened there?’
This course uses CASEL's (2005) Social and Emotional Learning
and guided the group discussion to analyse the conflict in terms of
(SEL) approach by promoting the development of five interrelated
social, emotional competencies and ethical values (or lack of them).
competences for its SEE education: self-awareness, self-manage-
Then, the team resumed their performance but in the second round
ment, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible
any spect-actor could interrupt the play by saying: Stop! At this
decision-making. Values education is an integral part of this course
point, actors and actresses used freeze frames or body sculptures.
(Buxarrais, 2016; Buxarrais & Martínez, 2009; Centre for
Spect-actors employed drama resources such as hot seating (asking
Contemplative Science and Compassion-Based Ethics (CCSCBE),
a character a question regarding their life or situation to find out
2019) as it strengthens ethical competence, which is considered to
more about the context, for example) and thought tracking (tap-
be the backbone of teacher preparation (CCSCBE, 2019; Ferna
ndez
ping into the mind of a character of interest to listen to their
Domínguez et al., 2009). It aims to foster competencies such as
thoughts or emotions). After the second round, the facilitator
introspection and self-knowledge; emotional and interpersonal
asked: Does anyone have any ideas on how to apply SEE skills to
skills that are essential to understand others and communicate
improve the situation? One by one students could enter the scene
with them; and decision-making skills and responsible, ethical
as spect-actors on a voluntary basis and test their thoughts, wishes,
behaviour in both personal and professional contexts. In line with
strategies and solutions; they could replace a character that they
the studies mentioned above, this methodology prioritises active,
believed could change the course of action in the conflict, thus
cooperative, reflective, introspective, dialogical, and specific pro-
preventing or solving it. The spect-actor took the prop or object
cedures to train student teachers in basic SEE skills for their per-
used by the character and decided at which point in the story they
sonal development. This approach therefore intends to support
wanted to try a new action. Spect-actors could stop the play to use
trainees to develop well-founded, clear personal values by using
drama tools in the new scenes again at any time. In this way, they
dialogical methods in specific situations.
practised SEE skills while they could also see the positive outcomes
The TVPCT programme provides SEE skills training by adapting
of applying them. The rest of actors in the play were asked to ‘listen’
Heathcote's Mantle of the Expert approach to HE (Heathcote &
to the new character using SEE skills and provide an organic
Bolton, 1994). Students are distributed into small expert groups
response. Therefore, drama encouraged students to recognise that
and work through perceived professional conflicts in a holistic way
what they mean and how they say it is determined by the situation
in two phases. Firstly, they implement CD to write a conflict-based
they have created; they ‘role played’ language and actions in
play; and secondly, students perform their conflicts using FT, while
response to their imagined position within the situation that was
their peers analyse and resolve them by applying SEE skills.
improvised (Neelands, 1996).
During the CD phase, students were placed into small groups
The facilitator and all the students could help to model the
(4e7 members in each group) and followed these steps:
competencies by providing external feedback after each new per-
Step 1. Each group was asked to identify three conflicts related to formance. Approximately 1 h was allocated to each conflict.
social interaction, emotions, and values in the teaching profession.
Step 6. Finally, students submitted a report that analysed and
Tutorials and guidance were offered to facilitate the description of
argued proposals for improving the conflict they had acted out. As
the conflict.
mentioned in Step 5, they were able to use references made
Step 2. The lecturer selected one of the conflicts proposed by each available in the online platform and were invited to find additional
group and ensured that it met the requirements and was repre- references and provide some theoretical grounding for their
sentative of the diversity of conflicts presented in the class. proposals.
This paper presents two studies aimed at analysing the impact
Step 3. Each group of students worked on the selected conflict in
that the TVPCT programme, implemented via CD and FT, had on the
detail. Specifically, student teachers were invited to: (a) Think
development of SEE skills among student teachers. The first study
about the three temporal stages of the conflict issue (background,
deals with teacher trainees' awareness of conflicts in their profes-
conflict development, and conflict consequences, without
sion. The second study analyses the effect of SEE training on the
providing a resolution to the conflict). (b) Create images of the three
students’ degree of empathy. It also shows how the participating
key moments, contextualise them, and focus on the consequences
students assessed the usefulness of the drama tools employed for
of the situation/issue for the character(s) involved. (c) Answer these
promoting SEE skills and transferring what they learnt to their lives.
questions: What do the characters say? (dialogue texts) What do
the characters think and feel, and how do they behave? (subtext,
4. Study 1. Student teachers’ awareness of professional
description) (Motos-Teruel & Navarro-Amoro
s, 2015). This is how
conflicts resulting from the TVPCT programme
students constructed the conflict script.
Step 4. Students analysed the conflict by identifying possible 4.1. Method
ethical dilemmas and the status of teachers' social and emotional
skills. They then proposed improvements, thus internalising, and 4.1.1. Design
transferring the course learning outcomes. Resources displayed in A cross-sectional, qualitative design was used to analyse the
an online platform (reading list, videos, rubrics, exercises with key, conflicts in the teaching profession identified by the participating
etc.) and participation in class were essential in completing this student teachers.
task. Concepts and strategies linked to SEE learning were explained
in class. Students carried out practical analytical exercises, debates, 4.1.2. Participants
and role-playing tasks to promote understanding and grasp of the The sample consisted of all first-year students (N ¼ 280) from
the teaching degree in PE (n ¼ 188) and from the degree in ECE
4
E. Briones, T. Gallego and R. Palomera Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

(n ¼ 92) during the 2019e2020 academic year. It was composed of while remaining sensitive to other possible categories, and/or
75.7% women, a percentage that is representative of these degrees. changes to their definitions. Finally, the categories were pooled for
analysis and disagreements were resolved by consensus.
4.1.3. Procedure
Students were divided into 49 working groups (32 from the PE 4.2. Findings
degree and 17 from the ECE degree), with 4e7 members per group
(M ¼ 5.6). Each group worked on a perceived conflict in the A triple classification was chosen for the content analysis of the
teaching profession (Steps 1 to 3). This study used ethical research conflicts. The next section outlines, firstly, the categories created
practices to protect participants' safety, privacy, and confidentiality, based on the (intra- and interpersonal) nature and the situation or
which included both design and implementation. theme that contextualised the conflicts; and secondly, the cate-
gories related to the dilemmas identified in the conflicts, according
4.1.4. Analysis of conflicts faced by teachers to the sets of values encountered.
The content of the conflicts that the students focused on in Step
3 was analysed by the three module leaders (all of them holders of a 4.2.1. Professional conflicts: types and contexts
PhD in Psychology) by following Grounded Theory guidelines The categories relating to the Type of Conflict (TC) faced by
(Glaser & Strauss, 2017). Researcher triangulation ensured the teachers were intrapersonal (TC_A) and interpersonal (TC_B). Of
validity and consistency of the results obtained (Ruiz, 2003). the total number of conflicts, 69.4% fell into both categories. Each
Following Gibbs (2012), a qualitative analysis of the data was conflict was linked to a situation or theme that contextualised it
carried out using inductive and deductive processes for coding (CC). This was categorised and is shown in Table 1, along with the
purposes. After a comprehensive reading of the conflict analyses, correspondence between the two category systems.
the categories were constructed by considering the researchers’ A description of the TCs and their frequency is provided below. It
notes and the theoretical review. This enabled the researchers to is worth noting that different TCs could be identified within the
use technical terminology and to provide an exhaustive definition same conflict (some examples are shown in Table 2).
of each category. They then examined conflicts independently, Intrapersonal conflicts (TC_A) (n ¼ 59) involving the tensions,

Table 1
Classification of situations in which conflicts are contextualised.

Context of the Conflict (CC) Description f Type of Conflict (TC)

CC_A. Focus on pupil diversity: 7

CC_A.1. Abilities When pupils have a disability (e.g., a hearing disability). 1 TC_A.2.1.; TC_A.2.5.; TC_B.2.
CC_A.2. Transsexuality Issues related to transsexual pupils addressed by the educational community. 2 TC_A.1.; TC_A.2.1; TC_A.2.3;
TC_A.2.5; TC_B.2.
CC_A.3. Cultural Reception of pupils from other cultures, or diverse schooling backgrounds of pupils from 3 TC_A.2.1.; TC_B.1.4.; TC_B.2.
abroad.
CC_A.4. Economic Pupils' financial problems that hinder their participation in school activities. 1 TC_A.2.1.; TC_A.2.3.; TC_A.2.5.;
TC_B.1.4.
CC_B. Tolerance of: 2
CC_B.1. Transgender teachers Discriminatory attitudes towards teachers regarding diversity in gender identity or gender 1 TC_A.1.; TC_B.1.1.; TC_B.2.
expression
CC_B.2. Transgender pupils Discriminatory attitudes towards pupils regarding diversity in gender identity or gender 1 TC_A.2.1.; TC_A.2.3.
expression
CC_C. Violence or negligence: 16
CC_C.1. Bullying and/or social exclusion Frequent and intentional violence occurring among pupils in the school context; and acts 8 TC_A.2.1.; TC_A.2.3.; TC_A.2.5.;
of discrimination and rejection. TC_B.1.4.
CC_C.2. School violence (towards Intentional conduct on the part of pupils or their families that causes harm or damage to 5 TC_A.1.; TC_A.2.5.; TC_B.1.1;
teachers) teachers. TC_B.2; TC_B.3.
CC_C.3. School violence (between pupils) Occasional intentional conduct that causes damage or harm to pupils. 1 TC_A.2.3.; TC_A.2.5.; TC_B.1.4.;
TC_B.2.
CC_C.4. Neglect or abuse by the family. The teacher detects and deals with possible child neglect or abuse in the family 2 TC_A.2.3.; TC_A.2.5.; TC_B.1.1.;
environment. TC_B.2.
CC_D. Teacher burnout (origins and/or Emotional fatigue, depersonalisation, and low sense of fulfilment among teachers for 3 TC_A.1; TC_B.1.1.; TC_B.1.2.
consequences) different reasons (poor relationships with colleagues, overwork, perception of low self-
efficacy).
CC_E. Emotional and life problems: 11
CC_E.1. Among pupils Students' emotional problems or family situations that interfere with the academic 1 TC_A.2.3.; TC_A.2.5.; TC_B.1.4.
environment (alcoholism, dysfunctional families).
CC_E.2. Among teachers Emotional problems or family situations that interfere with teaching (anxiety, separation/ 10 TC_A.1.; TC_A.3.; TC_B.1.1.;
divorce, work-life balance, poor health of family members, or out-of-work problematic TC_B.2.
situations).
CC_F. Difficulties encountered by teachers in the face of: 7
CC_F.1. Communication with families The teacher's communication with families. 1 TC_A.1.; TC_A.2.4.; TC_B.2.
CC_F.2. Lack of motivation among pupils When the teacher is expected to motivate pupils to be interested and disciplined in 1 TC_A.1.; TC_B.1.1.
academic tasks.
CC_F.3. School dropout Poor results achieved by pupils with respect to the objectives proposed for their level, age, 3 TC_A.2.3.; TC_A.2.5.; TC_B.1.1.;
and development. TC_B.1.3.; TC_B.1.4.; TC_B.2.
CC_F.4. Participation Collaboration and involvement of teachers in school activities. 1 TC_B.1.1.; TC_B.1.3.; TC_B.1.5.
CC_F.5. Bereavement Informing the other pupils that one of their peers is experiencing a bereavement process 1 TC_A.1.; TC_A.2.3.; TC_B.1.4.
Difficulties derived from conflicts related to roles and family relationships that interfere 2 TC_A.3.; TC_B.1.1.; TC_B.1.2;
with teaching performance and well-being in the school. TC_B.1.4.
(continued on next page)

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E. Briones, T. Gallego and R. Palomera Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

Table 1 (continued )

Context of the Conflict (CC) Description f Type of Conflict (TC)

CC_G. Relationships with partner and

family affecting professional
performance.
CC_H. New technologies, educational Difficulties for teachers arising from the use of new curricular materials and technologies. 3 TC_A.2.1.; TC_A.2.2.; TC_A.2.4.;
innovation, and social media. TC_B.1.1.; TC_B.1.3.; TC_B.1.4.

Note. The frequency corresponds to the number of conflicts that were contextualised within the thematic areas indicated. There is no coincidence with the number of TCs, as
one conflict may encompass different TCs.

Table 2
Examples of conflicts and categories according to three criteria: Type of Conflict (TC), Context of Conflict (CC) and Ethical Dilemma (ED).

Examples of conflicts Type of Conflict & Context Ethical

of Conflict Dilemma

No. 1: ‘I didn't go to university to do this’. A teacher starts her first job at a small school, where she is the youngest teacher. Her TC_A.1. ED_A1
TC_B.1.2.
colleagues give her secretarial and janitorial duties to do. Because she is shy and scared of being rejected, she agrees to do these tasks. ED_A2
As a result, she starts to show some symptoms of burnout. CC_D.
No. 47: ‘Trapped by circumstances’. Valentina and her family have to go to Argentina due to a family matter at the beginning of the TC_A.2.1. ED_A3
school year and cannot return until five months later. Valentina then joins her class again and is well-integrated, but the faculty TC_B.1.4.
members have different views as to whether she should move up to the next year. Her parents refuse to accept that she should retake TC_B.2.
the same year. CC_A.3.
No. 24: ‘Back to school’. Paula, a new mother, after returning from maternity leave, faces a situation of stress and physical and TC_A.3. ED_A1
psychological fatigue, given her professional and family duties. This situation begins to affect her performance, and she receives an TC_B.1.1.
official warning from management. CC_E.2.
No. 32: ‘In trouble’. Polly is an English assistant who is very excited about starting to work in a bilingual school. As support demands TC_B.1.1. ED_A2
related to her tasks exceed the scope of the contract, her enthusiasm as a teacher fades away. Polly can no longer cope with this TC_B.1.2.
feeling of injustice. CC_D.
No. 18: ‘United by difficulty’. A teacher is worried because a boy is bullying one of his classmates, but she does not know how to deal TC_A.2.3. ED_A3
with it. At the meeting with the parents, she is faced with a conflict: each of the parents has a different view on the matter. TC_B.2.
CC_C.1.
No. 42: ‘Dodging the issue’. Carlos has a pupil who behaves badly towards him in class. He talks to the pupil's parents, but they do not TC_ A.2.5. ED_A3
believe him. Their son behaves very well at home. They believe that the teacher is to blame for their child's behaviour. TC_B.2.
TC_B.3.
CC_C2

dilemmas and decisions that come into play in a situation, which ensure that they performed their role successfully.
demand taking a stance personally and/or professionally. This Community involvement and engagement (TC_A.2.5.) (n ¼ 11).
category comprised the following subcategories: Values such as genuine participation and an open institutional
Perception of vulnerability or insecurity (TC_A.1.) (n ¼ 8). This dialogue with families and the community were implemented
included fear of being rejected by fellow teachers and insecurity when there were issues that made it difficult to involve all the
about one's ability to correctly deal with situations faced in agents in the school (teaching staff, pupils, families, community).
teaching, such as motivating pupils, communicating with families, This was either due to the lack of involvement of teachers, or to
and supporting grieving pupils, aggression among themselves, or in opposition from the parents' association, other teachers, or other
the process of developing their gender identity. pupils’ families.
Professional ethics (TC_A.2.), which were put to the test by con- Personal, family and work balance (TC_A.3.) (n ¼ 11), which
flicts related to these types of ethics (Escudero, 2011): caused tension between the responsibilities of one's psychological,
Recognition of, and commitment to, the right to education social, and family experiences and the responsibilities arising from
(TC_A.2.1.) (n ¼ 8). This ethic was linked to the value of justice. It teaching. This category was identified in conflicts that revealed
was identified in cases where the teacher had to take a stance on teachers' difficulties in carrying out their work in demanding sit-
how to approach the educational and economic differences be- uations, as a result of emotional and life issues (anxiety, depression,
tween pupils, and the tolerance of non-normative identities. adjustment problems, bereavement, addictions, childhood trauma,
Social awareness and educational criticism (TC_A.2.2.) (n ¼ 1). family overload).
Criticism as a value manifested itself in a case where a teacher took Interpersonal conflicts (TC_B.) (n ¼ 62) in situations in which
a stance regarding whether to question the work of a colleague, in there was disagreement between parties forming an interactive
response to well-founded complaints made by her pupils. system (Barrios, 2016), which involved perceptions of incompatible
Care, support, responsibility, and personalised education goals by at least two individuals (Infante, 1998). These were iden-
(TC_A.2.3.) (n ¼ 17). The ethic of care had a strong role in the tified among three of the core agents: fellow teachers, pupils, and
conflicts that involved teachers facing the diverse needs of pupils in families.
difficult situations (school bullying and social exclusion, family Interpersonal conflicts with colleagues (TC_B.1.) (n ¼ 39) for the
abuse, bereavement, economic difficulties, school dropout, and following reasons, which accounted for the subcategories outlined
intolerance of transsexuality). below:
Training and professional development (TC_A.2.4.) (n ¼ 3). The Need for closeness and support (TC_B.1.1.) (n ¼ 20). Tensions
ethic of the profession was evident in conflicts that portrayed caused by the need for, or perceived lack of, support, trust, identity,
teachers with poor skills related to communication, new technol- or group cohesion. These tensions could cause feelings of isolation
ogies, or in dealing with social exclusion in the classroom. These and loneliness among teachers, which could give rise to some
required them to engage in ongoing professional development to subgroups. This was identified both among teachers, and among

6
E. Briones, T. Gallego and R. Palomera Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

teachers and the management team, and was linked to the teaching protection, and therefore, strictly comply with the provisions in
staff's emotional and life issues (anxiety, adaptation problems). their contract, or alternatively, move towards values such as ser-
Challenging situations were also identified when dealing with vice, collaboration, and empathy, engaging in behaviours that
violence and school bullying, pupils' sense of failure and demoti- somewhat involve performing the tasks that are requested of them.
vation, relationship problems, burnout, or intolerance of their Acceptance of values vs. critical reflection on values (ED_A.3.)
transsexuality. (n ¼ 18). This dimension spans from the acceptance of one's and
Role confusion (TC_B.1.2.) (n ¼ 4). Teachers' boundaries and others' set values (to which one feels committed) to questioning
roles were not clearly defined, so they had to negotiate and rene- and expanding these values by opening up to reflection, criticism,
gotiate the rules. These conflicts were related to situations that and dialogue. For example, in conflicts numbers 18, 42 and 47
fuelled confusion, such as the presence of family relationships in (Table 2), two avenues could be taken. One entails affirming the
schools or major differences between teachers in terms of job school's values of discipline and justice in order to make a decision,
seniority or decision-making power. They were also linked to the which probably means maintaining the institutional position and
origin and consequences of burnout. taking measures in line with the school's regulations. The other
Negative reciprocity (TC_B.1.3.) (n ¼ 4). In a team of teachers, avenue would involve reflecting on and contextualising those
each member may either feel supported by the others to achieve values, while moving closer to others and resorting to flexibility,
their goals (positive reciprocity), or find that their colleagues are an dialogue, and trust. This would require engaging in discussion to
obstacle (negative reciprocity) (Bonals, 1996). This TC was identi- reach consensus and being willing to accept mistakes.
fied when teachers' aspirations for educational innovation were
restricted by the reaction of the educational community. 4.3. Discussion
Divergent attitudes (TC_B.1.4.) (n ¼ 10) to educational or pro-
fessional issues (e.g., focus on diversity, school dropout, child The categorisation of the conflicts produced by student teachers
bereavement, family neglect, educational methodologies), some- in this learning experience provides an overview of the potential of
times exacerbated by emotional issues. They could lead to CD for real-life based teaching.
confrontation rather than dialogue, fostered by reduced perme- The participating student teachers identified these conflicts and
ability and rigidity of the individual or group. demonstrated their awareness of their complexity, given their
Inability to participate in the school (TC_B.1.5.) (n ¼ 1). This was twofold intrapersonal nature (perception of vulnerability, profes-
linked to whether leaders sought to facilitate or hinder dialogue sional ethics, and personal, family and work-life balance) and
and the participation of educational agents, mainly teachers. interpersonal nature (involving teachers, school management,
Interpersonal conflicts with families (TC_B.2.) (n ¼ 18). Confron- families, and pupils). Most of the conflicts encompassed both
tations between teachers and/or school management, on the one intrapersonal and interpersonal categories. All of them entailed at
hand, and families, on the other. These could result from different least one ethical dilemma and were contextualised within a broad
concerns about and views on various issues, such as tolerance of range of issues. This complexity reflects their dilemmatic spaces, as
and focus on diversity, school dropout, and various types of school defined by Fransson and Granna €s (2013), which make it possible to
violence, caused by emotional and life difficulties and poor skills of view conflicts and their ethical dilemmas in the context of teaching
those involved. practice and in the ensuing interpersonal relationships.
Interpersonal conflicts with pupils (TC_B.3.) (n ¼ 5). Confronta- This study also included a rich categorical differentiation of
tions between teachers and pupils characterised by violence to- conflicts according to their nature and the situation in which they
wards teachers. The context involved complex situations where are contextualised, together with a dimensional analysis of ethical
there was child abuse or the need to support dysfunctional families. dilemmas. Some of the categories overlapped with those of other
studies on conflict in the teaching profession. Some conflicts re-
4.2.2. Ethical dilemmas flected each of the ethics in the teaching profession posed by
All teaching conflicts raised at least one Ethical Dilemma (ED); Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) and Escudero (2011), the main focus
some of them posed up to three dilemmas. These dilemmas were being the ethic that promotes the values of care, responsibility, and
categorised according to the dimensional proposal made by personalised teaching. Some previous studies have also agreed on
Veugelers and Vedder (2003). Each category describes the di- the prominence of this ethic of care within conflicts faced by
mensions along which some sets of values vary, as shown below: teachers (Aultman et al., 2009; Colnerud, 1997; Lindqvist et al.,
Person vs. society-oriented care (ED_A.1.) (n ¼ 8). This includes 2020). Other intrapersonal conflicts were also identified,
values linked to personal care and well-being, as opposed to including the perception of vulnerability or insecurity in carrying
orientation towards and care for others. ‘Others’ could be people out the teaching role. This is similar to teachers' deep fears as
(students, families, peers), a school, or society as a whole. Conflicts detected in other studies using FT with in-service teachers (Motos-
numbered 1 and 24 outlined in Table 2 show the dilemma derived Teruel & Navarro-Amoro
s, 2012), and the tension associated with
from attention to emotional balance. This dilemma could lead an efforts to reach personal, family, and work balance. These internal
individual to leave their job or ask for support if the situation did moral imperatives in conflict with one another can cause moral
not improve, in opposition to the value of job responsibility, which stress (Colnerud, 2015) and help understand teachers' feelings of
may result in a constant self-demand to remain in the job. burnout. This syndrome has a high prevalence in the teaching
Independence vs. conformity (ED_A.2.) (n ¼ 37). Privacy and au- profession, ranging from 11 to 35.5% depending on the country and
tonomy (and taking one's personal stance) are placed in opposition the study considered (Gil-Monte et al., 2011; Ratto et al., 2015;
to receptiveness to others, which sometimes leads to conformity. In Villaverde et al., 2019; cited in Llorca-Pellicer et al., 2021).
this dimension, independence entails freedom, autonomy, personal As in previous studies (e.g., Aultman et al., 2009; Levin, 2002;
coherence, integrity, resilience, and personal strength. Having an Lindqvist et al., 2020), some of the conflicts dealt with the re-
honest, internal acquiescence that is close to acceptance is often lationships between the different educational agents, especially
accompanied (or even inspired) by values such as harmony, coop- with colleagues. In particular, these conflicts with colleagues
eration, adaptation, and community awareness. For example, in involved perceived lack of support, trust, identity, and group
conflict number 1 and in conflict number 32 (Table 2), the pro- cohesion in demanding personal and/or professional situations,
tagonist could be oriented towards justice, self-care, self- which may not have received the attention they deserved in the
7
E. Briones, T. Gallego and R. Palomera Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

literature (Tahull & Montero, 2015). The ethical dilemmas identified 2008). This instrument consisted of two cognitive factors of
core values in education, focusing on justice and well-being, as well empathy: perspective-taking, composed of eight items, and defined
as on a sense of social commitment and responsibility. It became as the intellectual or imaginative ability to put oneself in another
apparent that they differed in the dimensions related to person- person's place (AY 2018e19: a 1 ¼ 0.76; a 2 ¼ 0.77; AY 2019e20: a
oriented versus society-oriented care, independence versus con- 1 ¼ 0.70; a 2 ¼ 0.73); and emotional understanding, which used
formity, and less attention was paid to the divergence between nine items to measure the ability to recognise and understand the
acceptance of values and critical reflection on values (Veugelers & emotional states, intentions and impressions of others (AY
Vedder, 2003). Shapira-Lishchinsky (2011) also noted that their 2018e19: a 1 ¼ 0.67; a 2 ¼ 0.67; AY 2019e20: a 1 ¼ 0.68; a 2 ¼ 0.67).
main dilemmas showed an opposition between personal elements It was also made up of two affective factors (with eight items each):
and more social and institutional elements. empathic stress, which assesses the ability to share the negative
The classification of the themes that contextualised conflicts emotions of others (AY 2018e19: a 1 ¼ 0.80; a 2 ¼ 0.79; AY
provided a realistic and topical range of situations experienced in 2019e20: a 1 ¼ 0.79; a 2 ¼ 0.76); and empathic joy, which measures
schools. In this way, various real-life emotional problems, types of the ability to share the positive emotions of others (AY 2018e19: a
violence faced by teachers, and a focus on diversity were promi- 1 ¼ 0.77; a 2 ¼ 0.76; AY 2019e20: a 1 ¼ 0.71; a 2 ¼ 0.74). All items
nently featured. This thematic classification reflected how conflicts were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 ¼ ‘Strongly disagree’;
were deeply rooted in the political, historical, and social contexts 5 ¼ ‘Strongly agree’).
where they occurred (Davies & Heyward, 2019; Thornberg & Oguz, Assessment of the pedagogical resources of the TVPCT programme.
2016). For example, the participating student teachers were aware Four items were included on an ad hoc basis to assess the perceived
of the need to promote an ethic of diversity and citizenship edu- usefulness of the different pedagogical resources. A 5-point Likert
cation (e.g., Banks, 2004; Torrego et al., 2018), and the tolerance of, scale was used to do so (1 ¼ ‘not at all useful’; 5 ¼ ‘very useful’).
and focus on, diversity, due to the presence of transsexual pupils Three items dealt with the main activities used in CD and FT
and teachers. Therefore, social, political and media developments (identification of teachers' personal and interpersonal problems;
related to LGTBI-phobic bullying were addressed during the analysis of SEE skills in the conflicts faced by teachers; and per-
training programme, as well as the major debates on the Law for formance). One last item encompassed other activities in the pro-
Real and Effective Equality for Transgender People that were gramme (identification of one's own values, individual stance and
happening in Spain at the time. argumentation, and debates on a proposed moral dilemma). A
This study showed the potential of focusing on SEE skills in factor analysis showed that the items were clustered into a single
initial teacher training using drama-based pedagogical techniques. factor, with an explained variance of 53.97% in AY 2018e19, and of
It illustrated that they can be helpful tools in addressing complex 52.29% in AY 2019e20. Reliability was adequate at both time points
conflicts and ethical dilemmas in the teaching profession. This also (a ¼ 0.71 and a ¼ 0.69, respectively).
pointed to the need for conflicts and dilemmas to originate from Contribution of the TVPCT programme to their lives (Briones et al.,
student teachers themselves. The study that will be discussed 2015). This 22-item scale measures the extent to which learners
below aimed to test the effect that CD and FT can have on teacher apply the SEE skills education in their behaviour both within the
trainees’ perceived learning and on empathy, one of the key SEE classroom and in the outside world. These items were rated on a 5-
skills. point Likert-type scale (1 ¼ ‘did not contribute to my life at all’, and
5 ¼ ‘made a strong contribution to my life’). The scale showed
5. Study 2. Analysis of the effect of the TVPCT programme on adequate reliability overall (a ¼ 0.96); moreover, the factor analysis
empathy and on the assessment of the teaching-learning confirmed its three-factor structure (63.6% variance explained):
process among student teachers
1) One's meta-knowledge: personal learning about one's own
5.1. Method values and behaviours and their consequences (six items, e.g.,
‘Becoming more aware of my values and anti-values when making
5.1.1. Design decisions’; a ¼ 0.89).
A longitudinal analytical design was used to study the effects of 2) Perspective-taking or learning linked to consideration, respect,
the TVPCT programme on the level of empathy of student teachers. and tolerance of other opinions (nine items, e.g., ‘Understanding
A cross-sectional and descriptive design was also employed to ideas other than my own’; a ¼ 0.92).
assess the perceived usefulness of the pedagogical resources used 3) Socio-moral sensitivity and reflection: meta-knowledge of one's
for learning SEE skills and their contribution to their lives. participation in the training programme, and transfer of what
has been learned, addressing skills such as moral sensitivity,
5.1.2. Participants socio-moral reflection, and critical understanding of reality
The total sample of participants was 626 students, with an (seven items, e.g.: ‘Identifying situations in which Human Rights
average age of 19.03. They were all in their first Academic Year (AY) are put at risk’; a ¼ 0.90).
of the degree in PE (AY 2018e19 ¼ 204; AY 2019e20 ¼ 217) and the
degree in ECE (AY 2018e19 ¼ 110; AY 2019e20 ¼ 95).
A total of 314 teacher trainees participated in AY 2018e19, of 5.1.4. Procedure
whom 35% were students from the ECE degree and 65% from the PE The student teachers in the sample were asked to participate on
degree. Of these students, 165 took part in both the pre-test and the a voluntary basis (at the beginning and at the end of the first se-
post-test (79.4% female, average age 18.82, SD ¼ 3.07). mester). They were informed of the purpose of the study and of
In the AY 2019e20, 312 students participated in the study, of their right to cease participation at any time. Participants answered
whom 30% were students from the ECE degree and 70% from the PE an online questionnaire individually during class hours using their
degree. Of the total sample, 119 students took part in both the pre- smartphones. They did so on an anonymous basis, employing a
test and the post-test (75% female, mean age 19.16, SD ¼ 3.46). system of personal codes. In AY 2018e19 they completed the
empathy scale twice: pre-test, at the beginning of the semester and
5.1.3. Variables and instruments the course, and post-test, at the end of the semester. In the post-test

pez-Pe
Self-report on cognitive and affective empathy (Lo
rez et al., they also answered a questionnaire to assess the pedagogical
8
E. Briones, T. Gallego and R. Palomera Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

Table 3 Table 5
Descriptive statistics on empathy factors before and after the TVPCT programme in One-sample t-test statistics and results (with respect to value 3, midpoint of the
two academic years. measuring scale).

Factors AY 2018e2019 AY 2019e2020 t M SD

Pre TVPCT Post Pre TVPCT Post One's meta-knowledge 17.085*** 4.13 0.74
TVPCT TVPCT Perspective-taking 16.966*** 4.11 0.73
Sensitivity and socio-moral reflection 13.614** 3.94 0.77
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Note. Degrees of freedom were 123, and the results were significant (**p < .01;
Perspective-taking 3.84 0.52 3.85 0.50 3.77 0.55 3.8 0.52
***p < .001).
Emotional understanding 3.63 0.47 3.71 0.46 3.64 0.49 3.75 0.45
Empathic stress 3.33 0.69 3.32 0.70 3.19 0.79 3.21 0.68
Empathic joy 4.32 0.42 4.28 0.44 4.28 0.50 4.33 0.46
5.2.2. Assessment of the teaching-learning process in the TVPCT
programme
The assessment of the usefulness of the teaching resources
resources used. In AY 2019e20 they filled in the same empathy
employed was analysed by using t-tests with respect to the
scale again at two points in time. In the post-test they also
midpoint of the measurement scale (3). The results showed that the
completed the questionnaire to assess the pedagogical resources
mean scores on all items were significantly above the midpoint
employed and the questionnaire on the contribution that the
(p < .001) for both 2018e19 and 2019e20. In addition, the related
TVPCT programme had made to their lives.
sample t-test performed to compare the rating of teaching re-
The study met the applicable ethical standards. It followed the
sources in each AY revealed no significant differences. Therefore,
Code of Good Practice of the Spanish National Research Council
the participants assessed all the resources employed in the TVPCT
(CSIC) (2011) and of the Ethics Committee for Research in the Hu-
programme positively (see Table 4). The analysis of effect size of the
manities and Social Sciences of the University of Cantabria.
differences previously observed between the two academic years
using Cohen's d showed significant results (Table 4), although effect
size was small for all variables (Cohen, 1988).
5.1.5. Data analysis The analysis of how participants assessed the contribution of the
Data were analysed using t-tests and Cohen's d. SPSS 22.0 was TVPCT programme to their lives (only for AY 2019e20) using a t-
employed in the analysis. test with respect to the midpoint of the scale (3) showed that the
mean scores were significantly higher, hence positive. The related
samples t-test indicated significant differences in the comparisons
5.2. Findings between the factor ‘socio-moral sensitivity and reflection’ and the
other two factors, namely, ‘one's meta-knowledge’ and ‘perspec-
The next section examines the impact that the TVPCT pro- tive-taking’. Consequently, the students perceived the contribution
gramme had on the participants' empathy and their final assess- of the programme to be lower for the factor ‘socio-moral sensitivity
ment of the teaching-learning process. and reflection’ (p < .01; see statistics in Table 5).

6. Discussion
5.2.1. Effect of the TVPCT programme on student teachers’ empathy
In AY 2018e19, significant differences were observed on pre- The use of CD and FT in the TVPCT programme to address
post measures of empathy for the factor ‘emotional understand- conflicts faced by teachers had a favourable impact on student
ing’ (t(1,164) ¼ 2.25, p < .05), but not for the other factors teachers' cognitive empathy, although it should be noted that high
(‘perspective-taking’ (t(1,164) ¼ 0.50), ‘empathic stress’ average scores had been recorded from the outset. Therefore, it was
(t(1,164) ¼ 0.24) and ‘empathic joy’ (t(1,164) ¼ 1.02)). only participants' perceptions of their emotional understanding
The same result was obtained in AY 2019e20, as the significant that had improved. This skill provides a controlled process of self-
differences found in the pre-post measures of empathy only con- awareness and prevents emotional contagion automatically trig-
cerned the factor ‘emotional understanding’ (t(1,118) ¼ 2.68, gered by another person's emotional state (Decety & Jackson,
p < .05). Despite their increase, the differences observed in 2004). This is essential in order not to lose objectivity in teaching
‘perspective-taking’ (t(1,118) ¼ 0.75), ‘empathic stress’ practice. No significant impact on perspective-taking was observed,
(t(1,118) ¼ 0.25) and ‘empathic joy’ (t(1,118) ¼ 0.95) remained perhaps because the pedagogical resources used were more
non-significant. The descriptive statistics of these analyses are focused on emotionally understanding others than on using
shown in Table 3. different points of view. In this regard, it seems apt to recall the
Effect size of the differences in emotional understanding pre- approach of Weisz and Zaki (2017), who argued that empathy
viously observed between the post-tests of the two academic years training must teach people how to empathise with others (expe-
was calculated using Cohen's d (0.09), with an effect size rience or express empathy) but should also train them to want to
r ¼ 0.04, which therefore showed a significant, albeit small, dif- empathise with others. This motivation is related to the controlled
ference (Cohen, 1988). cognitive process involved in (complex and necessary) perspective-

Table 4
Descriptive statistics on the assessment of the teaching resources used in the TVPCT programme.

Academic year Identification Conflict analysis Performance Other tasks

M SD M SD M SD M SD

2018e19 3.97 0.96 3.90 0.95 3.98 0.95 3.95 0.93

2019e20 4.26 0.85 4.24 0.85 4.25 0.95 4.21 0.82
Cohen's d (r) 0.32 (0.16) 0.37 (0.18) 0.28 (0.14) 0.29 (0.14)

9
E. Briones, T. Gallego and R. Palomera Teaching and Teacher Education 117 (2022) 103809

taking (Rameson & Lieberman, 2009). Along these lines, Keysers 2011).
and Gazzola (2014) proposed that programmes aimed at fostering Higher Education programmes that use this type of approach to
empathy should adopt a multivariate landscape of empathy ca- the training of SEE skills also seek to prepare student teachers for
pacities and propensities shaped by attentional and motivational their future role by incorporating these aspects into their personal
factors. and professional development. This can be a healthy means of
In contrast, no significant changes were found in the emotional coping with teaching and social responsibilities and promoting
dimensions of empathy (empathic stress and empathic joy). The social cohesion, by taking a critical stance in the face of social de-
lack of increase in empathic stress seems desirable, as a strong mands (Bergan, 2019; Trillo et al., 2018; Veiga et al., 2019). It is also
ability to share another person's negative emotions, when com- consistent with the recommendations made by Shapira-
bined with a lack of healthy emotional self-regulation, can lead to Lishchinsky (2011) for teachers' professional development pro-
situations of personal stress or professional burnout (Wagaman grammes, focusing on social justice by learning how to integrate
et al., 2015). As empathic joy recorded very high mean scores justice and care. In this sense, empathy has shown to be a key
from the start, there was no need or opportunity for improvement. promoter of these two moral targets (Baez et al., 2017). At the same
The pedagogical resources employed were highly regarded. time, these future teachers were trained to be ‘teacher-artists’, in
These included promoting clarity in values, discussing a proposed the words of Bowell and Heap (2005). This will give them the ability
dilemma, and CD and FT applied to a conflict created by the to meld their pedagogical standing and skill with an aesthetic craft
different student teachers' groups, among others. The results and sensibility.
confirmed that these tools were well received by the participants,
as they perceived their usefulness for learning the contents of the References
course. The students reported that these tools had contributed to
them meeting the objectives of the programme, including knowl- Aalberts, J., Koster, E., & Boschhuizen, R. (2012). From prejudice to reasonable
judgement: Integrating (moral) value discussions in university courses. Journal
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