The terms cement and concrete are often times use interchangeable. Cement is actually and ingredient in concrete.

Concrete is a mixture of aggregates and paste. The aggregates are sand and gravel or crushed stones; the paste is water
and Portland cement. Cement is an excellent binding agent due to the adhesive properties but the aggregates in the
concrete blending process makes concrete stronger than cement. On its own, cement is prone to cracking.

Portland cement is made of a few primary substances including limestone, sand or clay, bauxite and iron ore. It may also
include shells, chalk, marl, shale, slag and slate. The different components are mixed and heated in cement processing
plants to form a rock-hard substance called clinker. The clinker is then ground down to the powder that can be mixed
with water to form a paste.

Concrete is a durable building material that uses cement as a component. The four primary ingredients are cement,
stone, sand and water. The less water added to the concrete mixture, the stronger it will be. The water used in the
process activates the cement, which acts as binding agent. The aggregates are bound together by cement. Mixes that
use larger aggregates tend to be stronger than those with finer aggregates.

The quality of the concrete matters. The mixture needs to be workable. Less water makes it stronger but if it is too dry it
wouldn't be able to get in place

The strength of concrete is measured in pounds per square inch or kilograms per square centimeter of force needed to
crush a sample of a given age or hardness. Concrete’s strength is affected by environmental factors, especially
temperature and moisture.

Ordinary concrete, also known as normal weight concrete, is a type of concrete that is made using a combination of
cement, water, aggregate (typically gravel and sand), and air. It is referred to as “ordinary” or “normal weight” because
it has a typical unit weight of around 2,400 to 2,800 kg/m3, which is the weight of the solid ingredients used to make the
concrete.
Ordinary concrete is a versatile and widely used building material that can be used for a variety of applications, including
foundations, walls, beams, columns, slabs, pavements, and sidewalks. It is relatively low-cost and easy to work with,
making it an attractive option for many construction projects. However, it also has some limitations, such as relatively
low strength and limited durability in certain harsh environments, which may require the use of specialized concrete
mixtures for specific applications.

Heavyweight concrete is produced using heavy aggregates and is typically used for radiation shielding,
counterweighting, medical applications and offshore ballast for pipelines. It can reach densities as high as 400 lbs/ft
while maintaining physical properties similar to normal-weight concrete. Transported much like traditional ready mix
concrete, but due to its high density and weight properties

High strength concrete is a type of concrete with a compressive strength that is higher than the typical range for normal
weight concrete, which is typically in the range of 20 to 60 MPa (2,000 to 6,000 psi). Concrete with a compressive
strength greater than 60 MPa is considered to be high strength concrete.
High strength concrete is used in a variety of applications where the loads it will be subjected to are significant and
where a higher level of strength is required, such as in bridges, high-rise buildings, and other large structures. It is also
used in specialized applications where high strength is necessary, such as in nuclear power plants and other critical
infrastructure.
High strength concrete is typically made using a higher amount of cement and/or a lower water-cement ratio than
normal weight concrete, resulting in a higher compressive strength. It is also often made using higher-quality aggregate
materials, which may be denser and stronger than the aggregate used in normal weight concrete.
To achieve high strength, specialized concrete mixtures are used, which may include the use of high-performance
cement, supplementary cementing materials (such as fly ash or slag), and/or chemical admixtures that alter the setting
time, workability, or other properties of the concrete.
While high strength concrete has many advantages, it can also be more expensive and more difficult to work with than
normal weight concrete. Careful consideration should be given to the suitability of high strength concrete for specific
applications, as well as to the design and construction practices used to ensure its quality and durability.
Pervious concrete (also called porous concrete, permeable concrete, no fines concrete and porous pavement) is a
special type of concrete with a high porosity used for concrete flatwork applications that allows water from precipitation
and other sources to pass directly through, thereby reducing the runoff from a site and allowing groundwater recharge.
Pervious concrete is made using large aggregates with little to no fine aggregates. The concrete paste then coats the
aggregates and allows water to pass through the concrete slab. Pervious concrete is traditionally used in parking areas,
areas with light traffic, residential streets, pedestrian walkways, and greenhouses. It is an important application for
sustainable construction and is one of many low impact development techniques used by builders to protect water
quality.

Shotcrete, gunite, or sprayed concrete is concrete or mortar that is conveyed through a hose and is pneumatically
projected at high velocity on the surface. Shotcrete is a mixture of cement, aggregates, and water that is usually
reinforced by conventional steel rods, steel mesh, or fiber.
Shotcreting is performed with the special unit, which consists of a mortar gun or concrete sprayer and a compressor.
Shotcrete’s high strength, durability, low permeability, excellent bond, and limitless shape possibilities
For structural uses, shotcrete is usually applied over a framework of reinforcing bars and steel mesh. Because it can take
any shape, is easily coloured, and can be sculptured after application, shotcrete is used for a variety of fancy concrete
structures, including artificial rock walls, zoo enclosures, canopy roofs, refractory linings, pools, and dams. It is
sometimes used in tunneling to bind the walls of the tunnel to prevent leaks and fragmentation.

Self compacting concrete is a high-performance concrete which is highly flowable or self-leveling cohesive concrete that
spreads by its own weight. Thanks to this property, it can be easily placed in tight reinforcement.
Additionally, this concrete possesses same strength and durability as conventional concrete. It is also known as super
workable concrete or self-consolidating concrete.
As the name suggests, this concrete compacts by itself without the use of external vibrators.

Precast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a reusable mold or "form" which is then
cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and maneuvered into place
Precast concrete components include slabs, beams, columns, walls, stairways, modular boxes, and even kitchens and
bathrooms with precast fixtures

Prestressed concrete is structural concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile
stresses in the concrete resulting from loads. This introduction of internal stresses is called “prestressing” and is usually
accomplished through the use of tendons that are tensioned or pulled tight prior to being anchored to the concrete.

Assess sustainability issues outlines by the design in case study (cost-inefficient vs efficient, performance, resource-
inefficient vs efficient, waste minimization and utilization, level of social responsibility
 Clinker production stage is the most energy intensive. Accounts for the most energy used and nearly all of the
GHG released during cement production.
 Production of one tonne of Portland cement produces one tonne of CO2 and other GHGs which a significant
amount of CO2 produces during the calcination process.
o Calcination occurs when limestone, which is made of calcium carbonate, is heated, breaking down into
calcium oxide and CO2
 Sources of CO2 and GHG emissions in the manufacturing of Portland cement are:
o from calcinations of limestone and clay = ± 50 –55%;
o from fuel combustion = ± 40 –50%; and,
o from use of electric power = ± 0 –10%.
o The production of cement releases greenhouse gas emissions both directly and indirectly: the heating of
limestone releases CO2 directly, while the burning of fossil fuels to heat the kiln indirectly results in CO2
emissions. Kilns are usually heated by coal, natural gas, or oil, and the combustion of these fuels
produces additional CO2 emissions, just as they would in producing electricity. Finally, the electricity
 used to power additional plant machinery, and the final transportation of cement, represents another
source of indirect emissions
 Limestone + Silica = Portland cement + carbon dioxide (1450°C)
 5CaCO3 + 2SiO2 >(3CaO.SiO2) (2CaO.SiO2) + 5CO2

Identify the types of material utilized in the product or infrastructure design in case study (renewable, non-
renewable, organic, inorganic-ceramic, metallic, non-metallic and composites)
Portland Cement
Limestone
Clay
Water
Chalk

Premium Plus
Natural pozzolans: volcanic ashes and lava deposits, diatomaceous earth-earth mainly composed of silicious skeletons of
diatoms deposited from either fresh or sea water

By product material including industrial wastes: pulverised fly-ash and condensed silica fume

Perform calculations relevant to process (energy, material properties including strength, thermal properties, acoustic
and light loading)
Not applicable

Justify choice of materials (affordability, availability, accessibility, reusability, utility, environmental soundness, social
acceptability)

List the type(s) and form(s) of energy utilized in the product or infrastructure design in case study (renewable, non-
renewable)
 Non-renewable: fossil fuels

Investigate the related principles and processes relevant to case study (For example, measuring voltage and current
from a small solar panel at different times of the day; generation of biogas using different substrates; testing the
properties of the materials)

Justify the selection of the type and form of energy used in the product or infrastructure design in case studies
(Affordability, availability, accessibility, reusability, utility, impact on the health of the environment, social
acceptability)

Indicate the specific guidelines/ standards and principles followed in the product or infrastructure design in case
studies (ISO 9000, ISO 14000, ISO 26000, Principles of Green Engineering and Industrial Ecology)
 EN 197-1: 2000 CEM I 42.5N (European standard Cement - Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity
criteria for common cements EN 197-1:2000 - 64_e_stf (rucem.ru) )
o EN 197-1 defines and gives the specifications of 27 distinct common cement products and their
constituents. The definition of each cement includes the proportions in which the constituents are to be
combined to produce these distinct products in a range of six strength classes. The definition also
includes requirements the constituents have to meet and the mechanical, physical and chemical
requirements of the 27 products and strength classes. EN 197-1 also states the conformity criteria and
the related rules. Necessary durability requirements are also given.

TTS 584:2002 OPC

 Trinidad and Tobago Standard- Specification for cement by the Trinidad and Tobago Bureau of Standards
 o Specifies requirements for hydraulic cements used primarily in the construction industry. It includes
requirements for compressive strength, physical properties, chemical properties, packaging, labelling
and the means of determining compliance of these requirements.

ASTM C 150 TYPE I

 American Standard for Testing Material
o Standard specific for Portland Cement. For use when the special properties specified for any other type
are not required

ISO 14001:2004
 Environmental management system. They have been certified since 2006

ISO/IEC 17025:2005 Standard for physical testing, namely ASTM C109 and ASTM C191
 Specifies the general requirements for the competence to carry out tests and/or calibrations, including
sampling. It covers testing and calibration performed using standard methods, non-standard methods, and
laboratory-developed methods.It is applicable to all organizations performing tests and/or calibrations
 Lab is accredited

Industrial ecology: in the use of by-products from other industries.

 Fly ash is produced by coal-fired electric and steam generating plants. Fly ash is a byproduct from burning
pulverized coal in electric power generating plants. A very fine, powdery material composed mostly of silica
made from the burning of finely ground coal in a boiler. Typically, coal is pulverized and blown with air into the
boiler's combustion chamber where it immediately ignites, generating heat and producing a molten mineral
residue. Boiler tubes extract heat from the boiler, cooling the flue gas and causing the molten mineral residue to
harden and form ash. Coarse ash particles, referred to as bottom ash or slag, fall to the bottom of the
combustion chamber, while the lighter fine ash particles, termed fly ash, remain suspended in the flue gas.
 Condensed silica fume: By product of producing silicon metal and alloys. Silicon metal and alloys are produced in
electric furnaces. The raw materials are quartz, coal and woodchips. The smoke that results from furnace
operation is collected and sold as silica fume, rather than being landfilled.

In order to reduce GHG emissions and energy consumption, The Premium Plus cement was launched in 2009. This a
cement replacement or pozzolanic admixtures or pozzolans which contain reactive silica (SiO 2), and sometimes also
reactive alumina (Al2O3). Premium Plus allowed TCL to significantly reduce the level of greenhouse gas emissions into the
atmosphere, thereby reducing their carbon footprint. This cement also gives the building community an eco-efficient
cement option enabling them to “go green”.
 Manufactured under
o ASTM C 595 TYPE IPEN 197-1: 2000 CEM II/ B-P 42.5 N
 This specification pertains to blended hydraulic cements for both general and special
applications, using slag or pozzolan, or both, with portland cement or portland cement clinker or
slag with lime.

Inherent rather than circumstantial

 Using natural ingredients such as volcanic ashes and lava deposits as well as diatomaceous earth.
 Water run-off from the plant is channelled through the settling ponds before exiting the compound. This allows
for suspended solids to settle off and thus reduces the level of Total Suspended Solids in effluent.
 All waste water is recovered and reused in the process. Thereby, resources are managed, wastage is reduced,
pollution is prevented

Prevention instead of treatment

 Reducing the amount of dust sent to the atmosphere which has potential health effects.
 First aid measures example engineering controls like exhaust ventilation to maintain dust levels below safe
exposure limits
 Personal protective wear
  The use of the Guzzler to clean spilled material which reduces particulate emissions which would otherwise have
resulted from conventional cleaning methods
 All waste water is recovered and reused in the process. Thereby, resources are managed, wastage is reduced,
pollution is prevented

Maximize efficiency
 Dust screens: Use of a piece of equipment called the DustBoss which uses a high-pressure system to create an
ultrafine mist of water which attracts dust particles, resulting in agglomerated particles falling to the ground or
back onto the stockpile
 Using the “Guzzler” which is a vacuum truck which aids in effectively and efficiently cleaning spilled material
which is then recycled back into our manufacturing process. This serves to significantly reduce particulate
emissions which would otherwise have resulted from conventional cleaning methods
 All waste water is recovered and reused in the process. Thereby, resources are managed, wastage is reduced,
pollution is prevented

Durability rather than immortality

 Premium plus cement has greater durability and longevity

Integrate material and energy flow

 The use of by-products from other industries such as fly-ash and silica fume
 All waste water is recovered and reused in the process. Thereby, resources are managed, wastage is reduced,
pollution is prevented

Renewable rather than depleting

 In the sense of premium plus

Identify the specific legislation that enables or constrains the commercialization of the product or infrastructure in
case studies (ASHRAE and any existing national legislation)
Same as above

Opportunities to mitigate
Indirect emissions from burning fossil fuels to heat the kiln can be reduced by switching to alternative fuels, including
natural gas, biomass and waste-derived fuels such as tires, sewage sludge and municipal solid wastes. These less carbon-
intensive fuels could reduce overall cement emissions by 18-24 percent from 2006 levels by 2050.

Alternatively, efficiency measures can reduce the demand for fuel by addressing the production process itself (such as
switching from inefficient wet kilns to dry ones) or through technical and mechanical improvements (such as
preventative maintenance to repair kiln leaks).

Reducing emissions from the calcination process means looking to a material other than limestone. Blended cement
replaces some of the limestone-based clinker with other materials, primarily coal fly ash and blast furnace slag. It could
reduce CO2 emissions by as much as 20 percent, but its widespread use is limited by other environmental regulations
(these substitutes can contain toxic heavy metals); the limited availability of substitute material; and some building code
restrictions (blended cement can take longer to set

Finally, CO2 emissions can be captured after they are produced through carbon capture and storage (CCS). In addition to
traditional CCS methods, which are already employed in some power plants, concrete producers can actually use their
own product as a sink for CO2. Through the process of accelerated carbonation, CO2 penetrates concrete and reacts
with calcium hydroxide in the presence of water to form calcium carbonate; the result is stable, long-term CO2 storage.
As a mitigation technology, accelerated carbonation can be achieved by exposing freshly mixed concrete to flue gases
with high CO2 concentrations.

Emissions from the Cement Industry (columbia.edu)