Introduction:

Neurotechnology as a whole encompasses a broad range of

technologies aimed towards understanding, repairing,
enhancing, and exploiting the nervous system. This
multidisciplinary field integrates knowledge from fields like
neuroscience, bioengineering, computer science, and other
domains to develop innovative solutions for medical and non-
medical applications. Among the various advancements in
neurotechnology, Brain-to-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) stand out
as the most transformative and wonderous technology. BCIs
enable direct communication between the brain and external
devices, offering great solutions for individuals with disabilities
and expanding the possibilities of human-computer interaction.
This paper explores the historical evolution of BCIs, tracing their
journey from early conceptualizations to their current state and
future directions along with a focus on EEGs/ERPs.

History of Neurotechnology -:

1) Early Foundations:

Neurotechnology has its roots in early attempts to understand

and measure the activity of the nervous system. The 19th
century saw significant advances with the development of
electrophysiology techniques, which allowed scientists to study
electrical properties of neurons. In 1924, A German psychiatrist
named Hans Berger recorded the first human
electroencephalogram (EEG), a milestone that provided a non-
invasive method to measure brain activity. Berger's discovery
laid the groundwork for many subsequent advancements in
neurotechnology, including the development of BCIs.

2) Emergence of Brain-to-Computer Interfaces (BCIs):

The concept of BCIs emerged from early 20th-century

neuroscience research. In the 1960s, UCLA professor Jacques
Vidal coined the term "brain-computer interface" and
conducted pioneering experiments demonstrating the
feasibility of using EEG signals for communication. Vidal's work,
particularly his 1973 paper "Toward Direct Brain-Computer
Communication," is considered one of the first comprehensive
studies on BCIs. His research highlighted the potential to
decode neural signals for control purposes, establishing a
foundational framework for future BCI development.

3) Technological Advancements and Early Applications:

The 1980s and 1990s further saw significant technological

advancements that propelled BCI research forward.
Improvements in computer processing power, signal processing
algorithms, and non-invasive recording techniques enabled
more sophisticated and advanced experiments. Researchers
focused on developing BCIs for practical applications,
particularly to aid individuals with severe motor disabilities.
 One such notable early application was the development of
BCIs for communication in locked-in syndrome patients.
In 1999, Niels Birbaumer and his team at the University of
Tübingen successfully enabled a patient with complete paralysis
to communicate through a BCI using slow cortical potentials.
This breakthrough demonstrated the potential of BCIs to
restore communication abilities, providing a vital lifeline for
individuals with severe motor impairments.

Current Trends in Modern BCI Development -:

1) Advanced Signal Processing and Machine Learning:

The 21st century has seen rapid advancements in BCI

technology, driven by innovations in signal processing and
machine learning. Modern BCIs employ sophisticated
algorithms to decode complex neural patterns with high
accuracy. Machine learning techniques, including deep learning
and reinforcement learning, have significantly enhanced the
performance and reliability of BCIs. These advancements have
expanded the scope of BCI applications beyond medical
rehabilitation. For instance, BCIs are now used in immersive
gaming environments, allowing players to control avatars and
interact with virtual worlds using their thoughts. Additionally,
BCIs are being integrated into virtual and augmented reality
systems, providing new ways for users to experience digital
environments.
 2) Hybrid BCIs and Enhanced User Experience:

Current research emphasizes the development of hybrid BCIs,

which combine multiple types of neural signals and sensory
feedback to improve system robustness and usability. Hybrid
systems can integrate EEG with other modalities such as
electromyography (EMG) or functional near-infrared
spectroscopy (fNIRS) to enhance signal reliability and user
experience. For example, hybrid BCIs are being explored for
neurorehabilitation, where combining different neural signals
can provide more comprehensive feedback and facilitate more
effective rehabilitation protocols. These systems are also being
developed for cognitive enhancement applications, aiming to
augment human capabilities and interaction with digital
environments.

Types of Neurotechnology -:

1) Non-Invasive Neurotechnology: Non-invasive

neurotechnology involves devices and methods that interact
with the brain without penetrating the skull. These
technologies typically rely on surface electrodes or external
sensors to monitor and modulate/stimulate brain activity.

- Electroencephalography (EEG): EEG is one of the most

common non-invasive techniques. It involves placing electrodes
on the scalp to record electrical activity generated by neurons.
EEG is widely used in both clinical and research settings to
diagnose neurological disorders, study brain function, and
develop BCIs.

- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): fMRI

measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. It
provides high-resolution images of brain activity and is used in
research to map brain functions and study neural connectivity.

- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): TMS uses magnetic

fields to stimulate specific brain regions. It is used in both
research and clinical settings to study brain function and treat
conditions such as depression.

2) Invasive Neurotechnology: Invasive neurotechnology involves

surgically implanted devices that directly interface with the
brain. These devices offer more precise control and higher
resolution of brain activity but come with increased risks.

- Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): DBS involves implanting

electrodes in specific brain regions to deliver electrical
stimulation. It is used to treat movement disorders such as
Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, and dystonia.

- Cortical Implants: These are devices implanted on or within

the cerebral cortex to record and stimulate neural activity. They
are used in research and clinical applications to restore sensory
 or motor function in individuals with paralysis or sensory
deficits.

3) Semi-Invasive Neurotechnology: Semi-invasive

neurotechnology involves devices that do not penetrate deep
brain tissue but are placed on or near the brain's surface, often
through minimally invasive procedures. These devices offer a
balance between the less invasive nature of non-invasive
methods and the higher precision of invasive techniques.

- ECoG (Electrocorticography): ECoG involves placing a grid of

electrodes on the surface of the brain's cortex, typically during
a surgical procedure. ECoG provides higher spatial resolution
than EEG and can capture more detailed neural activity. It is
often used in clinical settings for pre-surgical mapping of
epileptic foci and in BCI research for controlling external
devices.

- Stentrode: Developed by Synchron, the Stentrode is a stent-

based electrode array that is delivered to the brain via the
vascular system. This minimally invasive approach uses existing
blood vessels to place the electrodes close to brain regions of
interest. The Stentrode can record neural signals and stimulate
brain tissue without the need for open-brain surgery, reducing
the associated risks and recovery time.

Prominent Brain-to-Computer Interface Companies :-

 1) Neuralink:

- Neuralink, founded by Elon Musk in 2016, is a leading

company in the development of advanced BCIs. Neuralink's goal
is to create high-bandwidth, implantable devices that can
facilitate direct communication between the brain and
computers. Their technology aims to
address neurological disorders and
eventually enable symbiosis with
artificial intelligence.

- Technology: Neuralink has developed a device known as the

"Link," a coin-sized implant that contains numerous electrodes
capable of recording and stimulating neural activity. The device
is designed to be implanted using a robot, which minimizes
surgical risks and improves precision.

- Applications: Neuralink's primary focus is on medical

applications, such as restoring movement in individuals with
spinal cord injuries, treating neurological conditions like
epilepsy, and enhancing cognitive functions. In the future,
Neuralink aims to develop interfaces that could enable
seamless interaction with digital devices and AI systems.

2) Kernel:
- Kernel, founded by Bryan Johnson, focuses on developing non-
invasive neurotechnology to monitor and enhance brain
activity. Kernel's approach emphasizes the use of advanced
sensors and data analysis to understand brain function and
develop applications for mental health and cognitive
enhancement.

- Technology: Kernel has developed a

device called "Kernel Flow," which uses
time-domain functional near-infrared
spectroscopy (TD-fNIRS) to measure brain
activity. This non-invasive technology
provides real-time data on neural activity with high temporal
resolution.

- Applications: Kernel aims to use its technology for a wide

range of applications, including mental health monitoring,
cognitive training, and brain research. By providing insights into
brain activity, Kernel's devices could help develop new
treatments for neurological disorders and enhance human
cognitive abilities.

3) Synchron:

- Synchron is another pioneering company in the BCI space,

focusing on developing minimally invasive neural interfaces.
Synchron aims to create devices that can be implanted without
 the need for open-brain surgery, making the technology more
accessible and reducing risks.

- Technology: Synchron's flagship

product, the Stentrode, is a stent-based
electrode array that can be delivered via
blood vessels to the brain. This
approach leverages existing vascular networks to place the
electrodes close to brain regions of interest, minimizing
invasiveness.

- Applications: Synchron is developing the Stentrode primarily

for medical applications, such as enabling communication and
control for individuals with severe paralysis. The device is
designed to translate neural signals into commands for external
devices, helping users regain independence and improve their
quality of life.