education

sciences
Systematic Review
Misconceptions in the Learning of Natural Sciences:
A Systematic Review
Frank Guerra-Reyes 1 , Eric Guerra-Dávila 1 , Miguel Naranjo-Toro 1 , Andrea Basantes-Andrade 1, *
and Sandra Guevara-Betancourt 2

1 Science Research Group Network e-CIER, Universidad Técnica del Norte, Ibarra 100105, Ecuador;
[email protected] (F.G.-R.); [email protected] (E.G.-D.); [email protected] (M.N.-T.)
2 Research Group in Education, Science and Technology, Universidad Técnica del Norte, Ibarra 100105,
Ecuador; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The determination of misconceptions among students is a prerequisite to driving concep-

tual, procedural, and attitudinal changes. This study aimed to investigate the causes and effects that
misconceptions generate in the learning of natural sciences, as well as the basic categories of miscon-
ceptions in the learning of physics held by high school students. Under the PRISMA guidelines, the
research consisted of a systematic literature review in three databases: Scopus, WoS, and Dimensions.
Data visualization and analysis were supported by the following tools: VOSviewer, Bibliometrix,
and ATLAS.ti. It was concluded that misconceptions do not solely depend on students’ behavior;
teacher training and preparation also have a direct influence on this issue. The main factors include
persistent use of the didactic model of transmission–reception, the influences of students’ daily
experiences, decontextualization of the addressed content, limited development of research skills,
usage of inadequate teaching methods, texts full of formulas, and exaggerated schemas. Physics
stands out as the most studied discipline, in terms of misconceptions. Several topics were identified
that contained misconceptions grouped into four main subject areas: thermodynamics, waves and
sound, mechanics, and radiation and light.

Keywords: misconceptions; science learning; inquiry-based science education; systematic review

Citation: Guerra-Reyes, F.; Guerra-
Dávila, E.; Naranjo-Toro, M.;
Basantes-Andrade, A.; Guevara-
Betancourt, S. Misconceptions in the
Learning of Natural Sciences: A 1. Introduction
Systematic Review. Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, Based on the teaching–study–learning process of science, both the contents of the
497. https://doi.org/10.3390/ disciplines and the didactic models used to guide their approach in the classroom are con-
educsci14050497 sidered priorities [1]. The broad field of natural sciences includes content from astronomy,
Academic Editor: Daniel Muijs biology, physics, geology, and chemistry [2]. In the context of their didactics, at least five
models are in force: transmission–reception, discovery, meaningful reception, conceptual
Received: 1 December 2023 change, and research [3].
Revised: 15 February 2024
With the diversity of content integrated into the natural sciences, students are prepared
Accepted: 12 April 2024
in both in the disciplinary foundations and in the daily practice of the scientific method.
Published: 6 May 2024
In terms of didactic models, recent studies link inquiry-based learning to the promotion
and strengthening of meaningful learning, as well as the development of critical thinking
and problem-solving in the context of learners’ lives [4–6].
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Despite these findings, the traditional didactic model still persists in school classrooms,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. a model that has proved to be incapable of fostering critical analysis and reflection [7].
This article is an open access article It is known that this way of teaching–studying–learning can lead to the emergence of mis-
distributed under the terms and conceptions. This happens because memorization is privileged over deep understanding,
conditions of the Creative Commons resulting in students who can only provide superficial answers that do not connect to their
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// daily life experiences [8,9].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ In order to generate a relevant and situated didactic process, it is necessary to deter-
4.0/). mine the misconceptions acquired by the students. Their lack of knowledge generates an

Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14050497 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/education

Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 2 of 17

incomplete and imprecise learning environment for concepts and procedures, as well as
a space for erroneous understandings in science [10,11]. For this reason, its recognition
constitutes a basic premise for the (re)construction of scientific knowledge during learning,
as well as for providing suggestive and destabilizing cognitive resources [12–14].
The term misconception is complex in nature, and has been conceptualized as pre-
conceptions, alternative ideas, convictions, conceptual obstacles, misconceptions, beliefs,
and alternative frameworks [15]. Moreover, the didactic literature has other names such as
children’s science, prior ideas, intuitive ideas, alternative conceptions, student represen-
tations, naive beliefs, implicit theories, and common sense theories [16–20]. Others have
even begun to recognize these ideas as organizing models of thought [21].
Although this is not a universal characterization, contemporary scholars prioritize
three terms: prior ideas, misconceptions, and alternative conceptions [17,20]. Nevertheless,
it seems that in the processes of scientific dissemination, the expression misconceptions
has become popular. Consequently, this research framework recognizes the term miscon-
ceptions in the following way: according to the theory, they are conceived as alternative
conceptions that deviate from what is scientifically accepted in various contexts; therefore,
they are basic premises that must be taken into account in the (re)construction of scientific
knowledge [22].
Misconceptions in the natural sciences can have a variety of origins. They can come
from misinterpretations of everyday experiences to incorrect information received through
informal media or cultural traditions. These misconceptions take root in students’ minds
and represent considerable challenges as the learners resist change, even in the face of
direct, structured teaching. This phenomenon not only impedes the acquisition of new
knowledge, but can also affect students’ attitudes towards learning science, reducing their
interest and motivation.
On the other hand, with the didactic approach, not only would the importance of this
research-based model be sustained, but also its treatment in the classroom would enable
conceptual, procedural, and attitudinal changes in students [23,24]. Hence, teachers must
reflect on their work praxis in relation to the construction of meaningful contexts from a
scientific perspective that contextualize the concepts they teach [25].
The study of misconceptions in the learning of natural sciences has been approached
by various authors with multidisciplinary approaches. For instance, conceptual errors in
biology teaching have been investigated, highlighting the importance of understanding
students’ misconceptions to improve instruction [26–28]. In the field of chemistry, students’
preconceived ideas have been explored, proposing strategies to correct them and promote
more solid learning [29,30]. In physics, misconceptions have been analyzed, and a gender
gap in conceptual understanding has been detected [31]. Likewise, some of the most
common difficulties for learning astronomy in the classroom have been summarized, and
strategies to overcome them have been proposed [32]. Finally, in geology, conceptual errors
in the understanding of geological processes have been studied, and the importance of
contextualized and inquiry-based teaching has been emphasized to overcome these barriers
to learning [33]. It must be noted that in the broad field of natural sciences, systematic
literature reviews of misconceptions are limited [22].
In this context, our research focuses on identifying misconceptions in the learning of
natural sciences. For this reason, the following questions were raised: What are the causes
and effects generated by the misconceptions that high school students hold in the learning
of natural sciences? Specifically, in the learning of physics, what are the physics topics that
evidence the highest number of misconceptions among high school students?

2. Materials and Methods

A systematic literature review (SRL) was used to classify, select, and analyze research
papers in an orderly, accurate, and rigorous manner [33–36]. It was carried out in the Scopus,
WoS (Web of Science), and Dimensions databases, because they provide an extensive
amount of metadata that are essential to perform a detailed bibliometric analysis. Moreover,
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 3 of 17

these databases are recognized for their comprehensiveness and reliability in various areas
of science.
During the process, the guidelines of the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Sys-
tematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) statement [37,38] were considered, which adequately
and concisely describe the process carried out in three phases.
The first phase, the sensitive search, was conducted in April 2023. This marked
the beginning of the data collection process. The key terms used were “misconceptions
AND science”. Then, for an extended search, variants of the terms such as “alternative
conceptions” AND “natural sciences” were included. This process determined an initial set
of 4.174 results in Scopus, 10,005 in WoS, and 613,418 in Dimensions.
Bibliometric maps were elaborated from the extracted metadata and with the support
of the VOSviewer and Bibliometrix data visualization and analysis tools. These maps
allowed an effective visualization of the most cited authors, the scientific production at a
country level, the relationships, and their evolution over time.
For refining the search strategy, Boolean operators were incorporated to combine
relevant terms that were related to the research event and the target population. The key
terms used related to misconceptions, secondary education, high school students, and
branches of natural sciences. As a result, the following strategy was generated: (“miscon-
ceptions” OR “alternative conceptions”) AND (“high school” OR “secondary education”)
AND “students” AND (“learning” OR “learn”) AND (“science” OR “natural sciences” OR
“biology” OR “chemistry” OR “physics” OR “astronomy” OR “geology”).
No temporal or language filters were employed, in order to conduct comprehensive
research about possible changes over time. This, due to bibliometrics, indicated that coun-
tries such as Indonesia, Turkey, and the United States had the highest scientific production,
so this factor was independent of language. Below are the main findings that led to the
determination of an appropriate search strategy.

2.1. Citation of Authors

Figure 1a shows that the most cited authors are Peter W. Hewson and Mariana G.
Hewson, researchers who significantly impact the study on misconceptions of natural
sciences. Figure 1b shows that, in addition to being highly cited, they have a higher
bibliographic pairing. In other words, they exhibit a high interconnection between studies,
and frequently influence them.
The period of publication for these authors spans from 1983 to 2000. Due to this,
there is wide interest in the themes these authors address, with continuous attention from
the academic community; this highlights their importance and durability. This longevity
suggests possible areas of future development, and establishes the need to explore new
perspectives and approaches within the field.
Although the referred authors have a greater number of citations over time, cur-
rently [22], Achmad Samsudin stands out as the author with the highest scientific produc-
tion, with continuous publications since 2017. On the other hand, during 2019, the most
cited author was Rahma Diani. This highlights the variable dynamics within scientific
production, and further demonstrates the relevance of considering both the long-term
trajectory and the most recent trends.
i. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 4 of 17

(a)

(b)
Figure 1. Citation
Figure by authors:
1. Citation by authors:(a)
(a) Heat map;
Heat map; (b) (b) bibliographic
bibliographic matching.
matching.

2.2. Scientific Production by Country

2.2. Scientific Production by Country
The scientific production by country reveals interesting patterns in relation to the
The scientific
subject. As seen production by country
in Figure 2a, Indonesia reveals
stands out interesting
with 231 patterns
scientific papers. in relation
It is followed
by the United States with 219, and Turkey with 72. This is evidence of
subject. As seen in Figure 2a, Indonesia stands out with 231 scientific papers. It is fol the geographical
diversity in research related to the research topic. The most relevant institutional affiliation
by the isUnited States with 219, and Turkey with 72. This is evidence of the geogra
the Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia [22].
diversity in research
Although related
Indonesia has to
the the research
highest scientifictopic. Theinmost
production relevant
the field under studyinstitutional
since
tion is 2020,
the Universitas Pendidikan
it is not the country with the Indonesia
highest number [22].
of citations. As shown in Figure 2b,
the United States is in the lead. This situation may be because it has a longer history of
Although Indonesia has the highest scientific production in the field under
scientific contributions since 2015.
since 2020, it is not the country with the highest number of citations. As shown in
2b, the United States is in the lead. This situation may be because it has a longer hist
scientific contributions since 2015.
The aforementioned countries share a distinct connection. In terms of scientifi
duction related to misconceptions in the natural sciences, Indonesia is not directly
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 5 of 17

The aforementioned countries share a distinct connection. In terms of scientific pro-

duction related to misconceptions in the natural sciences, Indonesia is not directly linked to
the United States, but is so through Turkey [22]. In this way, the dynamics of collaborations
and research networks between the countries with the highest scientific production are
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of as
distinguished. The fact that Turkey has a high number of citations may be due to its role 19
a bridge between the two countries.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Scientific production by country: (a) World Map; (b) citations by country.
Figure 2. Scientific production by country: (a) World Map; (b) citations by country.

2.3. Keywords
The keywords
keywords review
reviewprovided
provideda adetailed
detailed perspective
perspective of of
thethe
research trends
research andand
trends ap-
proaches. ForFor
approaches. thethe
research
researchevent,
event,2828clusters
clusterswere
wereidentified.
identified.Figure
Figure 3a3a shows relevant
keywords
keywords “misconceptions”
“misconceptions”and and“high
“highschool”,
school”, “science”,
“science”,andand“physical”
“physical”andand“chemistry”.
“chemis-
Also, it wasitdeduced
try”. Also, was deducedthat there is a conceptual
that there framework
is a conceptual basedbased
framework on constructivism, since
on constructivism,
the
sincefindings highlight
the findings the importance
highlight the importance of the active
of the construction
active constructionofofknowledge
knowledgeby by the
students in direct relation to their their alternative
alternative conceptions.
conceptions.
Regarding the thetime
timeevolution
evolutionofofthe the keyword “misconceptions”,
keyword “misconceptions”, Figure
Figure 3b shows
3b shows rel-
relative stability in its use. In addition, a fusion occurs between the keywords
ative stability in its use. In addition, a fusion occurs between the keywords “inquiry-based “inquiry-
based learning”
learning” and “secondary
and “secondary education”.
education”. This situation
This situation revealsreveals
possiblepossible adjustments
adjustments made
made to methodological
to methodological and thematic
and thematic approachesapproaches over
over time, time,was
which which was
useful useful
when when
develop-
developing
ing a searchastrategy.
search strategy.
Finally, Figure
Finally, Figure 3c 3c reveals
reveals the
the tendency
tendencyto toprovide
provideaathematic
thematicdescription
descriptionrelated
relatedtotoa
a particular science. This highlights the importance of accuracy in search,
particular science. This highlights the importance of accuracy in search, as keywords vary as keywords
vary according
according to each
to each discipline
discipline of natural
of natural sciences.
sciences. Therefore,
Therefore, it is it is essential
essential to include
to include the
the terms “astronomy”, “biology”, “chemistry”, “geology”, and “physics”
terms “astronomy”, “biology”, “chemistry”, “geology”, and “physics” to ensure the rele- to ensure the
relevance
vance of theof the results.
results.
Finally, the selection of articles for this systematic review was carried out through the
application of inclusion and exclusion criteria linked to the information collected in the
bibliometric analysis.
 Educ.Sci.
Educ. Sci.2024,
2024,14,
14,497
x FOR PEER REVIEW 66 of
of 17
19

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 3. Keywords misconceptions: (a) Relationships among keywords; (b) evolution over time; (c)
Figure 3. Keywords misconceptions: (a) Relationships among keywords; (b) evolution over time;
Word Cloud.
(c) Word Cloud.
Finally, Criteria
2.4. Inclusion the selection of articles for this systematic review was carried out through the
application of inclusion and exclusion criteria linked to the information collected in the
- Open access articles: Only these types of articles were included to ensure accessibility
bibliometric analysis.
and availability of information.
- Primary research: They were selected because they provide knowledge in a more
2.4. Inclusion Criteria
direct and reliable way.
-- Open population:
Target access articles: Only were
Articles these considered
types of articles
whenwere
theirincluded to ensure
populations accessibility
were high school
and availability of information.
students, without considering factors such as gender, race, lifestyle, and demographic
- location,
Primary among
research: They were selected because they provide knowledge in a more di-
others.
- rect and reliable way.
Research event: Misconceptions or alternative conceptions in natural sciences.
-- All Target population:
languages: DueArticles were considered
to the diversity when their
of the leading populations
countries were highon
in publications school
the
students,
subject, forwithout
example,considering factors and
Indonesia, Turkey, suchtheasUnited
gender, race, lifestyle, and demo-
States.
- graphicrelevant
Results location,toamong others.event: Articles had to present specific results related
the research
- to Research event:
alternative Misconceptions
conceptions or alternative
or misconceptions in conceptions
high school in natural sciences.
students.
- All languages: Due to the diversity of the leading countries in publications on the
subject, for example, Indonesia, Turkey, and the United States.
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 7 of 17

2.5. Exclusion Criteria

- Reviews or meta-analyses: Articles other than primary research.
- Different from the natural sciences: Unfocused from the natural sciences.
- Populations other than secondary education: Those that do not include high school
students.
- Different from alternative conceptions or misconceptions: Unidentified from the
causes and effects of students’ alternative or erroneous conceptions.

2.6. Review Process

Out of a total of 1036 initial articles, 378 duplicate studies were excluded in the first
stage. Subsequently, after reviewing the titles and abstracts, 459 articles not aligned to the
research question were discarded. After the application of the inclusion and exclusion
criteria, a total of 56 studies considered eligible were obtained. From those articles, 40 were
excluded because they did not provide information about students’ alternative or erroneous
conceptions.
Figure 4 shows the process to select 16 scientific articles that met all of the criteria
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
established to carry out the systematic review.

Records identified from:

Identification

Databases (n = 3) Records removed before screening:

Scopus (n = 317) Duplicate records removed (n =
WoS (n = 387) 378)
Dimensions (n = 332)

Records screened Records excluded

(n = 658) (n = 459)

Reports sought for retrieval Reports not retrieved

(n = 199) (n = 143)
Screening

Reports assessed for eligibility

Reports excluded:
(n = 56)
A list of misconceptions or alter-
native conceptions is not in-
cluded (n = 40)
Included

Studies included in review

(n = 16)

Figure 4. PRISMA flow diagram.

Figure 4. PRISMA flow diagram.
Subsequently, the ATLAS.ti program was used for the analysis of the data collected
from the 16 essential articles. Its use provided a comprehensive vision, as well as efficient
management in the handling of qualitative data. In addition, it made it possible to improve
the organization, coding, and systematic analysis of information. As a prerequisite, a care-
ful reading of the results of each study was performed to extract the most relevant infor-
mation.
 Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 8 of 17

Subsequently, the ATLAS.ti program was used for the analysis of the data collected
from the 16 essential articles. Its use provided a comprehensive vision, as well as efficient
management in the handling of qualitative data. In addition, it made it possible to improve
the organization, coding, and systematic analysis of information. As a prerequisite, a
PEER REVIEW careful reading of the results of each study was performed to extract the most 9 ofrelevant
19
information.
Thus, it was possible to identify patterns, relationships, and influences between
misconceptions and the learning of natural sciences. This process ensured coherence in the
3. Results information synthesis and a deep and detailed understanding of the research event.

Lotka’s law offers a valuable perspective for understanding the dynamics of aca-
3. Results
demic production in a specific field
Lotka’s law [39].
offers According
a valuable to this
perspective law, the general
for understanding tendency
the dynamics is
of academic
that most authors contribute a small number of papers on a specific topic, while a smallmost
production in a specific field [39]. According to this law, the general tendency is that
authors contribute a small number of papers on a specific topic, while a small group of
group of researchers researchers
is responsible for most of the relevant literature in that field. Figure
is responsible for most of the relevant literature in that field. Figure 5 shows
5 shows that the datathat
collected
the data support the statement
collected support of this
the statement law.
of this law.

Figure 5. Lotka’s Law. Figure 5. Lotka’s Law.

Upon the fulfillment of this law, which focuses on the inequality of academic produc-
Upon the fulfillment of this
tion among law, which
researchers, focuses
we highlight the on the inequality
importance of academic
of identifying pro-those
and recognizing
duction among researchers, we have
authors who highlight
excelledthe importance
in the subject and whoof identifying and recognizing
have had a significant impact in their
field. This allows us to guide future research and collaborations
those authors who have excelled in the subject and who have had a significant impact with those authors
inwho
exert the greatest influence in their scientific fields.
their field. This allows usAstoa guide future research and collaborations with those authors
derivation, the examination of scientific articles showed concrete results in these
who exert the greatest influencesciences.
experimental in theirPhysics
scientific fields.
was the science with the highest volume of production and
As a derivation, discoveries.
the examination of scientific
On the contrary, articles
no specific studiesshowed
related to concrete results
geology were found.in
In these
general, in
experimental sciences. Physics was the science with the highest volume of production and
discoveries. On the contrary, no specific studies related to geology were found. In general,
in the published research, the authors explore and detail factors that promote the appear-
ance of misconceptions in the learning of natural sciences in high school students.
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 9 of 17

the published research, the authors explore and detail factors that promote the appearance
of misconceptions in the learning of natural sciences in high school students.

3.1. Causes and Effects Generated by Misconceptions in Chemistry

It is assumed that chemistry is not always easy to understand because it involves
didactic processes that can be complicated for students such as prevalence use of the
transmission–reception learning model; use of textbooks full of formulas that are incom-
prehensible to students; imitation of good examples and repetitive exercises as a priority
method of study; excessive generalization of concepts, principles, and laws; decontex-
tualization and superficiality in the way chemical problems are approached; students’
personal conceptualizations that do not always agree with the scientific concepts studied;
and limited support for the development of reasoning skills [40–43].
The preeminence of these factors triggers the formation of misconceptions as well as
the progressive disinterest of students in their learning of natural sciences [40–43]. This is
reflected in misinterpretations and a limited understanding of chemical principles.
Among the main misconceptions that remain in students’ understandings, the follow-
ing are mentioned:
• Air (chemical composition) [44].
• States of matter (mention of the state of matter unrelated to temperature and pressure,
incomprehension of the evaporation of some liquids at any temperature, dissociation
between the structure of particles in different states of matter) [44].
• Structure of matter (little knowledge or confusion about the microscopic proper-
ties of matter: number, order, spaces, size and motion of particles, configuration of
molecules) [45].
• Chemical bonds (types of atoms that form them, how they are formed and what types
exist, knowledge of ions) [46].
• Chemical equilibrium (equilibrium is reached when the concentration of the product
is equal to that of the reactants, equilibrium is reached when the reaction rate in the
formation of products and reactants is constant, the concentration of reactants and
products increases during the reaction, pressure and temperature generate increases
in reactants and products) [47].
• Radioactivity (unawareness of radioactive sources of natural origin, tendency to relate
their origin to the use of technological devices, radiation is transmitted through the air,
difficulties in interpreting the radioactive process from the atomic–nuclear perspective;
possibility of changing radioactive substances with temperature or change in state,
and lack of knowledge about protective measures in relation to different types of
radiation) [48].

3.2. Causes and Effects Generated by Misconceptions in Biology

In biology, superficial comprehension of concepts is attributed to students’ limited
thoroughness [49]. Among other causes, teaching methods and teachers’ explanations
are cited as triggers for the emergence of misconceptions. In addition, the limited use of
appropriate teaching aids or analogies might make it difficult for students to understand
complex concepts.
As a cause for the permanence of misconceptions, the scientific literature also ex-
poses the outdated and even misleading information that potentially impacts students
and teachers [50]. Their origins can come from textbooks, websites, journal articles, and
even curriculum guides designed by experts. Among the main categories of misconcep-
tions are oversimplifications, overgeneralizations, use of obsolete terms, and erroneous
identifications.
Among the main misconceptions that remain in students’ understandings, the follow-
ing are mentioned:
• DNA (confusion of terms with atom, molecule, and cell; DNA contains living cells, it is
made up of amino acids that allow exchange among cells, it is found in the blood) [44].
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 10 of 17

• Cells (related to the definition, classes, but mostly to the structure and function of
cellular organelles) [51].
• Human digestion (errors in relation to the mouth-to-stomach route, the order of
the intestines, and the connections of the liver and pancreas to the digestive tract;
incorrectly locating the place in the tube where the liver and pancreas secrete digestive
juices, as well as the place where the absorption of nutrients takes place) [52].
• Classification of living beings (simplified and outdated regarding the variety of living
beings into two or three kingdoms, characterization with the use of the category
super-kingdom or domain is not included either) [53].
• Plants (photosynthesis only takes place during the day and at night they breathe
oxygen; oversimplification of the equation represented by photosynthesis, in which
glucose is placed as the main product without taking into account starch or sucrose as
the most common products; overestimation of animal pollination and confusion with
fertilization; and identifying algae, fungi, and corals as plants) [54].
It is imperative that both students and educators become aware of the effects that
generate misconceptions, so that they can work collaboratively to minimize them in the
teaching–learning of biology. On the part of teachers, the use of various teaching aids and
the promotion of a more co-responsible study culture are needed.

3.3. Causes and Effects Generated by Misconceptions in Astronomy

Alternative conceptions are attributed to the use of exaggerated schemas to explain
astronomical concepts. Schemas, when used appropriately, can simplify the understanding
of complex concepts; however, they can lead to incorrect or incomplete understanding
when oversimplifications are used [55].
Everyday experiences and superficial observations of celestial phenomena have also
been found to contribute to the formation of misconceptions. The study of astronomical
phenomena is difficult to understand because of their scale or distance from the observer.
Among the main misconceptions that remain in students’ understandings, the follow-
ing are mentioned:
• Gravity (there is no gravity in outer space or on the moon; gravity is like magnetic
force; during free fall, acceleration depends on the mass of the object and the distance
to the earth; confusion about the orbital motions of the planets) [56].
• Seasons (seasons occur as a result of the distance the Earth is from the sun during the
year; the Earth’s tilt changes direction throughout the year; the Earth’s rotation affects
the seasons; and the Earth’s tilt changes direction throughout the year) [55,56].
• Big Bang (the Big Bang was an explosion, there was some configuration of matter
before the big bang, the universe has a center, there is no evidence of the Big Bang) [56].
• Comets and constellations (comets are falling stars; constellations are stars that connect
through lines and represent animal figures) [57,58].
• Solar system (the Sun revolves around the Earth, learners do not distinguish sizes
among celestial bodies in the solar system nor do they represent them adequately) [58].
• Universe (place where planets are located and living beings live, stars are planets that
appear at night) [58].
It has also been highlighted that both in-service and pre-service teachers have inade-
quate alternative conceptions in astronomy [59]. This can influence the way they approach
teaching, and it directly affects students’ understanding of science [60].
In the end, we suggest balancing simplification with conceptual precision. In addition,
these findings highlight the importance of the continuous training of educators in didactic
models for the study of science. This may support the implementation of adequate, accurate,
and up-to-date teaching in astronomy.

3.4. Causes and Effects Generated by Misconceptions in Physics

Several studies [61–70] have identified some factors that contribute to the emergence
of misconceptions in physics. First, these studies point to students’ low comprehension of
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 11 of 17

physical concepts, and their tendency to memorize formulas and concepts without really
understanding them [61–70]. This results in a limited ability to analyze problems, and
difficulties when establishing relationships between quantities and formulas.
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW In addition, students face difficulties in understanding the relationships between 12 of 19
quantities when they are presented in graphics [61]. This leads to the construction of their
own concepts, which are not always scientifically accurate and relevant [62,69]. Since they
do not understand the basic concepts, they are often confused when approaching problems
The role
of greater of textbooks is also a significant factor. The availability of books that present
difficulty.
different versions of equations
The role of textbooks is alsooften hinders factor.
a significant and slows down the understanding
The availability of the
of books that present
fundamentals of physics; teachers should spend more time explaining
different versions of equations often hinders and slows down the understanding of the these variations
[63,66].
fundamentals of physics; teachers should spend more time explaining these variations [63,66].
Learning
Learning experiences
experiences based
based on memorization without
on memorization without comprehension,
comprehension, associative
associative
thinking,
thinking, and and incomplete
incomplete or or incorrect
incorrect reasoning
reasoning generate
generate learning
learning of of physical
physical concepts
concepts
with shortcomings [61,64,65]. On the other hand, the immature understanding
with shortcomings [61,64,65]. On the other hand, the immature understanding of concepts of concepts
on
on the
the part
part ofof students,
students, together
together with
with inadequate
inadequate explanations
explanations by by teachers
teachers and
and the
the use
use of
of
inappropriate
inappropriate learning resources, are other causes that give rise to misconceptions in
learning resources, are other causes that give rise to misconceptions in the
the
learning
learning of of physics
physics [63,66].
[63,66].
It should be noted that students’ intuition is often wrong [65]. Sometimes, they have
difficulty
difficulty abstracting concepts properly [67,68]. Likewise, forgetting concepts concepts or retaining
retaining
them
them weakly, which are influenced by the opinions of their peers, also contribute contribute to the
development of misconceptions in the learning of physics [68].
It isisrelevant
relevanttotobear
bearin in
mind thatthat
mind teaching–learning
teaching–learning physics is theisfield
physics the with
fieldthe great-
with the
est number
greatest of studies,
number which,
of studies, as initially
which, argued,
as initially is linked
argued, is linkedtotothetheother
othernatural
naturalsciences.
sciences.
Therefore, it is necessary to address and correct misconceptions through inquiry-based
learning in all areas of science, and particularly in physics.
In response to to the
the second
secondresearch
researchquestion
questionregarding
regardingthe themisconceptions
misconceptions that arise
that in
arise
thethe
in learning
learning of of
physics,
physics,Figure
Figure6 shows
6 shows 53.53.

(a)

Figure 6. Cont.
 Educ.
Educ. Sci. Sci.
2024,2024,
14, 14,
497x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of1219of 17

(b)

(c)

Figure 6. Cont.
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 13 of 17

(d)
Figure 6. Misconceptions
Figure 6. in physics:
Misconceptions in physics: (a)
(a) Misconceptions
Misconceptions in
in Mechanics;
Mechanics; (b)
(b) Misconceptions
Misconceptions in
inWaves
Waves & Sound; (c) Misconceptions in Thermodynamics; (d) Misconceptions in Radiation and
& Sound; (c) Misconceptions in Thermodynamics; (d) Misconceptions in Radiation and Light.
Light
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
In correlation with the findings of other researchers [4–6], the results of this systematic
reviewIn correlation
suggest thewith the findings
relevance of otherinquiry-based
of adopting researchers [4–6], the results
didactic modelsofin this
thesystem-
broad
atic
fieldreview
of the suggest
natural the relevance
sciences. Dueofto adopting
personal inquiry-based
experiences, didactic
everyday models in the broad
observations and
field of the natural
preconceptions alsosciences.
play a key Dueroleto personal experiences,
in the emergence everyday observations
of conceptual and pre-
errors [61,64,65]. It is
conceptions
important toalso noteplaythatathekeycauses
role indothenotemergence
only lie with of conceptual
the students, errors [61,64,65].
because It isalso
teachers im-
portant to note that the causes do not only lie with the students,
face challenges such as using inadequate teaching aids, textbooks that do not adequately because teachers also face
challenges such as using
describe knowledge, and inadequate teaching
diverse teaching aids, textbooks
approaches. Therefore,that itdoisnot adequately
appropriate de-
to use
scribe knowledge,
interactive learningand media diverse teachingthat
and methods approaches.
are designed Therefore, it is appropriate
on the basis of experiences to that
use
interactive
start from the learning media
students’ and methods that
misconceptions andare designed
generate on the basis
cognitive of experiences
conflicts, which in turn that
start
causefrom the students’
conceptual changesmisconceptions
[71]. All of theseand generate
factors revealcognitive
the complexityconflicts, which
of the in turn
educational
cause conceptual
environment, andchanges
the need[71]. All of these
to address thesefactors
issuesreveal
from the complexity
a holistic point of the educational
view.
Some of the causes and effects of misconceptions present
environment, and the need to address these issues from a holistic point of view. in high school students in
disciplines
Some of belonging
the causes to the
andnatural
effects sciences (astronomy,
of misconceptions biology,
present in physics,
high school andstudents
chemistry) in
have been pointed
disciplines belonging out.toWethe highlight that, despite
natural sciences the rigor
(astronomy, of the physics,
biology, studies, there is limited
and chemistry)
evidence
have beenofpointed
exploration
out. Wein the field of that,
highlight geology.
despiteThistheis consistent
rigor of the with the findings
studies, there is of other
limited
researchers
evidence who have indicated
of exploration in the fieldthat
of education
geology. This in geology is limited
is consistent with thein several
findingscountries,
of other
and there is who
researchers a lackhave
of motivation
indicated thatfor its study, despite
education the importance
in geology is limited of in raising
several awareness
countries,
among students about underground resources, geological risks,
and there is a lack of motivation for its study, despite the importance of raising and energy sources, among
awareness
others [72].
among students about underground resources, geological risks, and energy sources,
among Theothers
results obtained are consistent and common in the teaching–learning of sciences in
[72].
general
The[43–45].
results This systematic
obtained review, which
are consistent addressed
and common studies
in the from different disciplines,
teaching–learning of sciences
in general [43–45]. This systematic review, which addressed studies from differentschool
also identified some effects of the persistence of conceptual errors in secondary disci-
students.
plines, The
also main effects
identified some areeffects
limitations
of theinpersistence
the comprehensionof conceptualof concepts,
errors prevalence
in secondary of
the didactic model by transmission–reception to the detriment
school students. The main effects are limitations in the comprehension of concepts, prev- of inquiry-based learning,
scarce development
alence of the didacticofmodelthinking by skills and for problem-solving
transmission–reception to the and projectof
detriment planning. These
inquiry-based
findings explain the lack of understanding of basic concepts as a direct cause of the occur-
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 14 of 17

rence of misconceptions. Other researchers also mention that the transmission–reception

model, characterized by the teacher’s verbal exposition and memorization of definitions
and formulas, among other aspects, does not favor the development of knowledge, but
rather generates erroneous conceptions [73–75].
It is significant that most of the articles reviewed and analyzed, which met the defined
inclusion and exclusion criteria, belong to the field of physics. This finding suggests
that the teaching–learning of physics may be more complex, and becomes a science that
generates a greater proportion of misconceptions among students. This complexity is
directed to the different phenomena involved in physics, which are not always intuitive, in
addition to the fact that the discipline itself demands a considerable level of abstraction
and appropriate logical-mathematical reasoning. Hence, we conclude by suggesting that
teachers should improve their pedagogical knowledge and integrate everyday examples,
in order to improve students’ conceptual understanding [76].
Similarly, several topics containing misconceptions in the field of physics were iden-
tified, which can be grouped into four main categories: thermodynamics, waves and
sound, mechanics, and radiation and light. Likewise, physics is intertwined with various
disciplines of natural sciences such as astronomy, biology, geology, and chemistry, high-
lighting the importance of an integrated and coherent understanding to apply concepts in
different contexts.
All of these factors have crucial implications for education, even more for the teaching–
learning of the natural sciences in secondary school. Hence, educators must pay greater
attention to students and their conceptions and be able to take conscious measures to
address them, since the persistence of misconceptions delays the full development of a
learner’s ability [77]. It is also taken into account that these students’ conceptions are
involved in the design and implementation of science education programs, in order to
guarantee meaningful learning and correct scientific literacy [78].
In the end, it was inferred that the number of citations by authors does not always
reflect the level of scientific production in a given period of time. In addition, a relationship
among various countries was identified that related to the study of misconceptions in
the natural sciences, specifically the relationships among the United States, Indonesia,
and Turkey.
As already determined [78], the findings suggest that the prevalence of conceptual
errors may be global in scope, as they manifest themselves in different countries and diverse
cultural contexts. This problem, which is manifested in the didactic process, is presented as an
obstacle that hinders the understanding and scientific reasoning of secondary school students.

5. Limitations and Future Lines of Research

Given the nature of a systematic review, it can be noted that in this study, the results
are limited to documents that met the established criteria and qualitative analysis, and did
not include direct field observations.
Therefore, there is an evident need to conduct more in-depth research on misconcep-
tions in other disciplines, with the aim of exploring and proposing new strategies and tools
to diagnose and correct them.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.G.-R. and A.B.-A.; methodology, F.G.-R., M.N.-T., A.B.-A.
and E.G.-D.; software, E.G.-D.; validation, F.G.-R., M.N.-T. and A.B.-A.; formal analysis, F.G.-R.,
A.B.-A. and E.G.-D.; investigation, F.G.-R., M.N.-T., A.B.-A., E.G.-D. and S.G.-B.; resources, M.N.-T.;
data curation, F.G.-R., A.B.-A. and E.G.-D.; writing—original draft preparation, F.G.-R. and E.G.-D.;
writing—review and editing, A.B.-A., M.N.-T. and S.G.-B.; visualization, F.G.-R.; supervision, F.G.-R.,
A.B.-A. and S.G.-B.; project administration, F.G.-R.; funding acquisition, M.N.-T. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: We thank Universidad Técnica del Norte.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 497 15 of 17

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