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A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Panos Seferlis This research experimentally examines an ammonia-diesel dual fuel system, not widely covered in existing
literature but acknowledged as an effective approach to reduce engine carbon footprints in alignment with global
Keywords: decarbonization trends, focusing on enhancing understanding of performance, combustion, and emission char
Dual-fuel engine acteristics vital for designing and optimizing these engines for commercialization. The results indicate that in an
Ammonia-diesel
ammonia-air mixture atmosphere, diesel undergoes a prolonged ignition process, enhancing the role of premixed
ammonia substitution ratio
combustion. Increasing ammonia substitution at constant speed and load reduces the weight of mixing-controlled
Combustion process
emission performance combustion, leading to larger areas in the chamber where diesel flames cannot reach. Ammonia oxidation mainly
occurs near the diesel flame, as overly lean ammonia-air mixtures fail to sustain stable flame propagation. This
results in considerable unburned ammonia emissions, particularly in regions beyond diesel flame reach and
engine crevices, adversely affecting combustion efficiency and diminishing the thermal efficiency advantages of
such operation. Furthermore, while ammonia combustion contributes to fuel-borne nitrogen oxides (NOx) for
mation, the overall NOx emissions from ammonia-diesel engines are reduced due to lower combustion tem
peratures and the deNOx properties of amino groups. However, the partial oxidation of ammonia during the late
expansion stroke generates significant levels of nitrous oxide (N2O), a greenhouse gas, in the emissions, coun
teracting the intended reduction of carbon dioxide. These experimental findings highlight the necessity of
focusing on both improving in-cylinder combustion quality and developing effective aftertreatment systems for
NH3 and N2O capture, as crucial steps towards enhancing the environmental performance and market viability of
ammonia-diesel dual fuel engines.
1. Introduction carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, ne
cessitates meticulous strategies to curtail its carbon footprint, aiming for
The internal combustion engine is a hallmark invention of the a transition towards carbon neutrality (Reiter and Kong, 2011; Duan
modern industrial revolution (Di Blasio et al., 2023; Di Luca et al., et al., 2023b). Given that engines inherently emit CO2 by combusting
2022). As a power source with high thermal efficiency, superior power high-carbon fossil fuels, transitioning to sustainable low or zero-carbon
density, and versatility in fuel compatibility (Gao et al., 2022a, 2022b), alternatives presents a direct solution to lessen or supplant petroleum
the engine remains crucial in sectors like agriculture and heavy trans dependence, thereby curtailing the associated carbon footprint (Yousefi
portation, highlighting its fundamental role in boosting societal pro et al., 2022a). Among zero-carbon fuels, ammonia stands out as a su
ductivity and advancing human progress (Alrwashdeh et al., 2022; Yang perior hydrogen energy carrier, offering greater energy density,
et al., 2024). In recent years, a global surge in collective efforts to improved safety (Shin and Park, 2023), and a more mature
combat climate change has ushered in a shared ambition and vision of production-storage-transportation system, enhancing its competitive
achieving carbon neutrality (Duan et al., 2023a; Huang and Liu, 2024). edge (Niki et al., 2019). Consequently, the potential of
The internal combustion engine, being a substantial contributor to ammonia-powered engines has spurred extensive research and policy
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.140274
Received 14 October 2023; Received in revised form 26 November 2023; Accepted 16 December 2023
Available online 22 December 2023
0959-6526/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Liu and J. Liu Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140274
developments globally, focusing on ammonia-centric standards, the is the generation of nitrous oxide (N2O) during ammonia combustion, a
conceptualization of an ammonia-integrated society, and the develop greenhouse gas uncommon in traditional engines and resistant to miti
ment of ammonia-adapted engine technologies. gation by diesel engine after-treatment devices (Yousefi et al., 2022b).
Ammonia (NH3), known for its high resistance to autoignition, offers The distinct characteristics of ammonia-diesel dual fuel engines under
a viable alternative as a fuel for internal combustion engines. It can be score the urgent need for comprehensive studies examining their per
initiated for combustion in engines through both spark ignition and pilot formance, combustion, and emission profiles. However, an examination
ignition using high cetane number fuels such as diesel, biodiesel, or of the current state of research in ammonia-diesel dual fuel engines in
dimethyl ether (Sun et al., 2023). Despite its potential, ammonia ex dicates a notable scarcity in the literature, with the existing studies
hibits two significant limitations when used in spark ignition (SI) en primarily comprising limited three-dimensional (3D) computational
gines, which are predominantly designed for gasoline. Firstly, ammonia fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations (Wang et al., 2023a, 2024). This trend
demands a high spark energy for combustion initiation (Kurien and stems from the nascent stage of ammonia engine development, evi
Mittal, 2023). Secondly, its laminar flame speed is considerably slower denced by the scarcity of commercial fuel injectors suitable for
than conventional fuels like gasoline (Liu and Liu, 2024). To substitute ammonia. The corrosive and toxic nature of ammonia necessitates spe
gasoline in SI engines, it is pivotal for the alternative fuel to exhibit a cial approvals and safety protocols for experimental use. Moreover,
flame speed akin to gasoline. Existing studies suggest the addition of adapting conventional engines for ammonia fuel requires intricate
hydrogen to elevate the laminar flame speed of ammonia. It is estimated modifications, particularly in the fuel supply system. Despite the paucity
that a minimum of 10% hydrogen is necessary to achieve acceptable of experimental data on ammonia-diesel operations, researchers have
combustion efficiency in the engine combustion chamber (Mørch et al., resorted to 3D CFD simulations for preliminary analysis, driven by the
2011). Nonetheless, this approach still encounters a longer ignition lag, pressing industry and governmental demands for decarbonization
leading to increased cycle-to-cycle variations (Comotti and Frigo, 2015). (Wang et al., 2023b, 2023c). Dual-fuel engine simulations are inherently
The reason is the kernel inception process, which is heavily influenced complex due to factors such as fuel vaporization, mixing, and combus
by the laminar flame. To attain a laminar flame speed parallel to gaso tion, which create multifaceted thermal-fluid-chemical interactions.
line, a mixture containing ~40% hydrogen with ammonia is essential These interactions are further complicated by varying equivalence ratios
(Yan et al., 2023). This high demand for hydrogen presents challenges, and temperature gradients. Critical considerations include both low and
particularly concerning the on-board hydrogen production system high-temperature reaction pathways that govern ignition and combus
through ammonia decomposition using catalysts (Ryu et al., 2014). tion, encompassing numerous intermediate reactions and products,
Considering these challenges, the prospect of retrofitting diesel engines thereby amplifying mechanism complexity, uncertainty, and potential
for diesel-ammonia dual fuel operation becomes appealing (Yousefi errors. The absence of experimental data to support ammonia-diesel
et al., 2022b). Such modifications are not only simpler but also CFD models poses a significant challenge (Wang et al., 2023a).
cost-effective since they eliminate the need for an on-board hydrogen Without empirical benchmarks, accurately predicting physical and
production system. However, research on diesel-ammonia dual fuel chemical phenomena becomes difficult (Wang et al., 2024). The selec
engines remains scant, possibly because this combustion mode can only tion and calibration of sub-models (e.g., combustion and injection
partially replace petroleum fuels rather than facilitating a full transition models) are hindered by inherent uncertainties and errors, which may
as in the case of ammonia spark ignition mode. It is noteworthy to compound when integrated, leading to increased uncertainty in simu
mention the emergence of E-diesel (i.e. synthetic diesel fuel) (Medra lation outcomes (Wang et al., 2023a, 2024). If these CFD models are not
no-García et al., 2022), a carbon-neutral alternative synthesized from meticulously validated and adjusted, their reliability and the accuracy of
carbon dioxide, water, and electricity using renewable energy to pro resulting predictions about engine performance could be significantly
duce blue crude—which contrasts with traditional crude oil and is compromised (Wang et al., 2023a, 2024). Addressing this knowledge
refined into E-diesel—underscores the significance of exploring gap, this study aims to provide high-quality, reliable experimental data
diesel-ammonia dual fuel operation modes. for ammonia-diesel dual fuel engines. Furthermore, this study offers a
The concept of dual fuel operation is not novel, having been exten comprehensive analysis of engine performance based on recent indoor
sively employed in natural gas-diesel (Lounici et al., 2014; Belgiorno experimental tests, vital for understanding the unique combustion be
et al., 2019) and methanol-diesel dual fuel (Liu et al., 2015; Wang et al., haviors of these engines and providing crucial insights for their future
2022) engines. Drawing upon these experiences, certain characteristics development and optimization. Subsequent sections will detail the
of dual fuel engines have become well-documented. For instance, under experimental apparatus and operating conditions underpinning the data
low load conditions, these engines tend to exhibit markedly low com gathered for ammonia-diesel dual fuel operations, followed by an
bustion efficiency, leading to a minimal alternative fuel substitution. in-depth evaluation of performance and the impacts of varying ammonia
Additionally, at very high loads, there is also a necessity to limit the substitution ratios on the engine.
alternative fuel substitution rate due to potential knocking of the un
burned mixture and the possible high-pressure rise rate that could 2. Materials and methods
jeopardize engine components. Under medium to high load conditions,
dual fuel engines can accommodate a higher alternative fuel substitution Experiments are conducted on an ammonia-diesel dual-fuel engine,
rate, facilitating a reduction in conventional petroleum consumption. equipped with an ammonia port fuel injection system alongside a high-
Introducing ammonia as a substitute for natural gas or methanol in the pressure common rail diesel injection system. This engine originates
premixed fuel brings forth distinctive features in the dual fuel engine. from a turbocharged and intercooled four-cylinder inline diesel system
Notably, the heightened resistance to auto-ignition of ammonia negates with a high-pressure common rail but without exhaust gas recirculation.
the possibility of knocking with the compression ratios found in During the conversion process, ammonia is fumigated ahead of the
contemporary diesel engines (Pei et al., 2023). The introduction of intake valves using gaseous injectors, resulting in the formation of a
ammonia also activates the element nitrogen and opens channels for homogeneous ammonia-air mixture within the bowl-in-piston combus
carbon and nitrogen interactions, thus affecting combustion and emis tion chamber. The original diesel injector, featuring eight nozzle holes
sion formation. Furthermore, the concurrent combustion of ammonia each with a diameter of 0.129 mm, remains in place, injecting diesel
and diesel introduces fuel nitrogen oxides (NOx) formation pathways, near the top dead center and thus initiating the co-combustion of diesel
which intertwine with thermal NOx (Xu et al., 2023). Ammonia intrin and ammonia. Table 1 details the engine specifications following its
sically possesses nitrogen oxides reducing (deNOx) properties, adding to adaptation to ammonia-diesel dual fuel combustion.
the complexity of NOx formation and consumption within the com Fig. 1 presents a detailed schematic representation of the engine test
bustion chamber (Niki et al., 2019). Another environmental implication bench. The engine operates on commercially available diesel fuel,
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J. Liu and J. Liu Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140274
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J. Liu and J. Liu Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140274
using established fuel types (Niki et al., 2019; Nadimi et al., 2023). Fig. 2 displays the cylinder pressure variations in the ammonia-diesel
Data collection begins once the engine has stably operated at the engine across ammonia substitution ratios from ASR0 to ~ASR50.
desired condition for a minimum of 3 min. The in-cylinder pressure trace During pure diesel operation, three distinct pressure peaks are evident,
is captured using a pressure transducer and is pegged to the manifold attributed to the delayed injection timing. Specifically, the initial pres
intake pressure. Both the top dead center and crankshaft angular signals sure peak arises from the compression stroke. However, this peak is
are recorded using an encoder. Analysis of the combustion process, marginally lower than in the motoring condition because the injection of
based on in-cylinder pressure data, employs a single-zone heat-release liquid diesel before reaching top dead center decreases the cylinder
model utilizing the ideal gas law, operating under the assumption of temperature, leading to reduced cylinder pressure. At a medium load of
uniform pressure and temperature. Emission measurements encompass ~7.7 bar brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), a distinct premixed or
a range of pollutants including total hydrocarbons (THC), carbon rapid combustion phase emerges, characterized by the combustion of
monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), NOx (a mixture of NO and nitrogen fuel that has mixed with air within the flammability limits during the
dioxide (NO2)), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and ignition delay, leading to a second, albeit smaller, pressure peak within
ammonia (NH3). These measurements are conducted using an advanced just a few crank angle degrees. The third and most prominent pressure
FTIR spectroscopy exhaust gas analyzer, a technique chosen for its peak under the studied operating conditions results from the mixing-
comprehensive multi-component analysis capability. FTIR spectroscopy controlled combustion phase. Additionally, Fig. 2 illustrates how
is particularly adept at identifying multiple exhaust gas constituents due increasing the ASR shifts the cylinder pressure profile from a triple peak
to its ability to detect the unique infrared absorption features of different pattern to a dual peak one. This transition occurs because, as the
gases. This capability is crucial for our research as it enables the ammonia quantity increases and the diesel quantity decreases, the
simultaneous measurement of various exhaust components, providing a weight of the mixing-controlled combustion diminishes, leading to the
comprehensive emission profile of the dual-fuel engine. While Non- disappearance of the 3rd pressure peak. Furthermore, higher ASRs
Dispersive Infrared (NDIR) sensors are typically utilized for high- within the investigated range display a steeper pressure rise following
volume, single-component gas analysis due to their specific band-pass the compression peak, indicating a more dominant rapid combustion
filters that correspond to the absorption spectrum of particular gas phase.
molecules, FTIR offers a broader spectrum analysis. This broad- Fig. 3 depicts the impact of the ammonia substitution ratio on the
spectrum approach is essential for this research as it enables the apparent rate of heat release (AHRR). In the examined engine condi
simultaneous measurement of various exhaust gas components, which is tions, the ammonia equivalence ratio is notably low, making it incapable
vital for understanding the complete emission profile of the dual-fuel of facilitating ammonia to initiate a flame propagation process. Instead,
engine. The versatility of FTIR analysis is particularly beneficial for ammonia oxidation is primarily concentrated around the diesel flame
this study, as the dual-fuel combustion process can result in a complex plumes, which result from diesel combustion within the ammonia-air
mixture of gases. Furthermore, the accuracy of emissions measurements mixture. Accordingly, to understand the changes introduced by
is ensured by conducting careful calibration against known standards for ammonia replacing part of the diesel, it is imperative to first describe the
all exhaust components. In addition to the multi-gas analysis, soot pure diesel combustion process. In Fig. 3, the rate-of-heat-release curve
emissions from the dual-fuel engine exhaust are evaluated using a smoke for pure diesel operation reveals minimal heat release until the end of
meter. This device employs the filter paper method, a widely recognized compression, at which point an obvious heat loss is observed during the
technique, to ascertain the filter smoke number (FSN), which quantifies ignition delay period—defined as the time between the start of injection
the soot emission levels. The combination of FTIR spectroscopy for gas (SOI) and the start of combustion (SOC)—attributed to wall heat
analysis and the smoke meter for particulate matter provides a holistic transfer, fuel vaporization, and heating. During the combustion process
assessment of the engine emission characteristics. Table 3 presents the of pure diesel, burning evolves through three distinct stages. The first
measurement accuracy and experimental uncertainty associated with involves the combustion of a premixed fuel-air mixture formed during
the main instruments used in the study. the ignition delay, resulting in high heat-release rates typical of this
phase. Following the consumption of this premixed fuel and air, the
3. Results and discussion second stage emerges as the mixing-controlled combustion phase.
Although influenced by processes like liquid fuel atomization, vapor
This section delves into the effects of the ammonia substitution ratio ization, fuel vapor mixing with air, and preflame chemical reactions, this
on the performance, combustion, and emission characteristics of the burning rate of this phase is predominantly determined by the fuel
ammonia-diesel dual-fuel engine, grounded in experimental analysis. vapor-air mixing process. Consequently, this stage sees a progressively
Each condition is evaluated based on 200 consecutively collected cycles. declining heat-release rate that initially peaks again during the primary
If present, error bars in the subsequent figures denote the 95% confi
dence interval, which encompasses two standard deviations.
Table 3
Accuracy and uncertainty of key measured parameters.
Instrument Measured parameters Accuracy Uncertainty (%)
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Fig. 5. Brake thermal efficiency and operational financial cost responses to Fig. 7. Peak pressure location and energy release centroid responses to varying
varying ammonia substitution at constant engine speed and load. ammonia substitution at constant engine speed and load.
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Fig. 13. N2O and CO2 equivalent emissions responses to varying ammonia
substitution at constant engine speed and load. Fig. 14. COVIEMP and COVPCP responses to varying ammonia substitution at
constant engine speed and load.
reducing the contact surface area between small species derived from
diesel and the ammonia-air mixture. Such reduced contact is not condition, the COVIMEP remains below 3%, a threshold typically deemed
conducive to N2O formation, even if the formation rate is efficient per stable for operation. In Fig. 14, the COV of peak cylinder pressure (PCP)
unit of contact area. Since N2O is an incomplete combustion product of complements the information provided by COVIMEP. This cooperative
ammonia, enhancing ammonia combustion efficiency also serves as a data presentation is crucial, as fluctuations in peak cylinder pressure can
strategy to curtail N2O emissions. Nitrous oxide has a global warming indicate variations in auto-ignition timing and the subsequent main
potential (GWP) that is significantly higher than that of CO2. Over a combustion phase. Additionally, CCV in peak cylinder pressure in
century, the GWP of N2O is about 298 times that of CO2. With increased fluences the engine noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) attributes
ammonia substitution ratios in diesel engines, less diesel is consumed, (Dimitrakopoulos et al., 2017). Furthermore, erratic combustion events
leading to reduced CO2 emissions. However, the non-negligible levels of and atypical peak pressures can induce mechanical strains on engine
N2O emissions complicate the evaluation. The CO2-equivalent metric, components, potentially accelerating wear and curtailing engine
which equates emissions from various greenhouse gases based on their longevity. Interestingly, the correlation between the ammonia substi
global warming potential, is used to place these gases on a common scale tution ratio and COVPCP in Fig. 14 adopts a hump-like profile, but its
for easier comparison. Fig. 13 illustrates that the CO2-equivalent emis peak value remains within permissible bounds. Transitioning from a
sions from ammonia-diesel dual-fuel engines are higher than those from purely diesel mode to an ammonia-diesel dual-fuel operation augments
pure diesel, undermining the goal of decarbonization and exacerbating the variation in peak cylinder pressure. This change is attributed mainly
the greenhouse effect. Although operating conditions with ammonia to greater inconsistencies in the auto-ignition phase. The diminishing
substitution ratios of ASR43 and ASR51 produce lower CO2-equivalent COVPCP, despite a rising COVIMEP when the ammonia substitution ratio
emissions than pure diesel, their combustion efficiencies are suboptimal, exceeds 26%, underscores the idea that variations in the subsequent
and their unburned NH3 emissions exceed acceptable limits. Before main combustion phase primarily dictate engine stability. Most
conducting detailed studies, there are expectations that NOx emissions crucially, the viability of transitioning from traditional diesel engines to
might be a significant challenge for ammonia-diesel dual-fuel engines ammonia-diesel dual-fuel operations is underscored by the tolerable
due to fuel-based NOx formation, but the findings here highlight range of cycle-to-cycle variation, which also suggests potential CO2
elevated unburned NH3 and N2O emissions as the primary concerns. emission reductions by substituting diesel with ammonia.
Given that these emissions are intrinsic to ammonia-diesel dual-fuel
engines, and acknowledging that selective catalytic reduction (SCR) for 4. Summary and conclusions
NOx reduction can also result in some N2O emissions, it is imperative to
consider integrating an additional aftertreatment device specifically This study rigorously investigates the performance characteristics of
designed to capture N2O. The environmental advantages of ammonia-diesel dual fuel engine operations, a subject that has not been
ammonia-diesel dual-fuel engines would be considerably enhanced if extensively explored in the current body of research. The primary
nitrous oxide emissions could be effectively mitigated. objective is to enhance the understanding of this operation mode, which
Cycle-to-cycle variation (CCV) is pivotal in diesel engines. It in is crucial for leveraging ammonia, a zero-carbon fuel, in reducing the
fluences engine performance, fuel efficiency, emissions, durability, and carbon footprint associated with engine emissions. Methodically,
user comfort, either directly or indirectly. Efficient control of CCV is experimental tests are conducted under consistent engine speed and
instrumental in optimizing engine operations and prolonging its life load conditions, maintaining uniform injection timing. Throughout
span. The coefficient of variation (COV) of the indicated mean effective these experiments, the proportion of ammonia substitution ratio is
pressure (IMEP) offers a snapshot of this variation across a given set of progressively increased from 0% to ~50%, concomitant with a decrease
cycles, serving as an index recording the entire operational history of in diesel quantity per cycle achieved by reducing the injection duration.
each fired cycle. In Fig. 14, a clear trend emerges with the rise in the The key insights derived from the analysis of the experimental data are
ammonia substitution ratio leading to an increase in the COV of IMEP, as follows:
suggesting heightened combustion instability. Yet, even at the ASR51
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J. Liu and J. Liu Journal of Cleaner Production 434 (2024) 140274
(1) In the transition from mono-fuel diesel to ammonia-diesel dual diesel dual fuel operations. Second, the integration of after
fuel operation, it is observed that the combustion mechanism treatment systems designed to capture unburned ammonia and
predominantly involves premixed combustion, subsequently fol nitrous oxide emissions emerges as a pivotal strategy, potentially
lowed by the mixing-controlled combustion phase. This pattern is playing a significant role in substantially reducing the carbon
attributed to the lean nature of the ammonia-air mixtures, which footprint associated with these dual fuel engines.
can lead to flame quenching in ammonia and challenges in
maintaining stable ammonia flame propagation. As the ammonia CRediT authorship contribution statement
substitution ratio increases, there is a discernible shift in com
bustion dynamics; the prominence of premixed combustion is Junheng Liu: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisi
enhanced, while the relevance of the mixing-controlled com tion, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Writing – orig
bustion phase decreases. inal draft. Jinlong Liu: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding
(2) Within the realm of ammonia-diesel dual fuel operation, it is acquisition, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Writing –
noted that the ignition delay period is extended. A higher review & editing.
ammonia substitution ratio further exacerbates this extension of
ignition delay. Such prolongation in ignition delay results in a
more substantial portion of the fuel energy being released during Declaration of competing interest
the premixed combustion phase. This phenomenon subsequently
culminates in an earlier attainment of peak pressure and an The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
increased rate of pressure rise. The ammonia-diesel dual fuel interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
configuration shows potential for enhanced thermal efficiency. the work reported in this paper.
Nonetheless, it is observed that an increase in ammonia substi
tution correlates with a marked reduction in combustion effi Data availability
ciency, which, in turn, impedes gains in thermal efficiency and
contributes to a decrease in exhaust gas temperature. The Data will be made available on request.
reduced combustion efficiency observed in ammonia-diesel dual
fuel operation is primarily attributed to the decreased combus Acknowledgments
tion efficiency of ammonia, even though this mode also leads to
diminished diesel combustion efficiency. This research has received support from the National Natural Science
(3) Replacement of diesel with ammonia in dual fuel operations Foundation of China under Grant No. 51806086, with Prof. Dr. Junheng
demonstrates a reduction in carbon dioxide and soot emissions. Liu as the beneficiary. Additionally, it is backed by the National Natural
However, an escalation in the ammonia substitution ratio is Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52306169), the Zhejiang Pro
observed to correlate with an increase in CO and THC emissions. vincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. LQ23E060005),
This trend is attributed to the competitive interaction between the State Key Laboratory of Engines at Tianjin University (Grant No
ammonia and the small species produced from diesel cracking for K2022-05), and the State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Agricultural
oxidation by OH radicals. Additionally, the dual fuel strategy Power Equipment at Luoyang Tractor Research Institute Co., Ltd. (Grant
involving ammonia and diesel results in lower NOx emissions, a No. SKLIAPE2023002), with Prof. Dr. Jinlong Liu acknowledged as the
consequence of the combined effects of reduced combustion grant recipient. The authors also gratefully acknowledge the Zhejiang
temperatures and the NOx reducing properties of amino groups. Key Laboratory of Clean Energy and Carbon Neutrality (The Baima Lake
With the increase in ammonia substitution ratio, there is a Laboratory) and the Jiaxing Research Institute of Zhejiang University for
notable expansion of regions within the combustion chamber that their support and assistance.
remain beyond the reach of the diesel flame. Simultaneously, a
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