Designation: E94 – 04 (Reapproved 2010)

Standard Guide for

Radiographic Examination1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E94; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original
adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A superscript
epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-
1.1 This guide2 covers satisfactory X-ray and gamma-ray bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. (See 1.4.)
radiographic examination as applied to industrial radiographic 1.6 If an NDT agency is used, the agency shall be qualified
film recording. It includes statements about preferred practice in accordance with Practice E543.
without discussing the technical background which justifies the 2. Referenced Documents
preference. A bibliography of several textbooks and standard
documents of other societies is included for additional infor- 2.1 ASTM Standards:3
mation on the subject. E543 Specification for Agencies Performing Nondestruc-
1.2 This guide covers types of materials to be examined; tive Testing
radiographic examination techniques and production methods; E746 Practice for Determining Relative Image Quality
radiographic film selection, processing, viewing, and storage; Response of Industrial Radiographic Imaging Systems
maintenance of inspection records; and a list of available E747 Practice for Design, Manufacture and Material
reference radiograph documents. Grouping Classification of Wire Image Quality Indicators
(IQI) Used for Radiology
NOTE 1—Further information is contained in Guide E999, Practice E801 Practice for Controlling Quality of Radiological Ex-
E1025, Test Methods E1030, and E1032.
amination of Electronic Devices
1.3 Interpretation and Acceptance Standards— E999 Guide for Controlling the Quality of Industrial Radio-
Interpretation and acceptance standards are not covered by this graphic Film Processing
guide, beyond listing the available reference radiograph docu- E1025 Practice for Design, Manufacture, and Material
ments for castings and welds. Designation of accept - reject Grouping Classification of Hole-Type Image Quality Indi-
standards is recognized to be within the cognizance of product cators (IQI) Used for Radiology
specifications and generally a matter of contractual agreement E1030 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Me-
between producer and purchaser. tallic Castings
1.4 Safety Practices—Problems of personnel protection E1032 Test Method for Radiographic Examination of Weld-
against X rays and gamma rays are not covered by this ments
document. For information on this important aspect of radiog- E1079 Practice for Calibration of Transmission Densitom-
raphy, reference should be made to the current document of the eters
National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measure- E1254 Guide for Storage of Radiographs and Unexposed
ment, Federal Register, U.S. Energy Research and Develop- Industrial Radiographic Films
ment Administration, National Bureau of Standards, and to E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
state and local regulations, if such exist. For specific radiation E1390 Specification for Illuminators Used for Viewing
safety information refer to NIST Handbook ANSI 43.3, 21 Industrial Radiographs
CFR 1020.40, and 29 CFR 1910.1096 or state regulations for E1735 Test Method for Determining Relative Image Qual-
agreement states. ity of Industrial Radiographic Film Exposed to
1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the X-Radiation from 4 to 25 MeV
safety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is the E1742 Practice for Radiographic Examination
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- E1815 Test Method for Classification of Film Systems for
Industrial Radiography
1
2.2 ANSI Standards:
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc-
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.01 on Radiology PH1.41 Specifications for Photographic Film for Archival
(X and Gamma) Method.
Current edition approved June 1, 2010. Published November 2010. Originally
3
approved in 1952. Last previous edition approved in 2004 as E94 - 04. DOI: For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
10.1520/E0094-04R10. contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM
2
For ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code applications see related Guide Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
SE-94 in Section V of that Code. the ASTM website.

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 E94 – 04 (2010)
Records, Silver-Gelatin Type, on Polyester Base4 5.1.7 Image quality indicators (IQI’s),
PH2.22 Methods for Determining Safety Times of Photo- 5.1.8 Screens and filters,
graphic Darkroom Illumination4 5.1.9 Geometry of part or component configuration,
PH4.8 Methylene Blue Method for Measuring Thiosulfate 5.1.10 Identification and location markers, and
and Silver Densitometric Method for Measuring Residual 5.1.11 Radiographic quality level.
Chemicals in Films, Plates, and Papers4
T9.1 Imaging Media (Film)—Silver-Gelatin Type Specifi- 6. Radiographic Quality Level
cations for Stability4 6.1 Information on the design and manufacture of image
T9.2 Imaging Media—Photographic Process Film Plate and quality indicators (IQI’s) can be found in Practices E747,
Paper Filing Enclosures and Storage Containers4 E801, E1025, and E1742.
2.3 Federal Standards: 6.2 The quality level usually required for radiography is
Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1020.40, 2 % (2-2T when using hole type IQI) unless a higher or lower
Safety Requirements of Cabinet X-Ray Systems5 quality is agreed upon between the purchaser and the supplier.
Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1910.96, At the 2 % subject contrast level, three quality levels of
Ionizing Radiation (X-Rays, RF, etc.)5 inspection, 2-1T, 2-2T, and 2-4T, are available through the
2.4 Other Document: design and application of the IQI (Practice E1025, Table 1).
NBS Handbook ANSI N43.3 General Radiation Safety Other levels of inspection are available in Practice E1025 Table
Installations Using NonMedical X-Ray and Sealed 1. The level of inspection specified should be based on the
Gamma Sources up to 10 MeV6 service requirements of the product. Great care should be taken
in specifying quality levels 2-1T, 1-1T, and 1-2T by first
3. Terminology determining that these quality levels can be maintained in
3.1 Definitions—For definitions of terms used in this guide, production radiography.
refer to Terminology E1316. NOTE 2—The first number of the quality level designation refers to IQI
thickness expressed as a percentage of specimen thickness; the second
4. Significance and Use number refers to the diameter of the IQI hole that must be visible on the
4.1 Within the present state of the radiographic art, this radiograph, expressed as a multiple of penetrameter thickness, T.
guide is generally applicable to available materials, processes, 6.3 If IQI’s of material radiographically similar to that being
and techniques where industrial radiographic films are used as examined are not available, IQI’s of the required dimensions
the recording media. but of a lower-absorption material may be used.
4.2 Limitations—This guide does not take into consider- 6.4 The quality level required using wire IQI’s shall be
ation special benefits and limitations resulting from the use of equivalent to the 2-2T level of Practice E1025 unless a higher
nonfilm recording media or readouts such as paper, tapes, or lower quality level is agreed upon between purchaser and
xeroradiography, fluoroscopy, and electronic image intensifi- supplier. Table 4 of Practice E747 gives a list of various
cation devices. Although reference is made to documents that hole-type IQI’s and the diameter of the wires of corresponding
may be used in the identification and grading, where appli- EPS with the applicable 1T, 2T, and 4T holes in the plaque IQI.
cable, of representative discontinuities in common metal cast- Appendix X1 of Practice E747 gives the equation for calcu-
ings and welds, no attempt has been made to set standards of lating other equivalencies, if needed.
acceptance for any material or production process. Radiogra-
phy will be consistent in sensitivity and resolution only if the 7. Energy Selection
effect of all details of techniques, such as geometry, film, 7.1 X-ray energy affects image quality. In general, the lower
filtration, viewing, etc., is obtained and maintained. the energy of the source utilized the higher the achievable
radiographic contrast, however, other variables such as geom-

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5. Quality of Radiographs etry and scatter conditions may override the potential advan-
5.1 To obtain quality radiographs, it is necessary to consider tage of higher contrast. For a particular energy, a range of
as a minimum the following list of items. Detailed information thicknesses which are a multiple of the half value layer, may be
on each item is further described in this guide. radiographed to an acceptable quality level utilizing a particu-
5.1.1 Radiation source (X-ray or gamma), lar X-ray machine or gamma ray source. In all cases the
5.1.2 Voltage selection (X-ray), specified IQI (penetrameter) quality level must be shown on
5.1.3 Source size (X-ray or gamma), the radiograph. In general, satisfactory results can normally be
5.1.4 Ways and means to eliminate scattered radiation, obtained for X-ray energies between 100 kV to 500 kV in a
5.1.5 Film system class, range between 2.5 to 10 half value layers (HVL) of material
5.1.6 Source to film distance, thickness (see Table 1). This range may be extended by as
much as a factor of 2 in some situations for X-ray energies in
the 1 to 25 MV range primarily because of reduced scatter.
4
Available from American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St.,
4th Floor, New York, NY 10036. 8. Radiographic Equivalence Factors
5
Available from U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents,
732 N. Capitol St., NW, Mail Stop: SDE, Washington, DC 20401.
8.1 The radiographic equivalence factor of a material is that
6
Available from National Technical Information Service (NTIS), U.S. Depart- factor by which the thickness of the material must be multi-
ment of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Rd., Springfield, VA 22161. plied to give the thickness of a “standard” material (often steel)

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 E94 – 04 (2010)
TABLE 1 Typical Steel HVL Thickness in Inches (mm) for classification of film systems is provided in Test Method
Common Energies E1815. ANSI Standards PH1.41, PH4.8, T9.1, and T9.2 pro-
Thickness, vide specific details and requirements for film manufacturing.
Energy
Inches (mm)
120 kV 0.10 (2.5) 10. Filters
150 kV 0.14 (3.6)
200 kV 0.20 (5.1)
10.1 Definition—Filters are uniform layers of material
250 kV 0.25 (6.4) placed between the radiation source and the film.
400 kV (Ir 192) 0.35 (8.9) 10.2 Purpose—The purpose of filters is to absorb the softer
1 MV 0.57 (14.5)
2 MV (Co 60) 0.80 (20.3)
components of the primary radiation, thus resulting in one or
4 MV 1.00 (25.4) several of the following practical advantages:
6 MV 1.15 (29.2) 10.2.1 Decreasing scattered radiation, thus increasing con-
10 MV 1.25 (31.8)
16 MV and higher 1.30 (33.0) trast.
10.2.2 Decreasing undercutting, thus increasing contrast.
10.2.3 Decreasing contrast of parts of varying thickness.
10.3 Location—Usually the filter will be placed in one of
which has the same absorption. Radiographic equivalence the following two locations:
factors of several of the more common metals are given in 10.3.1 As close as possible to the radiation source, which
Table 2, with steel arbitrarily assigned a factor of 1.0. The minimizes the size of the filter and also the contribution of the
factors may be used: filter itself to scattered radiation to the film.
8.1.1 To determine the practical thickness limits for radia- 10.3.2 Between the specimen and the film in order to absorb
tion sources for materials other than steel, and preferentially the scattered radiation from the specimen. It
8.1.2 To determine exposure factors for one metal from should be noted that lead foil and other metallic screens (see
exposure techniques for other metals. 13.1) fulfill this function.
10.4 Thickness and Filter Material— The thickness and
9. Film
material of the filter will vary depending upon the following:
9.1 Various industrial radiographic film are available to 10.4.1 The material radiographed.
meet the needs of production radiographic work. However, 10.4.2 Thickness of the material radiographed.
definite rules on the selection of film are difficult to formulate 10.4.3 Variation of thickness of the material radiographed.
because the choice depends on individual user requirements. 10.4.4 Energy spectrum of the radiation used.
Some user requirements are as follows: radiographic quality 10.4.5 The improvement desired (increasing or decreasing
levels, exposure times, and various cost factors. Several contrast). Filter thickness and material can be calculated or
methods are available for assessing image quality levels (see determined empirically.
Test Method E746, and Practices E747 and E801). Information
about specific products can be obtained from the manufactur- 11. Masking
ers. 11.1 Masking or blocking (surrounding specimens or cov-
9.2 Various industrial radiographic films are manufactured ering thin sections with an absorptive material) is helpful in
to meet quality level and production needs. Test Method E1815 reducing scattered radiation. Such a material can also be used
provides a method for film manufacturer classification of film to equalize the absorption of different sections, but the loss of
systems. A film system consist of the film and associated film detail may be high in the thinner sections.
processing system. Users may obtain a classification table from
the film manufacturer for the film system used in production 12. Back-Scatter Protection
radiography. A choice of film class can be made as provided in 12.1 Effects of back-scattered radiation can be reduced by
Test Method E1815. Additional specific details regarding confining the radiation beam to the smallest practical cross

TABLE 2 Approximate Radiographic Equivalence Factors for Several Metals (Relative to Steel)
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Energy Level
Metal
192 60
100 kV 150 kV 220 kV 250 kV 400 kV 1 MV 2 MV 4 to 25 MV Ir Co
Magnesium 0.05 0.05 0.08
Aluminum 0.08 0.12 0.18 0.35 0.35
Aluminum alloy 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.35 0.35
Titanium 0.54 0.54 0.71 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Iron/all steels 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1
Zinc 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
Brass 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0
Inconel X 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
Monel 1.7 1.2
Zirconium 2.4 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.0
Lead 14.0 14.0 12.0 5.0 2.5 2.7 4.0 2.3
Hafnium 14.0 12.0 9.0 3.0
Uranium 20.0 16.0 12.0 4.0 3.9 12.6 3.4

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 E94 – 04 (2010)
section and by placing lead behind the film. In some cases 13.2.3 Gold, tantalum, or other heavy metal screens may be
either or both the back lead screen and the lead contained in the used in cases where lead cannot be used.
back of the cassette or film holder will furnish adequate 13.3 Fluorescent Screens—Fluorescent screens may be
protection against back-scattered radiation. In other instances, used as required providing the required image quality is
this must be supplemented by additional lead shielding behind achieved. Proper selection of the fluorescent screen is required
the cassette or film holder. to minimize image unsharpness. Technical information about
12.2 If there is any question about the adequacy of protec- specific fluorescent screen products can be obtained from the
tion from back-scattered radiation, a characteristic symbol manufacturers. Good film-screen contact and screen cleanli-
(frequently a 1⁄8-in. (3.2-mm) thick letter B) should be attached ness are required for successful use of fluorescent screens.
to the back of the cassette or film holder, and a radiograph Additional information on the use of fluorescent screens is
made in the normal manner. If the image of this symbol provided in Appendix X1.
appears on the radiograph as a lighter density than background, 13.4 Screen Care—All screens should be handled carefully
it is an indication that protection against back-scattered radia- to avoid dents and scratches, dirt, or grease on active surfaces.
tion is insufficient and that additional precautions must be Grease and lint may be removed from lead screens with a
taken. solvent. Fluorescent screens should be cleaned in accordance
with the recommendations of the manufacturer. Screens show-
13. Screens ing evidence of physical damage should be discarded.
13.1 Metallic Foil Screens: 14. Radiographic Image Quality
13.1.1 Lead foil screens are commonly used in direct 14.1 Radiographic image quality is a qualitative term used
contact with the films, and, depending upon their thickness, to describe the capability of a radiograph to show flaws in the
and composition of the specimen material, will exhibit an area under examination. There are three fundamental compo-
intensifying action at as low as 90 kV. In addition, any screen nents of radiographic image quality as shown in Fig. 1. Each
used in front of the film acts as a filter (Section 10) to component is an important attribute when considering a
preferentially absorb scattered radiation arising from the speci- specific radiographic technique or application and will be
men, thus improving radiographic quality. The selection of lead briefly discussed below.
screen thickness, or for that matter, any metallic screen 14.2 Radiographic contrast between two areas of a radio-
thickness, is subject to the same considerations as outlined in graph is the difference between the film densities of those
10.4. Lead screens lessen the scatter reaching the film regard- areas. The degree of radiographic contrast is dependent upon
less of whether the screens permit a decrease or necessitate an both subject contrast and film contrast as illustrated in Fig. 1.
increase in the radiographic exposure. To avoid image unsharp- 14.2.1 Subject contrast is the ratio of X-ray or gamma-ray
ness due to screens, there should be intimate contact between intensities transmitted by two selected portions of a specimen.
the lead screen and the film during exposure. Subject contrast is dependent upon the nature of the specimen
13.1.2 Lead foil screens of appropriate thickness should be (material type and thickness), the energy (spectral composition,
used whenever they improve radiographic quality or penetram- hardness or wavelengths) of the radiation used and the intensity
eter sensitivity or both. The thickness of the front lead screens
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and distribution of scattered radiation. It is independent of

should be selected with care to avoid excessive filtration in the time, milliamperage or source strength (curies), source distance
radiography of thin or light alloy materials, particularly at the and the characteristics of the film system.
lower kilovoltages. In general, there is no exposure advantage 14.2.2 Film contrast refers to the slope (steepness) of the
to the use of 0.005 in. in front and back lead screens below 125 film system characteristic curve. Film contrast is dependent
kV in the radiography of 1⁄4-in. (6.35-mm) or lesser thickness upon the type of film, the processing it receives and the amount
steel. As the kilovoltage is increased to penetrate thicker of film density. It also depends upon whether the film was
sections of steel, however, there is a significant exposure exposed with lead screens (or without) or with fluorescent
advantage. In addition to intensifying action, the back lead screens. Film contrast is independent, for most practical
screens are used as protection against back-scattered radiation purposes, of the wavelength and distribution of the radiation
(see Section 12) and their thickness is only important for this reaching the film and, hence is independent of subject contrast.
function. As exposure energy is increased to penetrate greater For further information, consult Test Method E1815.
thicknesses of a given subject material, it is customary to 14.3 Film system granularity is the objective measurement
increase lead screen thickness. For radiography using radioac- of the local density variations that produce the sensation of
tive sources, the minimum thickness of the front lead screen graininess on the radiographic film (for example, measured
should be 0.005 in. (0.13 mm) for iridium-192, and 0.010 in. with a densitometer with a small aperture of # 0.0039 in. (0.1
(0.25 mm) for cobalt-60. mm)). Graininess is the subjective perception of a mottled
13.2 Other Metallic Screen Materials: random pattern apparent to a viewer who sees small local
13.2.1 Lead oxide screens perform in a similar manner to density variations in an area of overall uniform density (that is,
lead foil screens except that their equivalence in lead foil the visual impression of irregularity of silver deposit in a
thickness approximates 0.0005 in. (0.013 mm). processed radiograph). The degree of granularity will not affect
13.2.2 Copper screens have somewhat less absorption and the overall spatial radiographic resolution (expressed in line
intensification than lead screens, but may provide somewhat pairs per mm, etc.) of the resultant image and is usually
better radiographic sensitivity with higher energy above 1 MV. independent of exposure geometry arrangements. Granularity

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Radiographic Image Quality

Radiographic Contrast Film System Radiographic Definition
Granularity
Subject Film • Grain size and Inherent Geometric
Contrast Contrast distribution Unsharpness Unsharpness
within the
Affected by: Affected by: Affected by: Affected by:
film emulsion
• Absorption • Type • Degree of • Focal spot
• Processing
differences of film screen-film or source
conditions
in specimen • Degree of contact physical size
(type and activity
(thickness, development • Total film • Source-to-film
of developer,
composition, (type of thickness distance
temperature
density) developer, • Single or • Specimen-
of developer,
• Radiation time, double emulsion to-film
etc.)
wavelength temperature coatings distance
• Type of
• Scattered and activity • Radiation • Abruptness of
screens (that is,
radiation of developer, quality thickness
fluorescent,
degree of • Type and changes in
lead or none)
agitation) thickness specimen
• Radiation
• Film density of screens • Motion of
quality (that is,
• Type of (fluorescent, specimen or
energy level,
screens (that is, lead or none) radiation
filtration, etc.
fluorescent, source
• Exposure
lead or none)
quanta (that is,
intensity, dose,
Reduced or
etc.)
enhanced by:
• Masks and
diaphragms
• Filters
• Lead screens
• Potter-Bucky
diaphragms

FIG. 1 Variables of Radiographic Image Quality

is affected by the applied screens, screen-film contact and film NOTE 4—A nomogram for the determination of Ug is given in Fig. 3

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processing conditions. For further information on detailed (inch-pound units). Fig. 4 represents a nomogram in metric units.
perceptibility, consult Test Method E1815. Example:
Given:
14.4 Radiographic definition refers to the sharpness of the Source-object distance (do) = 40 in.,
image (both the image outline as well as image detail). Source size (F) = 500 mils, and
Radiographic definition is dependent upon the inherent un- Source side of specimen to film distance (t) = 1.5 in.
sharpness of the film system and the geometry of the radio- Draw a straight line (dashed in Fig. 3) between 500 mils on the F scale and
graphic exposure arrangement (geometric unsharpness) as 1.5 in. on the t scale. Note the point on intersection (P) of this line with
illustrated in Fig. 1. the pivot line. Draw a straight line (solid in Fig. 3) from 40 in. on the do
scale through point P and extend to the Ug scale. Intersection of this line
14.4.1 Inherent unsharpness (Ui) is the degree of visible
with the Ug scale gives geometrical unsharpness in mils, which in the
detail resulting from geometrical aspects within the film-screen example is 19 mils.
system, that is, screen-film contact, screen thickness, total
thickness of the film emulsions, whether single or double- Inasmuch as the source size, F, is usually fixed for a given
coated emulsions, quality of radiation used (wavelengths, etc.) radiation source, the value of Ug is essentially controlled by the
and the type of screen. Inherent unsharpness is independent of simple do/t ratio.
exposure geometry arrangements. Geometric unsharpness (Ug) can have a significant effect on
14.4.2 Geometric unsharpness (Ug) determines the degree the quality of the radiograph; therefore source-to-film-distance
of visible detail resultant from an “in-focus” exposure arrange- (SFD) selection is important. The geometric unsharpness (Ug)
ment consisting of the source-to-film-distance, object-to-film- equation, Eq 1, is for information and guidance and provides a
distance and focal spot size. Fig. 2(a) illustrates these condi- means for determining geometric unsharpness values. The
tions. Geometric unsharpness is given by the equation: amount or degree of unsharpness should be minimized when
establishing the radiographic technique.
Ug 5 Ft/do (1)
15. Radiographic Distortion
where: 15.1 The radiographic image of an object or feature within
Ug = geometric unsharpness, an object may be larger or smaller than the object or feature
F = maximum projected dimension of radiation source, itself, because the penumbra of the shadow is rarely visible in
t = distance from source side of specimen to film, and a radiograph. Therefore, the image will be larger if the object
do = source-object distance. or feature is larger than the source of radiation, and smaller if
NOTE 3—do and t must be in the same units of measure; the units of Ug object or feature is smaller than the source. The degree of
will be in the same units as F. reduction or enlargement will depend on the source-to-object

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FIG. 2 Effects of Object-Film Geometry

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 E94 – 04 (2010)

FIG. 3 Nomogram for Determining Geometrical Unsharpness (Inch-Pound Units)

and object-to-film distances, and on the relative sizes of the 16.2.4 Film type (relative speed),
source and the object or feature (Fig. 2(b) and (c)). 16.2.5 Film density, (see Note 5),
15.2 The direction of the central beam of radiation should
16.2.6 Source or source to film distance,
be perpendicular to the surface of the film whenever possible.
The object image will be distorted if the film is not aligned 16.2.7 Kilovoltage or isotope type,
perpendicular to the central beam. Different parts of the object NOTE 5—For detailed information on film density and density measure-
image will be distorted different amount depending on the ment calibration, see Practice E1079.
extent of the film to central beam offset (Fig. 2(d)).
16.2.8 Screen type and thickness,
16. Exposure Calculations or Charts 16.2.9 Curies or milliampere/minutes,
16.1 Development or procurement of an exposure chart or 16.2.10 Time of exposure,
calculator is the responsibility of the individual laboratory.
16.2.11 Filter (in the primary beam),
16.2 The essential elements of an exposure chart or calcu-
lator must relate the following: 16.2.12 Time-temperature development for hand process-
16.2.1 Source or machine, ing; access time for automatic processing; time-temperature
16.2.2 Material type, development for dry processing, and
16.2.3 Material thickness, --`,,`,,```,,``,`,,,,`,``,`,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
16.2.13 Processing chemistry brand name, if applicable.

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 E94 – 04 (2010)

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FIG. 4 Nomogram for Determining Geometrical Unsharpness (Metric Units)

16.3 The essential elements listed in 16.2 will be accurate 17.2 The radiographic technique log or record should con-
for isotopes of the same type, but will vary with X-ray tain the following:
equipment of the same kilovoltage and milliampere rating. 17.2.1 Description, photo, or sketch of the test object
16.4 Exposure charts should be developed for each X-ray illustrating marker layout, source placement, and film location.
machine and corrected each time a major component is 17.2.2 Material type and thickness,
replaced, such as the X-ray tube or high-voltage transformer. 17.2.3 Source to film distance,
16.5 The exposure chart should be corrected when the 17.2.4 Film type,
processing chemicals are changed to a different manufacturer’s 17.2.5 Film density, (see Note 5),
brand or the time-temperature relationship of the processor 17.2.6 Screen type and thickness,
may be adjusted to suit the exposure chart. The exposure chart, 17.2.7 Isotope or X-ray machine identification,
when using a dry processing method, should be corrected 17.2.8 Curie or milliampere minutes,
based upon the time-temperature changes of the processor. 17.2.9 IQI and shim thickness,
17.2.10 Special masking or filters,
17. Technique File 17.2.11 Collimator or field limitation device,
17.1 It is recommended that a radiographic technique log or 17.2.12 Processing method, and
record containing the essential elements be maintained. 17.2.13 View or location.

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17.3 The recommendations of 17.2 are not mandatory, but 19.2.2 Location markers are also used in assisting the
are essential in reducing the overall cost of radiography, and radiographic interpreter in marking off defective areas of
serve as a communication link between the radiographic components, castings, or defects in weldments; also, sorting
interpreter and the radiographic operator. good and rejectable items when more than one item is
radiographed on the same film.
18. Penetrameters (Image Quality Indicators) 19.2.3 Sufficient markers must be used to provide evidence
18.1 Practices E747, E801, E1025, and E1742 should be on the radiograph that the required coverage of the object being
consulted for detailed information on the design, manufacture examined has been obtained, and that overlap is evident,
and material grouping of IQI’s. Practice E801 addresses IQI’s especially during radiography of weldments and castings.
for examination of electronic devices and provides additional 19.2.4 Parts that must be identified permanently may have
details for positioning IQI’s, number of IQI’s required, and so the serial numbers or section numbers, or both, stamped or
forth. written upon them with a marking pen with a special indelible
18.2 Test Methods E746 and E1735 should be consulted for ink, engraved, die stamped, or etched. In any case, the part
detailed information regarding IQI’s which are used for deter- should be marked in an area not to be removed in subsequent
mining relative image quality response of industrial film. The fabrication. If die stamps are used, caution is required to
IQI’s can also be used for measuring the image quality of the prevent breakage or future fatigue failure. The lowest stressed
radiographic system or any component of the systems equiva- surface of the part should be used for this stamping. Where
lent penetrameter sensitivity (EPS) performance. marking or stamping of the part is not permitted for some
18.2.1 An example for determining and EPS performance reason, a marked reference drawing or shooting sketch is
evaluation of several X-ray machines is as follows: recommended.
18.2.1.1 Keep the film and film processing parameters
constant, and take multiple image quality exposures with all 20. Storage of Film
machines being evaluated. The machines should be set for a 20.1 Unexposed films should be stored in such a manner
prescribed exposure as stated in the standard and the film that they are protected from the effects of light, pressure,
density equalized. By comparison of the resultant films, the excessive heat, excessive humidity, damaging fumes or vapors,
relative EPS variations between the machines can be deter- or penetrating radiation. Film manufacturers should be con-
mined. sulted for detailed recommendations on film storage. Storage
18.2.2 Exposure condition variables may also be studied of film should be on a “first in,” “first out” basis.
using this plaque. 20.2 More detailed information on film storage is provided
18.2.3 While Test Method E746 plaque can be useful in in Guide E1254.
quantifying relative radiographic image quality, these other
21. Safelight Test
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applications of the plaque may be useful.

21.1 Films should be handled under safelight conditions in
19. Identification of and Location Markers on accordance with the film manufacturer’s recommendations.
Radiographs ANSI PH2.22 can be used to determine the adequacy of
19.1 Identification of Radiographs: safelight conditions in a darkroom.
19.1.1 Each radiograph must be identified uniquely so that
there is a permanent correlation between the part radiographed 22. Cleanliness and Film Handling
and the film. The type of identification and method by which 22.1 Cleanliness is one of the most important requirements
identification is achieved shall be as agreed upon between the for good radiography. Cassettes and screens must be kept
customer and inspector. clean, not only because dirt retained may cause exposure or
19.1.2 The minimum identification should at least include processing artifacts in the radiographs, but because such dirt
the following: the radiographic facility’s identification and may also be transferred to the loading bench, and subsequently
name, the date, part number and serial number, if used, for to other film or screens.
unmistakable identification of radiographs with the specimen. 22.2 The surface of the loading bench must be kept clean.
The letter R should be used to designate a radiograph of a Where manual processing is used cleanliness will be promoted
repair area, and may include − 1, − 2, etc., for the number of by arranging the darkroom with processing facilities on one
repair. side and film-handling facilities on the other. The darkroom
19.2 Location Markers: will then have a wet side and a dry side and the chance of
19.2.1 Location markers (that is, lead or high-atomic num- chemical contamination of the loading bench will be relatively
ber metals or letters that are to appear as images on the slight.
radiographic film) should be placed on the part being exam- 22.3 Films should be handled only at their edges, and with
ined, whenever practical, and not on the cassette. Their exact dry, clean hands to avoid finger marks on film surfaces.
locations should also be marked on the surface of the part being 22.4 Sharp bending, excessive pressure, and rough handling
radiographed, thus permitting the area of interest to be located of any kind must be avoided.
accurately on the part, and they should remain on the part
during radiographic inspection. Their exact location may be 23. Film Processing, General
permanently marked in accordance with the customer’s re- 23.1 To produce a satisfactory radiograph, the care used in
quirements. making the exposure must be followed by equal care in

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processing. The most careful radiographic techniques can be Keep them in the fixer until fixation is complete (that is, at least
nullified by incorrect or improper darkroom procedures. twice the clearing time), but not more than 15 min in relatively
23.2 Sections 24-26 provide general information for film fresh fixer. Frequent agitation will shorten the time of fixation.
processing. Detailed information on film processing is pro- 25.8 Fixer Neutralizing—The use of a hypo eliminator or
vided in Guide E999. fixer neutralizer between fixation and washing may be advan-
tageous. These materials permit a reduction of both time and
24. Automatic Processing amount of water necessary for adequate washing. The recom-
24.1 Automatic Processing—The essence of the automatic mendations of the manufacturers as to preparation, use, and
processing system is control. The processor maintains the useful life of the baths should be observed rigorously.
chemical solutions at the proper temperature, agitates and 25.9 Washing—The washing efficiency is a function of
replenishes the solutions automatically, and transports the films wash water, its temperature, and flow, and the film being
mechanically at a carefully controlled speed throughout the washed. Generally, washing is very slow below 60°F (16°C).
processing cycle. Film characteristics must be compatible with When washing at temperatures above 85°F (30°C), care should
processing conditions. It is, therefore, essential that the recom- be exercised not to leave films in the water too long. The films
mendations of the film, processor, and chemical manufacturers should be washed in batches without contamination from new
be followed. film brought over from the fixer. If pressed for capacity, as
24.2 Automatic Processing, Dry—The essence of dry auto- more films are put in the wash, partially washed film should be
matic processing is the precise control of development time moved in the direction of the inlet.
and temperature which results in reproducibility of radio- 25.9.1 The cascade method of washing uses less water and
graphic density. Film characteristics must be compatible with gives better washing for the same length of time. Divide the
processing conditions. It is, therefore, essential that the recom- wash tank into two sections (may be two tanks). Put the films
mendations of the film and processor manufacturers be fol- from the fixer in the outlet section. After partial washing, move
lowed. the batch of film to the inlet section. This completes the wash
25. Manual Processing in fresh water.
25.9.2 For specific washing recommendations, consult the
25.1 Film and chemical manufacturers should be consulted film manufacturer.
for detailed recommendations on manual film processing. This
25.10 Wetting Agent—Dip the film for approximately 30 s
section outlines the steps for one acceptable method of manual
in a wetting agent. This makes water drain evenly off film
processing.
which facilitates quick, even drying.
25.2 Preparation—No more film should be processed than
25.11 Residual Fixer Concentrations— If the fixing chemi-
can be accommodated with a minimum separation of 1⁄2 in.
cals are not removed adequately from the film, they will in time
(12.7 mm). Hangers are loaded and solutions stirred before
cause staining or fading of the developed image. Residual fixer
starting development.
concentrations permissible depend upon whether the films are
25.3 Start of Development—Start the timer and place the
to be kept for commercial purposes (3 to 10 years) or must be
films into the developer tank. Separate to a minimum distance
of archival quality. Archival quality processing is desirable for
of 1⁄2 in. (12.7 mm) and agitate in two directions for about 15
all radiographs whenever average relative humidity and tem-
s.
perature are likely to be excessive, as is the case in tropical and
25.4 Development—Normal development is 5 to 8 min at
subtropical climates. The method of determining residual fixer
68°F (20°C). Longer development time generally yields faster
concentrations may be ascertained by reference to ANSI
film speed and slightly more contrast. The manufacturer’s
PH4.8, PH1.28, and PH1.41.
recommendation should be followed in choosing a develop-
ment time. When the temperature is higher or lower, develop- 25.12 Drying—Drying is a function of (1) film (base and
ment time must be changed. Again, consult manufacturer- emulsion); (2) processing (hardness of emulsion after washing,
recommended development time versus temperature charts. use of wetting agent); and (3) drying air (temperature, humid-
Other recommendations of the manufacturer to be followed are ity, flow). Manual drying can vary from still air drying at
replenishment rates, renewal of solutions, and other specific ambient temperature to as high as 140°F (60°C) with air
instructions. circulated by a fan. Film manufacturers should again be
25.5 Agitation—Shake the film horizontally and vertically, contacted for recommended drying conditions. Take precaution
ideally for a few seconds each minute during development. to tighten film on hangers, so that it cannot touch in the dryer.
This will help film develop evenly. Too hot a drying temperature at low humidity can result in
25.6 Stop Bath or Rinse—After development is complete, uneven drying and should be avoided.
the activity of developer remaining in the emulsion should be
neutralized by an acid stop bath or, if this is not possible, by 26. Testing Developer
rinsing with vigorous agitation in clear water. Follow the film 26.1 It is desirable to monitor the activity of the radio-
manufacturer’s recommendation of stop bath composition (or graphic developing solution. This can be done by periodic
length of alternative rinse), time immersed, and life of bath. development of film strips exposed under carefully controlled
25.7 Fixing—The films must not touch one another in the conditions, to a graded series of radiation intensities or time, or
fixer. Agitate the hangers vertically for about 10 s and again at by using a commercially available strip carefully controlled for
the end of the first minute, to ensure uniform and rapid fixation. film speed and latent image fading.

10
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27. Viewing Radiographs record) constituting a record of each job performed, be
27.1 Guide E1390 provides detailed information on require- maintained. This record should comprise, initially, a job
ments for illuminators. The following sections provide general number (which should appear also on the films), the identifi-
information to be considered for use of illuminators. cation of the parts, material or area radiographed, the date the
27.2 Transmission—The illuminator must provide light of films are exposed, and a complete record of the radiographic
an intensity that will illuminate the average density areas of the procedure, in sufficient detail so that any radiographic tech-
radiographs without glare and it must diffuse the light evenly niques may be duplicated readily. If calibration data, or other
over the viewing area. Commercial fluorescent illuminators are records such as card files or procedures, are used to determine
satisfactory for radiographs of moderate density; however, high the procedure, the log need refer only to the appropriate data or
light intensity illuminators are available for densities up to 3.5 other record. Subsequently, the interpreter’s findings and
or 4.0. Masks should be available to exclude any extraneous disposition (acceptance or rejection), if any, and his initials,
light from the eyes of the viewer when viewing radiographs should also be entered for each job.
smaller than the viewing port or to cover low-density areas.
27.3 Reflection—Radiographs on a translucent or opaque 31. Reports
backing may be viewed by reflected light. It is recommended 31.1 When written reports of radiographic examinations are
that the radiograph be viewed under diffuse lighting conditions required, they should include the following, plus such other
to prevent excess glare. Optical magnification can be used in items as may be agreed upon:
certain instances to enhance the interpretation of the image.
31.1.1 Identification of parts, material, or area.
28. Viewing Room 31.1.2 Radiographic job number.
28.1 Subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is prefer- 31.1.3 Findings and disposition, if any. This information can
able in the viewing room. The brightness of the surroundings be obtained directly from the log.
should be about the same as the area of interest in the
radiograph. Room illumination must be so arranged that there 32. Identification of Completed Work
are no reflections from the surface of the film under examina-
tion. 32.1 Whenever radiography is an inspective (rather than
investigative) operation whereby material is accepted or re-
29. Storage of Processed Radiographs jected, all parts and material that have been accepted should be
29.1 Guide E1254 provides detailed information on controls marked permanently, if possible, with a characteristic identi-
and maintenance for storage of radiographs and unexposed fying symbol which will indicate to subsequent or final
film. The following sections provide general information for examiners the fact of radiographic acceptance.
storage of radiographs. 32.2 Whenever possible, the completed radiographs should
29.2 Envelopes having an edge seam, rather than a center be kept on file for reference. The custody of radiographs and
seam, and joined with a nonhygroscopic adhesive, are pre- the length of time they are preserved should be agreed upon
ferred, since occasional staining and fading of the image is between the contracting parties.
caused by certain adhesives used in the manufacture of
envelopes (see ANSI PH1.53). 33. Keywords
30. Records 33.1 exposure calculations; film system; gamma-ray; image
30.1 It is recommended that an inspection log (a log may quality indicator (IQI); radiograph; radiographic examination;
consist of a card file, punched card system, a book, or other radiographic quality level; technique file; X-ray

APPENDIX

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. USE OF FLUORESCENT SCREENS

X1.1 Description—Fluorescent intensifying screens have a known as rare earth emit light green.
cardboard or plastic support coated with a uniform layer of
inorganic phosphor (crystalline substance). The support and X1.2 Purpose and Film Types—Fluorescent screen expo-
phosphor are held together by a radiotransparent binding sures are usually much shorter than those made without screens
material. Fluorescent screens derive their name from the fact or with lead intensifying screens, because radiographic films
that their phosphor crystals “fluoresce” (emit visible light) generally are more responsive to visible light than to direct
when struck by X or gamma radiation. Some phosphors like X-radiation, gamma radiation, and electrons.
calcium tungstate (CaWO4) give off blue light while others

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X1.2.1 Films fall into one of two categories: non-screen today’s fluorescent screens have smaller crystal size, more
type film having moderate light response, and screen type film uniform crystal packing, and reduced phosphor thickness. This
specifically sensitized to have a very high blue or green light translates into greater screen/film speed with reduced unsharp-
response. Fluorescent screens can reduce conventional expo- ness and mottle. These improvements can represent some
sures by as much as 150 times, depending on film type. meaningful benefits for industrial radiography, as indicated by
the three examples as follows:
X1.3 Image Quality and Use—The image quality associ-
ated with fluorescent screen exposures is a function of sharp- X1.3.1 Reduced Exposure (Increased Productivity)—There
ness, mottle, and contrast. Screen sharpness depends on phos- are instances when prohibitively long exposure times make
phor crystal size, thickness of the crystal layer, and the conventional radiography impractical. An example is the in-
reflective base coating. Each crystal emits light relative to its spection of thick, high atomic number materials with low curie
size and in all directions thus producing a relative degree of isotopes. Depending on many variables, exposure time may be
image unsharpness. To minimize this unsharpness, screen to reduced by factors ranging from 23 to 1053 when the
film contact should be as intimate as possible. Mottle adversely appropriate fluorescent screen/film combination is used.
affects image quality in two ways. First, a “quantum” mottle is
X1.3.2 Improved Safety Conditions (Field Sites)—Because
dependent upon the amount of X or gamma radiation actually
fluorescent screens provide reduced exposure, the length of
absorbed by the fluorescent screen, that is, faster screen/film
time that non-radiation workers must evacuate a radiographic
systems lead to greater mottle and poorer image quality. A“
inspection site can be reduced significantly.
structural” mottle, which is a function of crystal size, crystal
uniformity, and layer thickness, is minimized by using screens X1.3.3 Extended Equipment Capability—Utilizing the
having small, evenly spaced crystals in a thin crystalline layer. speed advantage of fluorescent screens by translating it into
Fluorescent screens are highly sensitive to longer wavelength reduced energy level. An example is that a 150 kV X-ray tube

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scattered radiation. Consequently, to maximize contrast when may do the job of a 300 kV tube, or that iridium 192 may be
this non-image forming radiation is excessive, fluorometallic used in applications normally requiring cobalt 60. It is possible
intensifying screens or fluorescent screens backed by lead for overall image quality to be better at the lower kV with
screens of appropriate thickness are recommended. Screen fluorescent screens than at a higher energy level using lead
technology has seen significant advances in recent years, and screens.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ON INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY

For conciseness, this bibliography has been limited to books and specifically to books in English published after 1950.

(1) Clark, G. L., Applied X-Rays, 4th ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., (11) Handbook on Radiography, Revised edition, Atomic Energy of
Inc., New York, 1955. Canada Ltd. Ottawa, Ont., 1950.
(2) Clauser, H. R., Practical Radiography for Industry, Reinhold (12) Papers on Radiography, ASTM STP 96, ASTM, 1950.
Publishing Corp., New York, 1952. (13) Symposium on the Role of Nondestructive Testing in the Econom-
(3) Hogarth, C. A., and Blitz, J. (Editors), Techniques of Nondestruc- ics of Production, ASTM STP 112, ASTM, 1951.
tive Testing, Butte Worth and Co., Ltd., London, 1960. (14) Radioisotope Technique, Vol II, H. M. Stationery Office, London,
(4) McMaster, R. C. (Editor), Nondestructive Testing Handbook, The 1952.
Ronald Press, New York, 1960.
(15) Symposium on Nondestructive Testing, ASTM STP 145, ASTM,
(5) Morgan, R. H., and Corrigan, K. E. (Editors), Handbook of
1953.
Radiology, The Year Book Publishers, Inc., Chicago, 1955.
(16) Memorandum on Gamma-Ray Sources for Radiography, Revised
(6) Reed, M. E., Cobalt-60 Radiography in Industry, Tracer-lab, Inc.,
edition, Institute of Physics, London, 1954.
Boston, 1954.
(7) Robertson, J. K., Radiology Physics, 3rd ed., D. Van Nostrand (17) Papers on Nondestructive Testing, see Proceedings, ASTM, Vol
Company, New York, 1956. 54, 1954.
(8) Weyl, C., and Warren, S. R., Radiologic Physics, 2nd ed., Charles (18) Radiography in Modern Industry (3rd edition), Eastman Kodak
C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1951. Co., Rochester, NY, 1969.
(9) Wilshire, W. J. (Editor), A Further Handbook of Industrial (19) Symposium on Nondestructive Tests in the Field of Nuclear
Radiology, Edward Arnold and Company, London, 1957. Energy, ASTM STP 223, ASTM, 1958.
(10) McGonnagle, W. J., Nondestructive Testing, McGraw Hill Book (20) Radiographer’s Reference (3rd edition), E. I. du Pont de Nemours
Co., Inc., New York, 1961. & Co., Inc., Wilmington, DE, 1974 (or latest revision).

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