CS-200 Chapter 1 - 5
CS-200 Chapter 1 - 5
CS-200 Chapter 1 - 5
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
After going through this chapter you will be able to define:
Concept of computer
Applications of computers
Characteristics of computer
Classification of computers
1.1. What is computer?
Let us begin with the word ‘compute’. It means ‘to calculate’. We all are familiar with
calculations in our day to day life. We apply mathematical operations manually, like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. But, these types of manual calculation take much longer
time and less accuracy. So human being explored with the idea to develop a machine which can
perform this type of arithmetic calculation with faster and full accuracy. Both factors brought us
to the innovation of a new device called ‘computer’. Therefore the word ‘computer’ came from
‘calculate’.
Computer is an electronic device which processes information based upon the instructions
provided, and generates the desired output. The term is used to describe a collection of devices
that function together as a system that can:
Accept data: the computer can accept data from the external environment as an input.
Processed data: it can process the given data depending on the instructions to give the
desired output.
Stored data: it can store the processed data for the future use.
Retrieve the stored data when required.
Print the result in desired format.
In general the computer can work on any kind of data like: text, numeric, alpha-numeric,
images, pictures, sound, video clippings etc. you will know more about these functions as you go
through the later chapters.
1.2. Applications of computers
Why we use Computers?
The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are reasons to use Computers.
Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
Page 1 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 2 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
computer controlled home security system monitors movements, broken glass, unlawful entry
without a security code, and so on, and alerts the local police department.
Weather and Environment
Computer equipment may show temperature ranges, precipitation levels and wind flow and can
used in weather forecasting. Computer can also help in overcoming environmental hazards.
Transportation
Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can fly under the
control of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by telling the
computer what to do. In Cars, computers have provided functional controls such as spark and
fuel control.
Medical and Health Care
Computers have long been used by hospitals for routine record keeping. Today, however, many
people owe their lives to the computer. Computers are used in hospitals as sensors (device that
detect changes in blood pressure, heart rate, temperature), testing (scan the body and provide 3-D
figure), patient treatment.
Routine and Dangerous Tasks
Computers are used in routine tasks. And they can perform task in environments to dangerous for
human workers.
Consultant (Expert system)
An Expert system is a computer program, which can solve problems from a specific knowledge
base. These systems don't replace expert humans because the knowledge base of expert system is
given from the skilled specialist.
1.3. Characteristics of computer
All computers have certain common characteristics irrespective of their type and size.
Computers are capable of doing complex activities and operations. The following are the major
characteristics of computers which have made them so powerful and useful are:
a. Word length: Word length is the number of bits that the computer can process at a time in
parallel. Commonly used word lengths are 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits or 64 bits. Word length is
the measure of the computing power of computer. Therefore a computer that has longer
word length is more powerful.
Page 3 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
b. Speed: As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for
calculations that we take hours to complete. Therefore, we determine the speed of computer
in terms of milliseconds(10-3) , microsecond(10-6) ,nanosecond(10-9) , picoseconds(10-12),
i.e. one thousandth, one millionth , one billionth ,and one trillionth of a second
respectively.
c. Accuracy: Suppose someone calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in computing.
Such result is useless. The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every
calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the
basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
Then, it either gives the correct answer or do not answer at all. If faulty instructions are
provided for processing the data, obviously faulty answers will be given. This is also called
GIGO, i.e. Garbage in Garbage Out.
d. Versatility/flexibility: It means the ability to perform completely different type of work.
You may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for
inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
e. Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a
computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it
overpowers human
f. Storage capacity: Today's computers can store huge amount of data. Once recorded a
piece of information is never forgotten (unless some problem takes problem) and any
information can be retrieved almost instantaneously. To give you an idea of storage
capacity, a single CD ROM can contain the entire Encyclopedia Britannica, and more.
The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also
store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, flash disk, which can be kept outside
your computer and can be carried to other computers.
1.4. Classification of computers
Computers also differ based on their data processing capabilities, computational power,
memory, cost, purpose, method of operation and size. Because of these factors, computers are
classifies into the following categories.
A. Classification based on purpose
Page 4 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
According to their purpose or it provides, a computer can be classified in two. Special and
general purpose computers
1. Special purpose computer
Special purpose computers are designed with a specific task in mind, and are not used for any
other purpose. They are pre-programmed with instructions to perform a specific role.
For example, air traffic control systems, airline reservation, satellite tracking and many
household appliances such as TVs and video cassette recorders will make use of such tailor made
computers.
2. General purpose computer
General-purpose computers can be used to meet the needs of many different applications. They
are programmable, in that they allow the user to specify different sets of instructions to program
them for different tasks e.g. desktop computers we use in lab class.
B. Classification based on method of operation
Based on the way they process data, computers are classified in to three; Such as analog,
digital and hybrid computers.
a. Analog computers
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variable. They can’t
calculate directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as
pressure, temperature, voltage, current and etc. e.g. Thermometer, voltmeter, speedometer.
Generally, they are computers designed for special purpose.
b. Digital computers
Unlike the analog computers, digital computers operate by counting rather than measuring.
Deal with discrete variables (0s and 1s). They operate directly upon numbers (digits) that
represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols. They have very high accuracy and speed
than analog ones.
Examples:
Desk & pocket computers The general purpose computers
c. Hybrid computers
It is a device formed from the best futures of analog and digital computers. It processes the
information by collecting input data with analog method, converts it into digital quantities,
process the digital values and provide the output in analog form.
Page 5 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Example:
Patient monitoring system in hospital
Page 6 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
quality screens. Handheld PCs are designed to be small enough to hold in your hand. This is only
made possible by reducing their computing power.
ii. Mini computers
Are mid level computers and are build to perform complex computations.
Are larger and more powerful than most micro computers (PCs).
Are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computers.
Used for large number of business and scientific applications.
Play a major role in CAD (computer aided design).
iii. Mainframe computers
Are high-level computers designed for most intensive computational tasks;
Are often shared by multiple users connected to the computer by terminals;
Are larger, more powerful and have processor with faster instruction processing
speed than micros and mini computers.
iv. Super computers
Are extremely powerful computers designed for high speed processing;
Are characterized as being the fastest, most expensive computers.
It designed for huge company. E.g. National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA): an independent agency of the United States government
responsible for aviation and spaceflight.
As we go down this group the characteristics like speed, power etc increases.
Limitation of computers
Although computers can be applied in different areas, there are activities that computers can’t
perform. Some of them are:
a. Computers can’t decide how to be programmed. It is always humans that are responsible
for programming the computers.
b. Computers do not provide their own inputs unless people provide it with the inputs.
c. Interpretation of data and implementation of decisions is always left for humans. That is a
computer does not interpret the information it produces based on the information
obtained unless it is programmed.
Page 7 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
CHAPTER TWO:
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS
2.1. History of Computer
History of computer could be traced back to the effort of man to count large numbers. This
process of counting large numbers generated various systems of numeration like Babylonian
system of numeration, Greek system of numeration, Roman system of numeration and Indian
system of numeration. Out of these the Indian system of numeration has been accepted
universally. It was the basis of modern decimal system of numeration (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and
9). Later you will know how the computer solves all calculations based on decimal system. But
you will be surprised to know that the computer does not understand the decimal system and uses
binary system of numeration for processing.
2.2. Evolution of computer
Calculating Machines
It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting large
numbers. The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by the Egyptian and
Chinese people. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in
horizontal positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. It has a number of horizontal bars
each having ten beads. Horizontal bars represent units, tens, hundreds, etc.
Napier’s bones
English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of
multiplication in 1617 AD. The device was known as Napier’s bones.
Slide Rule
English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could perform
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely used in Europe
in 16th century.
Pascal's Adding and Subdirectory Machine
Page 8 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
You might have heard the name of Blaise Pascal. He developed a machine at the age of 19 that
could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine
The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a mechanical
device that could both multiply and divide.
Babbage’s Analytical Engine
It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical machine
to do complex mathematical calculations. It was called difference engine. Later he developed a
general-purpose calculating machine called analytical engine. You should know that Charles
Babbage is called the father of modern computer.
Babbage’s assistant, Augusta Ada King, she designed instruction routines to be fed into the
computer, making her the first female computer programmer.
Mechanical and Electrical Calculator
In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to perform all sorts of
mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s it was widely used. Later the rotating part of
mechanical calculator was replaced by electric motor. So it was called the electrical calculator.
Modern Electronic Calculator
The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron tubes, which was quite bulky.
Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of calculators became too small.
The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical computations and
mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data permanently. Some calculators
have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations.
2.3. Generation of Computer
You know that the evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that
we see today. The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during the
last fifty years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided
into five distinct phases known as Generations of Computers. Each phase is distinguished from
others on the type of switching circuit elements, secondary storage device, memory access time,
I/O device, operating system and programming language.
2.3.1. First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
Used vacuum tubes or thermionic valve as a circuitry.
Page 9 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 11 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this
period.
2.3.4. Fourth Generation Computers(1970s to present)
It is extension of the 3rd generation computers.
Introduce very large scale integrated circuit or VLSI technology.
Widely known for the use of microprocessors
Circuit density approached 100,000 components per chip and above.
Access time approached nanoseconds.
Programming task were simplified
Virtual operating systems were introduced for multiple use
Are versatile in nature and are also able to form a network.
The present day computers that you see today are the fourth generation. Due to the
development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s central processing unit
(CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputer. Further improvement of
mass storage and input/output (I/O) devices. The personal computer (PC) that you see in
your school is a Fourth Generation Computer. E.g. IBM system 3090, IBM RISC 6000, HP
9000, IBM PC (1980), Pentium I, Pentium II. etc.
2.3.5. Fifth Generation Computer(future computer)
Characterized by the use of artificial intelligence and natural language.
Aimed at narrowing the gap between people and computer.
To achieve human like qualities of intelligence including the ability to reason.
Table 2.1 major differences between generations
1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation 4th generation
Circuit element Vacuum tube Transistor IC LSIC/VLSIC
Secondary Storage D Punched card Magnetic Tape Magnetic disk Mass storage device
Programming Machine or low level Assembly language High level e.g. High level
Language BASIC
Operating system Operator control Batch system sophisticated Time sharing
operating systems
Memory Access time milliseconds (10-3) microseconds (10-6) 100 nanoseconds 1 nanoseconds
Approx. date 1940-56 1956-63 1964-70 From 1970 above
Power consumption Very high High Low Low
Page 12 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Characteristics Single purpose, large, Single purpose, General purpose, Very versatile,
expensive, unreliable, smaller, cheaper, smaller, cheaper, cheap, powerful,
hard to use easier to use easier to use small, easy to use
Examples ENIAC, UNIVAC, IBM 1620, IBM IBM-360, ICL- IBM PC (1980)
UDVAC 1401, CDC 3600 1900, IBM-370,
and VAX-750.
Page 13 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
number of different values. For example, as shown in Figure 1 there are digital watches
and analog watches. On the digital watch each number (or digit) can only take one out
of ten different values (the numbers between 0 and 9). On the analogue watch the hands
can be in any position, so there is no restriction on the number of values it can display.
This distinction is important when we are talking about computers because they store
and process digital information only.
Digital information can be further categorized depending on how many different values are
permitted. For example, the numbers on the digital watch can take 10 different values, so they
are displaying decimal digital information. Computers can only store and process binary digital
information. Binary digital information can take one of only 2 values of 0s or 1s.
As computers are capable of storing large amounts of information, it is useful to have
a means of measuring information. The smallest amount of binary digital information
we can have is a single value (i.e. either a 0 or a 1). This is called a bit, or binary digit. In
computers bits are stored in groups of 8, which are referred to as a byte. However,
because computers store and process very large amounts of information, it is usually
measured in kilobytes, megabytes, or even gigabytes. Table 1 shows what these terms
mean.
1 byte = 8 bits
Page 14 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 15 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 17 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 18 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Output: this is the final part of data processing provides the required information in
readily useable format.
The three steps taken in this order are known as data processing cycle.
Page 19 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 20 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 21 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Q R Q R
155/ 8 19 3 325/16 20 5
19/8 2 3 20/16 1 4
2/8 0 2 1/16 0 1
The equivalent octal is: (233)8 The equivalent hexadecimal is: (145)16
Page 22 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Equivalent among the four Numbering systems
Page 23 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Computer is a data processing machine which consists of several integrated components that
works together as a single unit to achieve some objective. The computer system refers to the
computer itself and all other components interconnected to it. A computer system components
are classifies into hardware and software which cooperates to provide full system functions of
the computer.
Control Unit
Input Devices
Output Devices
Memory (register)
Page 24 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
o Alphanumeric (Character Keys): These keys work just like a conventional type writer
which consists of letters (A-Z), numbers (0-9), Enter key, Spacebar, Backspace, Shift,
Caps lock, etc.
o Function Keys: labeled from F1 to F12.
o Numeric Keys: Let you enter numerical data more easily when you are working on
numbers. To use this section of the keyboard, make sure that the Num Lock key is ON.
o Navigation (Cursor movement Keys): These keys are used to navigate through your
document. The keys are: Arrow keys, Home, End, Page up, Page down, etc.
o Computer (Special) keys: They perform different tasks when used alone or in
conjunction with other keys. Some of these keys are: Alt, Ctrl, Print Screen, Scroll Lock,
Pause, Delete, and Insert.
Mouse: The mouse is a pointing device that is used to move the insertion pointer around
the screen. It has two buttons left (primary) button and right button. Through which you
can operate different operations. Such operations are:
point: indicate the item
click: press and release the primary key
right click: press and release on right key
double-click: press twice on left key
drag: press the left key and move
Page 25 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Scanner: which is an input device used to input data into a computer. It converts the
data from hard copy to soft copy. Once the data is transferred to the computer, through
the scanner, it can be modified, or combined with other information.
Disk drives: Are data read/write devices used to input data into the computer. E.g.
floppy drive, CD-R, CD-RW and DVD drive.
Microphones: It captures sounds and translates into digital signals for the computer.
Touch screen: it is touch sensitive transparent panel covering the screen.
Light pen: that utilizes the light sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen.
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): allows the computer to recognize
characters printed using magnetic ink. Example of this device is card reader in the bank.
Bar code reader: is a photoelectric scanner that read the bar codes, or vertical zebra
striped marks, printed on product containers.
camera systems: used to input images and sounds in to the computer e.g. digital camera
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
It is the most costly and main component of the computer. It may be a single chip or a series of
chips that performs arithmetic and logical operations and controls the operation of the other
elements of the system. CPU follows the instruction of the software to manipulate data into
information. It executes program instructions and performs the computer’s processing activities.
The CPU is called brain of computer and also called the microprocessor.
The CPU mostly performs the two major functions.
1. Performing arithmetic and logical operations and
2. Controlling every activity of the computer like:
a. Controlling internal and external devices
b. Controlling memory usage for storing data and instructions.
c. Controlling sequence of instructions
Purpose of CPU
Page 26 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Process data: the execution of an instruction may require performing some arithmetic or
logical operation on data.
Write data: The result of an execution may require writing data to memory or an I/O module.
The CPU has three major components which connected by cables called bus to communicate
each other:
Control Memory
unit (register
)
ALU Figure 4.1. The components of CPU
The Control Unit: Controls every activity of the computer. The control unit ensures that
according to the stored instructions, the right operation is done on the right data at the right
time.
All computer activities are carried out according to instructions that the control unit
receives.
Fetches and store data and instruction from memory to register and vice versa.
Receives an instruction, decodes/interprets and passes it to the ALU for execute.
Determines the next instruction to execute.
Tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out the program’s instructions.
Directs the movement of electronic signals between:
Main memory and the ALU
Main memory and the I/O devices
The Arithmetic or Logic Unit (ALU): Contains the electronic circuitry that performs the
arithmetic operations and logical operations, that underline all computing capabilities and
controls the speed of those operations.
Arithmetic unit performs actual computing and calculations based on fundamental
mathematical operations: like (+, -, *, /)
Logical unit: - based on the instruction provided to it, perform logical comparison
between data items. The comparison determines whether the information is greater than,
less than or equal to the other information by using Logical operations like (>, <, <=, >=,
=).
The memory (register): The CPU needs a small internal memory called registers used to
Page 27 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Output Devices
The output devices enable the user to see the information on the computer. It converts the
results of a process, which is only in machine understandable to a human understandable form.
Included in the output devices are:
a. Visual Display Unit (VDU) or Monitor: Sometimes also called screen, displays the output
of the processing activity for the user on a television-like screen. VDU can be either Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) or Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Video displays differ in:
Size:
Resolution:
Colors:
Monochrome: means one color, generally white on black background or
vice versa.
Color Monitors: Many monitors display color-combining shades of red,
green, and blue (RGB).
b. Printer: Printers are most widely used output devices. It produces hard copy materials that
are paper output. Different types of printers are in use today. In general, there are two
major categories of printers. Namely:
Impact Printers
Non-Impact printers.
Impact Printers: in impact printing, the paper and the character being printed
come in contact with one another. That is, striking an inked ribbon with pins
forms characters. Examples of Impact Printers are: Dot Matrix, Line and
Page 28 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Character printers.
Non-Impact Printers: are printers that do not bring the paper and the print
material into physical contact. The characters of the print material are
produced on the paper through a heat, chemical, or spraying process. Laser
and Ink-Jet Printers are the most frequently used kinds of Non-Impact
printers.
c. Disk drives: since they are also used to record a result of a process on magnetic disks, they
are also considered as output device.
d. Modem: links two or more computers by translating digital signals into analog signals so
that data can be transmitted via telecommunications. Modem can be either internal or
external modem. Internal modem is a hardware fitted into an expansion slot in the system
unit. External modem sits outside your system and connects to serial port.
e. Plotters: specialized output device designed to produce high quality graphics in a variety
of colors. It used for creating large hard copy items, such as maps, architectural drawings,
3D illustrations items typically too large for regular printers
f. Speaker: this is a device specially used to provide audio output.
Storage Devices
Storage device is used to store data or information internally or externally. Storage device can
classify into primary (main memory) and secondary storage device.
Primary (main memory): It is a means of storage that is found within the computer itself
and that is why it is called internal memory or primary memory.
Have low capacity
High speed and
Primary memory includes RAM and ROM.
RAM: is a random access memory (can be accessed randomly without regard to any other
memory location. It is working area of the computer.
It is volatile it holds data as long as there is current flow.
It allows read/write
Holds data temporarily.
Expensive
ROM: Stands for read only memory. Once programmed, it can only be read from it.
Page 29 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 30 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Two characteristics describe floppy disks: Size and Capacity. Size refers to the physical
dimension of the disk and Capacity refers to the amount of information the disk can hold.
b. Optical Storage: It uses the principle of light (laser beam), rather than magnetism to
store information. Optical disks have huge capacity. They are two types of common
optical disk:
1. CD (compact disk)
CD_R (CD recordable)
CD_RW (CD rewritable)
CD_ROM (CD read only memory)
2. DVD (digital versatile disk)
DVD-ROM DVD+RW
DVD+R DVD-RAM
Page 31 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
A. Systems Software
Systems software consists of all the programs, languages and documentations supplied by the
manufacturer. These programs allow the user to communicate with the computer and write or
develop its own programs. This software makes the machine easier to use, and makes an efficient
use of the resources of the hardware possible. Systems software provides the interface between
the hardware and the users. Interface is the means by which a person interacts with a computer.
Systems software includes: operating system, system support software, and systems development
software.
Operating System: is a master control program, permanently stored on the primary
memory that interprets user commands requesting various kinds of services such as
display, print, copy a data file, list all files in a directory, execute a particular program.
It manages the hardware for the most efficient use of computer resources
Provide an interface between a user and an application program and the hardware.
Examples of an operating system are: MS-DOS, MS-Windows, and UNIX.
System Support software:
It provides system utilities and other operating services.
It is a border line between application software and system software.
Operating services consist of programs that provide performance statistics for the
operational staff and security monitors to protect the data and the system.
Page 32 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 33 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
- Desktop Publishing Programs: are used to create (publish) professional newsletters and
reports using the PC that sits on your desktop. Examples: Page Maker, Ventura.
- Computer Aided Design (CAD): is used by engineers and designers to draw an object.
Example: Auto CAD
- Computer Games: Example Chess, Solitaire, Dave, etc.
Page 34 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 35 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
It is the smallest form of a network and the basic building block of any computer network.
It is limited by geography that covers within a mile-perhaps one office, one building, or a
college campus.
A LAN can range from simple (two computers connected by a cable) to complex
(hundreds of connected computers and peripherals throughout a major corporation).
2. A wide area network (WAN):
On the other hand, has no geographical limitation.
It can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world.
A WAN is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the
Internet.
Network Configuration
Networks are classified into two principal groups based on how they share information:
peer-to-peer networks and server-based networks.
Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer
functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire
network. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network. Computers in the network are connected by a simple, easily visible cabling system.
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
There are 10 users or fewer.
Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers exist.
Security is not an issue/less security.
Limited growth within the foreseeable future.
Server-Based Networks
In server-based network works an environment with more than 10 users.
In a server-based network, one or more computers act as servers and provide the
resources to the network. The other computers are the clients and use the resources
provided by the server.
Centrally located for network control; requires at least one knowledgeable administrator
Extensive and consistent resource and user security
Page 36 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 37 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
2. Star topology:
In the star topology, each computer are connected to a centralized component called a hub.
Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the
network.
The star topology offers the advantage of centralized resources and management. This
topology requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also, if the central
point fails, the entire network goes down. If one computer or the cable that connects it to the
hub—fails only the failed computer will not be able to send or receive network data.
3. Ring topology:
The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology,
there are no terminated ends and no collisions. Since only one terminals can send data at a given
time.
The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which can
act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer. The failure of one
computer can have an impact on the entire network.
Page 38 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is a special series
of bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token.) The token is
passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send. The data
passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that matches the address on the
data.
The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has
been received.
Page 39 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
These four topologies can be combined in a variety of more complex hybrid topologies.
Many working topologies are hybrid combinations of the bus, star, ring, and mesh topologies.
There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the needs of an
organization.
Ring -System provides equal access for all -Failure of one computer can impact the rest.
computers. -Problems are hard to isolate.
-Performance is even despite many users. -the more terminals, the network becomes
-computers act as repeaters slower.
-Security may be less(as data has to travel
through other computers)
-Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
Star -Modifying and adding new computers is easy. -If the centralized point fails, the network fails.
-Centralized monitoring and management. -uses more cable
-Failure of one computer does not affect the
rest.
Mesh -System provides increased redundancy and - expensive to install because it uses a lot of
reliability as well as ease of troubleshooting. cabling
-Failure of one computer or one cable does not
affect the rest of the network.
Page 40 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
The internet
The internet is a vast network of networks, the ultimate WAN, consisting of tens of thousands of
businesses, universities, and research organizations with millions of individual users and using a
variety of different network architectures.
Loosely-organized: No single organization has authority over the Internet. Anyone can
upload any kind of content or software and no one controls that. No one guarantees the
accuracy of the information that you find on the Internet.
International: More than 100 countries are represented on the Internet.
Collaboration: Many organizations cooperate to provide the services and support needed
to sustain it. For example, much of the software that drives the Internet is open-source
software developed collaboratively by programmers throughout the world, who
constantly work to improve the code.
Autonomous: Organizations that join the Internet are free to make their own decisions
about how they configure and operate their networks.
Interconnected: There are standard protocols to enable different networks communicate
with each other. Without the interconnection provided by TCP/IP protocol, the Internet
would not exist.
Networks: The Internet is “network of networks”, i.e. most of individual users who are on
the Internet don’t access the Internet directly. Instead they access the Internet indirectly
through another network, like LAN or dial up or broadband network provided by an
Internet Services Provider (ISP). Otherwise, the Internet would be completely
unmanageable if it consisted of 171 million individual users, all interconnected.
The Internet is composed of several distinct types of networks: Government agencies, military
sites, educational institutions, businesses, ISPs, commercial online services etc.
Every site on the internet has address, just like people have PO Box number at their local post
office. On the internet addresses are called URLs (Uniform Resource Locaters). URLs are
written as a number of words separated by dots, for example www.yahoo.com. The word after
Page 41 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
the final dot (e.g.com) is the domain of the address. The domain indicates the category of the
web site.
The World Wide Web:-The World Wide Web (www) is a way of browsing the information on
the internet in a pleasant, easy to understand. Text can be mixed with graphics, video and audio
to provide multimedia (many different media) internet content.
Page 42 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 43 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
sue. One of the causes of disaster on a computer system is computer virus. There are different
types of security methods. Some of which are as follows:-
I. Disaster Recovery Plans: It is Periodical testing and upgrading of the contents of the
computer. It helps to safe guard documents from sudden damage.
II. Application Safeguards: Protecting the computer itself and the document within the
system from internal and external damage.
III. Intrusion Selection Systems: it Security software called intrusion detection systems may
be used in computers to detect unusual and suspicious activity and, in some cases, stop a
variety of harmful actions by authorized or unauthorized persons. Abuse and misuse of
sensitive system and application programs and data such as password, inventory,
financial, engineering, and personnel files can be detected by these systems
IV. Firewalls: Software placed between the networked computers and protects the networked
computers. The firewall examines, filters, and reports on all information passing through
the network to ensure its appropriateness.
V. Passwords: are confidential sequences of characters that allow approved persons to make
use of specified computers, software, or information.
VI. Backup: Storing backup copies of software and data and having backup computer and
communication capabilities are important basic safeguards because the data can then be
restored if it was altered or destroyed by a computer crime or accident.
VII. Encryption: a process of converting messages or data into a form that cannot be read
without decrypting or deciphering it. The root of the word encryption—crypt—comes
from the Greek word kryptos, meaning “hidden” or “secret.”
VIII. Anti-viral Tactics
Page 44 of 45
Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014
Page 45 of 45