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dry, the light was not circularly polarized; when two points were wet,
the light was circularly polarized; and when all four were wet, it was
not circularly polarized.]

3. Elliptical Polarization in Quartz.—We now come to one of the

few additions to Fresnel’s theory which have been shown to be
necessary. He had accounted fully for the colors produced by the
rays which travel along the axis of quartz crystals; and thus, for the
colors and changes of the central spot which is produced when
polarized light passes through a transverse plate of such crystals.
But this central spot is surrounded by rings of colors. How is the
theory to be extended to these?

This extension has been successfully made by Professor Airy. 116

His hypothesis is, that as rays passing along the axis of a quartz
crystal are circularly polarized, rays which are oblique to the axis are
elliptically polarized, the amount of ellipticity depending, in some
unknown manner, upon the obliquity; and that each ray is separated
by double refraction into two rays polarized elliptically; the one right-
handed, the other left-handed. By means of these suppositions, he
not only was enabled to account for the simple phenomena of single
plates of quartz; but for many most complex and intricate
appearances which arise from the superposition of two plates, and
which at first sight might appear to defy all attempts to reduce them
to law and symmetry; such as spirals, curves approaching to a
square form, curves broken in four places. “I can hardly imagine,” he
says, 117 very naturally, “that any other supposition would represent
the phenomena to such extreme accuracy. I am not so much struck
with the accounting for the continued dilatation of circles, and the
general representation of the forms of spirals, as with the
explanations of the minute deviations from symmetry; as when
circles become almost square, and crosses are inclined to the plane
of polarization. And I believe that any one who shall follow my
investigation, and imitate my experiments, will be surprised at their
perfect agreement.”
116 Camb. Trans., iv. p. 83, &c.

117 Camb. Trans., iv. p. 122.

4. Differential Equations of Elliptical Polarization.—Although

circular and elliptical polarization can be clearly conceived, and their
existence, it would seem, irresistibly established by the phenomena,
it 123 is extremely difficult to conceive any arrangement of the
particles of bodies by which such motions can mechanically be
produced; and this difficulty is the greater, because some fluids and
some gases impress a circular polarization upon light; in which
cases we cannot imagine any definite arrangement of the particles,
such as might form the mechanism requisite for the purpose.
Accordingly, it does not appear that any one has been able to
suggest even a plausible hypothesis on that subject. Yet, even here,
something has been done. Professor Mac Cullagh, of Dublin, has
discovered that by slightly modifying the analytical expressions
resulting from the common case of the propagation of light, we may
obtain other expressions which would give rise to such motions as
produce circular and elliptical polarization. And though we cannot as
yet assign the mechanical interpretation of the language of analysis
thus generalized, this generalization brings together and explains by
one common numerical supposition, two distinct classes of facts;—a
circumstance which, in all cases, entitles an hypothesis to a very
favorable consideration.
 Mr. Mac Cullagh’s assumption consists in adding to the two
equations of motion which are expressed by means of second
differentials, two other terms involving third differentials in a simple
and symmetrical manner. In doing this, he introduces a coefficient, of
which the magnitude determines both the amount of rotation of the
polarization of a ray passing along the axis, as observed and
measured by Biot, and the ellipticity of the polarization of a ray which
is oblique to the axis, according to Mr. Airy’s theory, of which
ellipticity that philosopher also had obtained certain measures. The
agreement between the two sets of measures 118 thus brought into
connexion is such as very strikingly to confirm Mr. Mac Cullagh’s
hypothesis. It appears probable, too, that the confirmation of this
hypothesis involves, although in an obscure and oracular form, a
confirmation of the undulatory theory, which is the starting-point of
this curious speculation.
118 Royal I. A. Trans. 1836.

5. Elliptical Polarization of Metals.—The effect of metals upon the

light which they reflect, was known from the first to be different from
that which transparent bodies produce. Sir David Brewster, who has
recently examined this subject very fully, 119 has described the
modification thus produced, as elliptic polarization. In employing this
term, “he seems to have been led,” it has been observed, 120 “by a
124 desire to avoid as much as possible all reference to theory. The
laws which he has obtained, however, belong to elliptically-polarized
light in the sense in which the term was introduced by Fresnel.” And
the identity of the light produced by metallic reflection with the
elliptically-polarized light of the wave-theory, is placed beyond all
doubt, by an observation of Professor Airy, that the rings of uniaxal
crystals, produced by Fresnel’s elliptically-polarized light, are exactly
the same as those produced by Brewster’s metallic light.
119 Phil. Trans. 1830.

120 Lloyd, Report on Optics, p. 372. (Brit. Assoc.)

6. Newton’s Rings by Polarized Light.—Other modifications of the

phenomena of thin plates by the use of polarized light, supplied other
striking confirmations of the theory. These were in one case the
more remarkable, since the result was foreseen by means of a
rigorous application of the conception of the vibratory motion of light,
and confirmed by experiment. Professor Airy, of Cambridge, was led
by his reasonings to see, that if Newton’s rings are produced
between a lens and a plate of metal, by polarized light, then, up to
the polarizing angle, the central spot will be black, and instantly
beyond this, it will be white. In a note, 121 in which he announced this,
he says, “This I anticipated from Fresnel’s expressions; it is
confirmatory of them, and defies emission.” He also predicted that
when the rings were produced between two substances of very
different refractive powers, the centre would twice pass from black to
white and from white to black, by increasing the angle; which
anticipation was fulfilled by using a diamond for the higher
refraction. 122
121 Addressed to myself, dated May 28, 1831. I ought, however,
to notice, that this experiment had been made by M. Arago, fifteen
years earlier, and published: though not then recollected by Mr.
Airy.

122 Camb. Trans. vol. ii. p. 409.

7. Conical Refraction.—In the same manner. Professor Hamilton

of Dublin pointed out that according to the Fresnelian doctrine of
double refraction, there is a certain direction of a crystal in which a
single ray of light will be refracted so as to form a conical pencil. For
the direction of the refracted ray is determined by a plane which
touches the wave surface, the rule being that the ray must pass from
the centre of the surface to the point of contact; and though in
general this contact gives a single point only, it so happens, from the
peculiar inflected form of the wave surface, which has what is called
a cusp, that in one particular position, the plane can touch the
surface in an entire circle. Thus the general rule which assigns the
path of 125 the refracted ray, would, in this case, guide it from the
centre of the surface to every point in the circumference of the circle,
and thus make it a cone. This very curious and unexpected result,
which Professor Hamilton thus obtained from the theory, his friend
Professor Lloyd verified as an experimental fact. We may notice,
also, that Professor Lloyd found the light of the conical pencil to be
polarized according to a law of an unusual kind; but one which was
easily seen to be in complete accordance with the theory.

8. Fringes of Shadows.—The phenomena of the fringes of

shadows of small holes and groups of holes, which had been the
subject of experiment by Fraunhofer, were at a later period carefully
observed in a vast variety of cases by M. Schwerd of Spires, and
published in a separate work, 123 Beugungs-erscheinungen
(Phenomena of Inflection), 1836. In this Treatise, the author has with
great industry and skill calculated the integrals which, as we have
seen, are requisite in order to trace the consequences of the theory;
and the accordance which he finds between these and the varied
and brilliant results of observation is throughout exact. “I shall,” says
he, in the preface, 124 “prove by the present Treatise, that all
inflection-phenomena, through openings of any form, size, and
arrangement, are not only explained by the undulation-theory, but
that they can be represented by analytical expressions, determining
the intensity of the light in any point whatever.” And he justly adds,
that the undulation-theory accounts for the phenomena of light, as
completely as the theory of gravitation does for the facts of the solar
system.
123 Die Beugungs-erscheinungen, aus dem Fundamental-gesetz
der Undulations-Theorie analytisch entwickelt und in Bildern
dargestellt, von F. M. Schwerd. Mannheim, 1835.

124 Dated Speyer, Aug. 1835.

9. Objections to the Theory.—We have hitherto mentioned only

cases in which the undulatory theory was either entirely successful in
explaining the facts, or at least hypothetically consistent with them
and with itself. But other objections were started, and some
difficulties were long considered as very embarrassing. Objections
were made to the theory by some English experimenters, as Mr.
Potter, Mr. Barton, and others. These appeared in scientific journals,
and were afterwards answered in similar publications. The objections
depended partly on the measure of the intensity of light in the
different points of the phenomena (a datum which it is very difficult to
obtain with accuracy 126 by experiment), and partly on
misconceptions of the theory; and I believe there are none of them
which would now be insisted on.

We may mention, also, another difficulty, which it was the habit of

the opponents of the theory to urge as a reproach against it, long
after it had been satisfactorily explained: I mean the half-undulation
which Young and Fresnel had found it necessary, in some cases, to
assume as gained or lost by one of the rays. Though they and their
followers could not analyse the mechanism of reflection with
sufficient exactness to trace out all the circumstances, it was not
difficult to see, upon Fresnel’s principles, that reflection from the
interior and exterior surface of glass must be of opposite kinds,
which might be expressed by supposing one of these rays to lose
half an undulation. And thus there came into view a justification of
the step which had originally been taken upon empirical grounds
alone.

10. Dispersion, on the Undulatory Theory.—A difficulty of another

kind occasioned a more serious and protracted embarrassment to
the cultivators of this theory. This was the apparent impossibility of
accounting, on the theory, for the prismatic dispersion of color. For it
had been shown by Newton that the amount of refraction is different
for every color; and the amount of refraction depends on the velocity
with which light is propagated. Yet the theory suggested no reason
why the velocity should be different for different colors: for, by
mathematical calculation, vibrations of all degrees of rapidity (in
which alone colors differ) are propagated with the same speed. Nor
does analogy lead us to expect this variety. There is no such
difference between quick and slow waves of air. The sounds of the
deepest and the highest bells of a peal are heard at any distance in
the same order. Here, therefore, the theory was at fault.

But this defect was far from being a fatal one. For though the
theory did not explain, it did not contradict, dispersion. The
suppositions on which the calculations had been conducted, and the
analogy of sound, were obviously in no small degree precarious. The
velocity of propagation might differ for different rates of undulation, in
virtue of many causes which would not affect the general theoretical
results.
 Many such hypothetical causes were suggested by various
eminent mathematicians, as solutions of this conspicuous difficulty.
But without dwelling upon these conjectures, it may suffice to notice
that hypothesis upon which the attention of mathematicians was
soon concentrated. This was the hypothesis of finite intervals
between the 127 particles of the ether. The length of one of those
undulations which produce light, is a very small quantity, its mean
value being 1⁄50,000th of an inch; but in the previous investigations of
the consequences of the theory, it had been assumed that the
distance from each other, of the particles of the ether, which, by their
attractions or repulsions, caused the undulations to be propagated,
is indefinitely less than this small quantity;—so that its amount might
be neglected in the cases in which the length of the undulation was
one of the quantities which determined the result. But this
assumption was made arbitrarily, as a step of simplification, and
because it was imagined that, in this way, a nearer approach was
made to the case of a continuous fluid ether, which the supposition
of distinct particles imperfectly represented. It was still free for
mathematicians to proceed upon the opposite assumption, of
particles of which the distances were finite, either as a mathematical
basis of calculation, or as a physical hypothesis; and it remained to
be seen if, when this was done, the velocity of light would still be the
same for different lengths of undulation, that is, for different colors.
M. Cauchy, calculating, upon the most general principles, the motion
of such a collection of particles as would form an elastic medium,
obtained results which included the new extension of the previous
hypothesis. Professor Powell, of Oxford, applied himself to reduce to
calculation, and to compare with experiment, the result of these
researches. And it appeared that, on M. Cauchy’s principles, a
variation in the velocity of light is produced by a variation in the
length of the wave, provided that the interval between the molecules
of the ether bears a sensible ratio to the length of an undulation. 125
Professor Powell obtained also, from the general expressions, a
formula expressing the relation between the refractive index of a ray,
and the length of a wave, or the color of light. 126 It then became his
task to ascertain whether this relation obtained experimentally; and
he found a very close agreement between the numbers which
resulted from the formula and those observed by Fraunhofer, for ten
different kinds of media, namely, certain glasses and fluids. 127 To
these he afterwards added ten other cases of crystals observed by
M. Rudberg. 128 Mr. Kelland, of Cambridge, also calculated, in a
manner somewhat different, the results of the same hypothesis of
finite intervals; 129 and, obtaining 128 formulæ not exactly the same
as Professor Powell, found also an agreement between these and
Fraunhofer’s observations.
125 Phil. Mag. vol. vi. p. 266.

126 Ib. vol. vii. 1835, p. 266.

127 Phil. Trans. 1835, p. 249.

128 Ib. 1836, p. 17.

129 Camb. Trans. vol. vi. p. 153.

It may be observed, that the refractive indices observed and

employed in these comparisons, were not those determined by the
color of the ray, which is not capable of exact identification, but those
more accurate measures which Fraunhofer was enabled to make, in
consequence of having detected in the spectrum the black lines
which he called B, C, D, E, F, G, H. The agreement between the
theoretical formulæ and the observed numbers is remarkable,
throughout all the series of comparisons of which we have spoken.
Yet we must at present hesitate to pronounce upon the hypothesis of
finite intervals, as proved by these calculations; for though this
hypothesis has given results agreeing so closely with experiment, it
is not yet clear that other hypotheses may not produce an equal
agreement. By the nature of the case, there must be a certain
gradation and continuity in the succession of colors in the spectrum,
and hence, any supposition which will account for the general fact of
the whole dispersion, may possibly account for the amount of the
intermediate dispersions, because these must be interpolations
between the extremes. The result of this hypothetical calculation,
however, shows very satisfactorily that there is not, in the fact of
dispersion, anything which is at all formidable to the undulatory
theory.

11. Conclusion.—There are several other of the more recondite

points of the theory which may be considered as, at present, too
undecided to allow us to speak historically of the discussions which
they have occasioned. 130 For example, it was conceived, for some
time, that the vibrations of polarized light are perpendicular to the
plane of polarization. But this assumption was not an essential part
of the theory; and all the phenomena would equally allow us to
suppose the vibrations to be in the polarization plane; the main
requisite being, that light polarized in planes at right angles to each
other, should also have the vibrations at right angles. Accordingly, for
some time, this point was left undecided by Young and Fresnel, and,
more recently, some mathematicians have come to the opinion that
ether vibrates in the plane of polarization. The theory of transverse
vibrations is equally stable, whichever supposition may be finally
confirmed. ~Additional material in the 3rd edition.~
 130For on account of these, see Professor Lloyd’s Report on
Physical Optics. (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1834.)

We may speak, in the same manner, of the suppositions which,

from 129 the time of Young and Fresnel, the cultivators of this theory
have been led to make respecting the mechanical constitution of the
ether, and the forces by which transverse vibrations are produced. It
was natural that various difficulties should arise upon such points, for
transverse vibrations had not previously been made the subject of
mechanical calculation, and the forces which occasion them must
act in a different manner from those which were previously
contemplated. Still, we may venture to say, without entering into
these discussions, that it has appeared, from all the mathematical
reasonings which have been pursued, that there is not, in the
conception of transverse vibrations, anything inconsistent either with
the principles of mechanics, or with the best general views which we
can form, of the forces by which the universe is held together.

I willingly speak as briefly as the nature of my undertaking allows,

of those points of the undulatory theory which are still under
deliberation among mathematicians. With respect to these, an
intimate acquaintance with mathematics and physics is necessary to
enable any one to understand the steps which are made from day to
day; and still higher philosophical qualifications would be requisite in
order to pronounce a judgment upon them. I shall, therefore,
conclude this survey by remarking the highly promising condition of
this great department of science, in respect to the character of its
cultivators. Nothing less than profound thought and great
mathematical skill can enable any one to deal with this theory, in any
way likely to promote the interests of science. But there appears, in
the horizon of the scientific world, a considerable class of young
mathematicians, who are already bringing to these investigations the
requisite talents and zeal; and who, having acquired their knowledge
of the theory since the time when its acceptation was doubtful,
possess, without effort, that singleness and decision of view as to its
fundamental doctrines, which it is difficult for those to attain whose
minds have had to go through the hesitation, struggle, and balance
of the epoch of the establishment of the theory. In the hands of this
new generation, it is reasonable to suppose the Analytical
Mechanics of light will be improved as much as the Analytical
Mechanics of the solar system was by the successors of Newton.
We have already had to notice many of this younger race of
undulationists. For besides MM. Cauchy, Poisson, and Ampère, M.
Lamé has been more recently following these researches in
France. 131 In 130 Belgium, M. Quetelet has given great attention to
them; and, in our own country, Sir William Hamilton, and Professor
Lloyd, of Dublin, have been followed by Mr. Mac Cullagh. Professor
Powell, of Oxford, has continued his researches with unremitting
industry; and, at Cambridge, Professor Airy, who did much for the
establishment and diffusion of the theory before he was removed to
the post of Astronomer Royal, at Greenwich, has had the satisfaction
to see his labors continued by others, even to the most recent time;
for Mr. Kelland, 132 whom we have already mentioned, and Mr.
Archibald Smith, 133 the two persons who, in 1834 and 1836,
received the highest mathematical honors which that university can
bestow, have both of them published investigations respecting the
undulatory theory.
 131 Prof. Lloyd’s Report, p. 392.

132 On the Dispersion of Light, as explained by the Hypothesis of

Finite Intervals. Camb. Trans. vol. vi. p. 153.

133 Investigation of the Equation to Fresnel’s Wave Surface, ib. p.

85. See also, in the same volume, Mathematical Considerations
on the Problem of the Rainbow, showing it to belong to Physical
Optics, by R. Potter, Esq., of Queen’s College.

We may be permitted to add, as a reflection obviously suggested

by these facts, that the cause of the progress of science is
incalculably benefited by the existence of a body of men, trained and
stimulated to the study of the higher mathematics, such as exist in
the British universities, who are thus prepared, when an abstruse
and sublime theory comes before the world with all the characters of
truth, to appreciate its evidence, to take steady hold of its principles,
to pursue its calculations, and thus to convert into a portion of the
permanent treasure and inheritance of the civilized world,
discoveries which might otherwise expire with the great geniuses
who produced them, and be lost for ages, as, in former times, great
scientific discoveries have sometimes been.

The reader who is acquainted with the history of recent optical

discovery, will see that we have omitted much which has justly
excited admiration; as, for example, the phenomena produced by
glass under heat or pressure, noticed by MM. Lobeck, and Biot, and
Brewster, and many most curious properties of particular minerals.
We have omitted, too, all notice of the phenomena and laws of the
absorption of light, which hitherto stand unconnected with the theory.
But in this we have not materially deviated from our main design; for
our end, in what we have done, has been to trace the advances of
Optics 131 towards perfection as a theory; and this task we have now
nearly executed as far as our abilities allow.

We have been desirous of showing that the type of this progress,

in the histories of the two great sciences, Physical Astronomy and
Physical Optics, is the same. In both we have many Laws of
Phenomena detected and accumulated by acute and inventive men;
we have Preludial guesses which touch the true theory, but which
remain for a time imperfect, undeveloped, unconfirmed: finally we
have the Epoch when this true theory, clearly apprehended by great
philosophical geniuses, is recommended by its fully explaining what
it was first meant to explain, and confirmed by its explaining what it
was not meant to explain. We have then its Progress struggling for a
little while with adverse prepossessions and difficulties; finally
overcoming all these, and moving onwards, while its triumphal
procession is joined by all the younger and more vigorous men of
science.

It would, perhaps, be too fanciful to attempt to establish a

parallelism between the prominent persons who figure in these two
histories. If we were to do this, we must consider Huyghens and
Hooke as standing in the place of Copernicus, since, like him, they
announced the true theory, but left it to a future age to give it
development and mechanical confirmation; Malus and Brewster,
grouping them together, correspond to Tycho Brahe and Kepler,
laborious in accumulating observations, inventive and happy in
discovering laws of phenomena; and Young and Fresnel combined,
make up the Newton of optical science.

[2nd Ed.] [In the Report on Physical Optics, (Brit. Ass. Reports,
1834,) by Prof. Lloyd, the progress of the mathematical theory after
Fresnel’s labors is stated more distinctly than I have stated it, to the
following effect. Ampère, in 1828, proved Fresnel’s mathematical
results directly, which Fresnel had only proved indirectly, and derived
from his proof Fresnel’s beautiful geometrical construction. Prof. Mac
Cullagh not long after gave a concise demonstration of the same
theorem, and of the other principal points of Fresnel’s theory. He
represents the elastic force by means of an ellipsoid whose axes are
inversely proportional to those of Fresnel’s generating ellipsoid, and
deduces Fresnel’s construction geometrically. In the third
Supplement to his Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays (Trans.
R. I. Acad. vol. xvii.), Sir W. Hamilton has presented that portion of
Fresnel’s theory which relates to the fundamental problem of the
determination of the velocity and polarization of a plane wave, in a
very elegant and analytical form. This he does by means of what he
calls the 132 characteristic function of the optical system to which the
problem belongs. From this function is deduced the surface of wave-
slowness of the medium; and by means of this surface, the direction
of the rays refracted into the medium. From this construction also Sir
W. Hamilton was led to the anticipation of conical refraction,
mentioned above.

The investigations of MM. Cauchy and Lamé refer to the laws by

which the particles of the ether act upon each other and upon the
particles of other bodies;—a field of speculation which appears to me
not yet ripe for the final operations of the analyst.

Among the mathematicians who have supplied defects in

Fresnel’s reasoning on this subject, I may mention Mr. Tovey, who
treated it in several papers in the Philosophical Magazine (1837–40).
Mr. Tovey’s early death must be deemed a loss to mathematical
science.
 Besides investigating the motion of symmetrical systems of
particles which may be supposed to correspond to biaxal crystals,
Mr. Tovey considered the case of unsymmetrical systems, and found
that the undulations propagated would, in the general case, be
elliptical; and that in a particular case, circular undulations would
take place, such as are propagated along the axis of quartz. It
appears to me, however, that he has not given a definite meaning to
those limitations of his general hypothesis which conduct him to this
result. Perhaps if the hypothetical conditions of this result were
traced into detail, they would be found to reside in a screw-like
arrangement of the elementary particles, in some degree such as
crystals of quartz themselves exhibit in their forms, when they have
plagihedral faces at both ends.

Such crystals of quartz are, some like a right-handed and some

like a left-handed screw; and, as Sir John Herschel discovered, the
circular polarization is right-handed or left-handed according as the
plagihedral form is so. In Mr. Tovey’s hypothetical investigation it
does not appear upon what part of the hypothesis this difference of
right and left-handed depends. The definition of this part of the
hypothesis is a very desirable step.

When crystals of Quartz are right-handed at one end, they are

right-handed at the other end: but there is a different kind of
plagihedral form, which occurs in some other crystals, for instance,
in Apatite: in these the plagihedral faces are right-handed at the one
extremity and left-handed at the other. For the sake of distinction, we
may call the former homologous plagihedral faces, since, at both
ends, they have the same name; and the latter heterologous
plagihedral faces. 133
 The homologous plagihedral faces of Quartz crystals are
accompanied by homologous circular polarization of the same name.
I do not know that heterologous circular polarization has been
observed in any crystal, but it has been discovered by Dr. Faraday to
occur in glass, &c., when subjected to powerful magnetic action.

Perhaps it was presumptuous in me to attempt to draw such

comparisons, especially with regard to living persons, as I have done
in the preceding pages of this Book. Having published this passage,
however, I shall not now suppress it. But I may observe that the
immense number and variety of the beautiful optical discoveries
which we owe to Sir David Brewster makes the comparison in his
case a very imperfect representation of his triumphs over nature; and
that, besides his place in the history of the Theory of Optics, he must
hold a most eminent position in the history of Optical
Crystallography, whenever the discovery of a True Optical Theory of
Crystals supplies us with the Epoch to which his labors in this field
form so rich a Prelude. I cordially assent to the expression employed
by Mr. Airy in the Phil. Trans. for 1840, in which he speaks of Sir
David Brewster as “the Father of Modern Experimental Optics.”]

~Additional material in the 3rd edition.~

 B O O K X.

SECONDARY MECHANICAL SCIENCES.

(CONTINUED.)
 HISTORY
OF

T H E R M O T I C S A N D A T M O L O G Y.