1.

LEXICAL COHESION

Reiteration:
 Repetition of the same word
- Ex: There was a large mushroom growing near her. She stretched herself up on
tiptoe, an peeped over the edge of the mushroom.
 Synonym
- Ex: I turned to the ascent of the peak. The climb is perfectly easy.
 Hypernym and hyponym
- Ex: Henry's bought himself a new Jaguar. He practically lives in the car
Collocation: conceptual field
- Ex: Book: page, title, read, turn over, shelf, library ...

COHESION (hình thức) COHERENCE (nội dung)

- Cohesive devices: reference, - The underlying structure, organization,
conjunction, ellipsis, substitution, lexical and connectedness
cohesion (explicit linguistic links to provide
connectedness and structure). Example:
After ten years of standardization, there
Examples: should be a healthy UK market for used
1. The Egyptians and the Assyrians models.
were carrying standards some 5,000 Curiously, there seems to be only one big
years ago. They were poles topped second- hand PC dealer in London.
with metal figures of animals or gods.
2. Some 5,000 years ago, the Egyptians - Contextual properties (con-text,
and the Assyrians were carrying meaning with the text'): the way in
standards. These were poles topped which the text relates and makes
with metal figures of animals or sense in the situation in which it
gods. occurs.

- Internal properties of a text give it textual Example:

and structural unity. However, they do A: That'll be the
not necessarily give the text coherence. phone. B: I'm in the
bath.
Example: A: OK
A: Which platform does the London train go Two aspects of coherence:
from?
Situational coherence: a situation in which
a text could occur
B: London? My daughter lives in London. She Generic coherence: a text needs to occur
married a banker there last year. within
the context of a particular genre.

Theme and Rheme

Theme is a formal grammatical category

• Theme is the initial element in a clause, and everything that follows
the theme is rheme.
E.g.:
I. The cat (theme) ate the rat (rheme).
2. The rat (theme) was eaten by the cat (rheme).
• Three types of theme: topical, interpersonal, and textual.
E.g.: Frankly (interpersonal theme), the movie (tropical theme)was a
waste of money. However, you (tropical theme) should see it and make
up your own mind.

Zig-zag
Theme 1 rheme 1

Theme 2 rheme 2

Theme 3 rheme 3
Ex: As you will no doubt have been told, we have our own
photographic club (theme 1)cand darkroom. The club is called
'Monomanor' (rhyme 1) and there is an annual fee of £5 (rhyme 1).
The money (theme 2)goes towards replacing any equipment worn out
by use, or purchasing new equipment. Monomanor (theme 3) runs an
annual competition with prizes, judging being done and prizes awarded
at the garden party in the summer term. Besides the competition, we
also have talks and/or film shows during the other terms.

Constant
Theme 1 rheme 1

Theme 1 rheme 2

Theme 1 rheme 3

Theme 1 rheme 4
Ex: The bat is a nocturnal animal. It lives in the dark. There are long
nosed bats and mouse eared bats also
lettuce winged bats. Bats hunt at night. They sleep the day and are very
shy.

Multiple/split

In this pattern, a rheme may include a number off dff pieces of inf ,
Theme 1 rheme 1

Theme 2 rheme 2 Theme 3 rheme 3

Ex: As you will no doubt have been told, we have our own
photographic club and darkroom. The club is called 'Monomanor
(r1, zigzag)' and there is an annual fee of £5 (r1, zigzag). Monomanor
runs an annual competition with prizes, judging being done and prizes
awarded at the garden party in the summer term. Besides the
competition, we also have talks and/or film shows during the other
terms. The money (T3, link with r1) goes towards replacing any
equipment worn out by use, or purchasing new equipment.
Exercises
A. Identify the theme pattern of each of the following texts.

1) The American Psychological Association (T1) specifies a documentation

format (R1) required by most psychology, sociology, communication, education
and economics instructors. This format (T2) includes parenthetical documentation
(R2) in the text that refers to an alphabetical reference at the end of chapters.
(Paltridge, 2000)
ZIGZAG
T1 R1

T2 R2
2) When Japanese people write their language (T1) (Japanese languages), they use
a combination of two separate alphabets as well as ideograms borrowed from
Chinese (R1). The two alphabets (T2) are called hiragana and katakana (R2). The
Chinese ideograms (T3) are called kanji (R3). Hiragana (T4) represents the 46
basic sounds (R4) that are made in the Japanese language. Katakana (T5)
represents the same sounds (R5) as hiragana but is used mainly for words
borrowed from foreign languages and for sound effects. Kanji(T6) are used to
communicate an idea (R6) rather than a sound.
(Paltridge, 2000)
MULTIPE/SPLIT

T1 R1
T2 R2 T3 R3
T4 R4 T5 R5 T6 R6

3) The brain (T1) is our most precious organ (R1) -the one above all which allows
us to be human. The brain (T1) contains 10 billion nerve cells (R2), making
thousands of billions of connections with each other. It is the most powerful data
processor (R2.1 hoặc R3) we know, but at the same time it is incredibly delicate.
(R2.1/R3) As soft as a ripe avocado, the brain (T1) has to be encased in the tough
bones of the skull, and floats in its own waterbed of fluid (R2.2/R4). An adult brain
(T1) weighs over 30lb and fills the skull. (R2.3/R5) It (T1) receives one-fifth of the
blood pumped out by the heart at each beat. (R2.4/R6)
The brain (T1) looks not unlike a huge walnut kernel (R3/R7): it is dome-
shaped with a wrinkled surface, and is in two halves joined in the middle. Coming
out from the base of the brain (T1.1) like a stalk is the brain stem (R3.1/R8). This
(T2) is the swollen top of the spinal cord, which runs on down to our 'tail'.
(R3.2/R9). Parts of the brain stem (T2.1) control our most basic functions:
breathing, heart-beat, waking and sleeping. (R3.3/R10)
*R2: R2.1; R2.2,…: chỉ sâu hơn thông tin của R2/ hoặc đánh thông thường
cũng được
*T1.1 là thông tin sâu của T1
*T2.1 là thông tin sâu của R8, vẫn là thông tin của T2
(McCarthy, 1991)
CONSTANT
T1 R1
T1 R2
T1 R3
T1 R4
T1 R5
T1 R6
T1 R7
T1.1 R8
T2 R9
 T2.1 R10
4) Sydney (T1) is Australia’s most exciting city (R1). The history of Australia
begins (R2) here (T1). In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillips arrived in Sydney (T1) with
11 ships and 1024 passengers from Britain (R3)(including 770 prisoners). Today
there are over 2 1/2 million people (R4) in Sydney (T1). It (T1)is the biggest city in
Australia, the busiest port in the South Pacific, and one of the most beautiful cities
in the world. (R5)
(From Paltridge, 2000)

CONSTANT
T1 R1
T1 R2
T1 R3
T1 R4
T1 R5

GERNES
DEFINITION
 Genres are types of spoken and written discourse recognised by a discourse community.
Example: lectures, conversation, speeches, notices, advertisements, novels, diaries,
shopping list.
 Each genre has typical features, some may be linguistic, some paralinguistic, and some
contextual and pragmatic.
 Some genres overlap, and one can contain another (e.g, a joke, a story)

CLASSIFICATION OF TEXT TYPES

Three main text types: expository, narrative, and argumentative
 Expository texts are to explain, inform, or describe
 Narrative texts are to narrite or to tell a story
 Argumentative texts are to argue to persuade the reader
Text types have schematic structures, for example:
 Instruction/Procedure: Goal - (Material) - Steps
 Argument: Thesis statement/position -Argument A, B, C, etc-Restatement of position
 Report: Tide - General statement - Description
 Chapter 3: Conversation Analysis
DEFINITION OF CA

Transactional situations usually invol people in interactions where they wish to obtain information or
goods and services

Interactional situitional usuallyu involve speaker is causal conversations where the mail purpose is to
establish or maintian social with other people.

An approach to study how conversation work; an attempt to find out patterns of interaction

TRANSACTIONAL INTERACTIONS

Transactional talk is for getting business done in order to produce some change in the situation. It could
be to tell somebody something they need to know, to effect the purchase of something, to get someone to
do something, or many other world-changing things.

Offer of service ^ Request for service ^ Transaction^ Salutation

INTERPERSONAL INTERACTIONS

Opening stages: Greetings ^ Initiating exchanges

Middle stages: Development of a wide range of topics
Ending stages: Pre-closing exchanges ^ Closings
ADJACENCY PAIRS
Utterances function Expected response
- Greeting Greeting
- Congratulation Thanks
-Apology Acceptance
- Inform Acknowledge
- Leave-taking Leave-taking
Pairs of such utterances are called adjacency pairs. One way in which meanings are communicated and
interpreted in a conversation is through use of adjacency pairs. Adjacency pairs are utterances produced
by two successive speakers in such a way that the second utterance is identified as related to the first one
as an expected follow up
PREFERENCE ORGANISATION/ STRUCTURE
First part Second part Preferred Dispreferred
• Request Acceptance Refusal
• Offer/Invite Acceptance Refusal
• Assessment Agreement Disagreement
• Compliment Acceptance Rejection
• Question Expected answer Unexpected answer
SEQUENCE EXPANSION

 Pre-expansion/announcement
We can also use an adjacency pair as a pre-announcement of another adjacency pair. For example:
Eg.
A: Mary?
B: Yes?
A: What are you doing?
B: Nothing

 Insertion expansion
Sometimes we might also use what is called an insertion sequence; that is, when an adjacency pair
comes between the first and the second pair part of another adjacency pair. For example:
Eg.
Customer: I would like a turkey sandwich please.
Server: White or wholegrain?
Customer: Wholegrain.
Server: OK.

 Post-expansion
On other occasions we may follow an adjacency pair with a post-expansion; that is one adjacency
pair follows and expands another adjacency pair. For example:
Eg.
A: Do you like Virginia?
B: Yeah.
A: You do?
B: Well, not really.
TURN TAKING
How people manage turns in an interaction (e. how turns are taken)

 A brief silence
 Syntactic completeness
 Pitch level
Linguistic devices for getting the turn (eg. I wonder if I might say something, Hang on a minute, Shut up
will you, I can't get a word in edgewise, etc.)
An examination of turn taking includes looking at these aspects

 How speakers move from one turn to the next

 The types of turns which are expected in response to other turns
 How people self-select (speak of their own agreement) or give up their turns to others
 What interruptions and overlaps occur.
*BACKCHANEL

 Linguistic means of not taking the turn or simply making it clear to the speaker that the
listener is attending to the message
 Backchannel responses are often more of phatic expressions than conveying significant
information. (backchannel vs front channel)
For example:
A: After all you have done for me, I think I couldn't move on B:...
(silence) [backchannel]
A: I mean I wasn't able to stand it. Couldn't stand.
B: Mm [backchannel]
*OVERLAP
The way speakers predict one another's utterances and often complete them for them, or overlap with
them as they complete
For example:
A: I'd like to get our [own.....
B: [A glossy for us would be good too
A:... I'd like to get our own so that maybe we can even put two together.
TOPIC MANAGEMENT
Knowledge of appropriate topics and taboo topics in particular settings (what people should and
should not talk about with specific categories of people)
An awareness of how speakers deal with changes in a topic, how they maintain a topic, and how they
repair the interaction when misunderstanding occur
*RELEXICALISATION
How speakers take up, repeat, and modify the vocabulary selections of others in order to expand,
develop, or change topics
* FEEDBACK
The way listeners show they are attending to what being said, can be verbally like hm, uuh huh, or
non-verbally through body position or eye contact.