Africa’s Water Quality

A Chemical Science Perspective

A report by the Pan Africa Chemistry Network
March 2010
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CHEMISTRY
The RSC is an international learned society for advancing the chemical sciences and also the UK’s professional
body for chemical scientists. Supported by over 46,000 members worldwide and by an internationally acclaimed
publishing business, RSC’s activities span education and training, contributing to national and international
science policy, conference organization and promotion of the chemical sciences to the wider public. RCS’s
relationships with leading national chemical societies and international companies place the RSC at the heart of a
global network of 300,000 chemical scientists.

The RSC’s headquarters are in London with a further office based in Cambridge. Other RSC offices are located in
China (Beijing and Shanghai), in the USA in Philadelphia and in 2010 an office will be opened in Bangalore, India.

www.rsc.org

SYNGENTA
Syngenta is one of the world’s leading companies with more than 25,000 employees in over 90 countries
dedicated to our purpose: Bringing plant potential to life. Through world-class science, global reach and
commitment to our customers we help to increase crop productivity, protect the environment and improve
health and quality of life.

www.syngenta.com

PAN AFRICA CHEMISTRY NETWORK

The Pan Africa Chemistry Network (PACN) was set up by the Royal Society of Chemistry, with a special focus
on the Millennium Development Goals aimed at advancing the chemical sciences across Africa, and represents
an innovative approach to working with universities, schools, scientists, teachers, and students. The PACN is
engaging with chemical societies throughout Africa, together with the Federation of African Chemical Societies.
A coordinated approach is crucial to success. The PACN, with the support of Syngenta has established regional
hubs in Ethiopia and Kenya, and the RSC has increased the existing collaboration with universities and other
partners in South Africa. These can respond to the local needs of scientists whilst building extensive relationships
across the continent.

The PACN seeks to create a self-sustaining science base in Africa, and it is encouraging the application of best
practices to solving local challenges and enabling contributions to global scientific knowledge. It aims to:

• enhance collaboration between governments, universities, industry and communities;

• sscientific
upport the establishment of a sustainable science base across the continent, which attracts students to
careers and promotes public appreciation of the role of chemical science in Africa’s future;

• disseminate information to researchers and entrepreneurs about available funding opportunities;

• ctheoordinate support for education at all levels, from low-cost practical school teaching to training researchers in
use of modern research instruments;

• etechnologies
ncourage the development of ‘Centres of Excellence’ through the installation of modern analytical
and coordinated training.

www.rsc.org/pacn

2 | Africa’s Water Quality

Contents

Background 4

Foreword by H.E. Joaquim Alberto Chissano 5

Key messages 6

1. Water, food and poverty: the context 7

2. Provision of water resources in Africa 8

3. Water and food production 10

4. Water quality: monitoring environmental health 12

5. Technologies to protect and improve water quality 14

6. Building scientific and human capacity 18

7. Building a sustainable water security system 19

8. References 21

Africa’s Water Quality | 3

BACKGROUND
On 26th - 29th August 2009 the Pan Africa Chemistry Network (PACN) held the Sustainable Water Conference, hosted by
the University of Nairobi, Kenya, and sponsored by the RSC and Syngenta. The findings and recommendations contained
within this report represent the views of the 180 scientists and practitioners that attended this conference from 14
different countries in Africa, as well as the UK, Switzerland, Colombia and Uruguay.
During this three-day meeting, delegates addressed the scientific issues surrounding sustainable water. The concluding
open forum called for an increased understanding of the role of scientific research in finding solutions to issues relating to
water, especially water quality, in Africa. It also called for an increased scientific voice within African Governments, together
with a shift towards fostering a science-based water management culture.
This report is unique in that it summarises the conclusions and recommendations emerging from the PACN Sustainable
Water Conference, representing the opinions and knowledge of some of Africa’s best scientists in the field of sustainable
water research and development. It also includes the feedback received at the high level workshop organized at RSC
headquarters in London, where experts on water and African issues were invited to discuss a draft of this report.
The report will be launched in Nairobi at the United Nations World Water Day 2010 “Communicating Water Quality
Challenges and Opportunities”, with the intention of alerting the governments of the African nations for which water
quality remains an urgent issue. The document also serves as a roadmap for the numerous scientists in African academia,
government and industry who will ultimately be tasked with undertaking the recommendations outlined herein.
The recommendations presented in this report specify ‘fit for purpose’ solutions for water wherever it is used: for drinking,
for growing food, and to satisfy domestic and industrial needs. It is recognised that biological, physical and chemical
contaminants are all major contributors to sub-standard water quality in Africa, and special attention is given to the latter.
This report emphasises the central role that the chemical sciences will play, in particular through ‘Centres of Excellence’ in
analytical chemistry, in the evaluation and monitoring of water quality.
In the light of climate change and massive population expansion, the vital role that Africa’s scientists must play in meeting
water quality challenges cannot be overestimated. These challenges present the opportunity for genuine partnership
and collaboration between scientific communities and governments, both across the African states and internationally.
The ultimate goal of this report is to raise the profile of water quality in policy agenda, so that water quality is always
considered alongside water quantity.

Report steering committee Report contributors

Dr John Clough, Syngenta Professor Anthony Gachanja, Jomo Kenyatta University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kenya
Dr Simon Cook, CGIAR, Colombia
Eng. Pedro Mastrangelo, CSI Ingenieros, Uruguay
Professor Eric Odada, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Professor Kevin McGuigan, The Royal College of
Dr Elizabeth Milsom, Royal Society of Chemistry
Surgeons in Ireland, Ireland
Mr Steve Ntifo, Water UK
Ms Presthantie Naicker, University of KwaZulu-Natal,
Dr Alejandra Palermo, Royal Society of Chemistry South Africa
Ms Alison Sapiets, Syngenta Professor Feleke Zewge, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
Professor Shem O. Wandiga, University of Nairobi, Kenya Many others also made valuable contributions including
Professor Paul Worsfold, University of Plymouth, UK participants at the open forum and the workshop.

4 | Africa’s Water Quality

 FOREWORD
Water is essential for life. Safe, abundant water is vital to our ability to prosper and to
fulfil our potential. Without it, we face a continual decline in our well-being, poverty
and hunger, and increasing levels of conflict.
Across Africa, a third of us have no access to clean water, and almost two thirds
no access to clean sanitation, causing widespread suffering from malaria, typhoid,
dysentery and many other diseases. Apart from this effect upon our health, the loss of
productivity that results from water-related illnesses holds back our progress.
The population in many African countries is growing rapidly each year, averaging
2.5% across sub-Saharan African, but the lack of safe water and sanitation reduces our
economic growth at twice that rate. And a growing population must be properly fed.
We need to increase our food production by half in the next twenty years. How will we achieve this without reducing
the amount and quality of the remaining water resources which we will need for drinking and sanitation? Clearly, the
provision of sustainable, clean water for our people is of the highest priority.
The effects of climate change make the challenge of conserving our precious water resources even more difficult. The
people of Africa that are responsible for less than 5% of the pollution which has changed the planet’s atmosphere, will
feel the worst of its impact in terms of increased flooding and drought. Climate change is a global problem, and it places
the onus upon the global community to live up to their commitments to reduce by half the proportion of people without
access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.
Yet despite all the obstacles we face, I remain an optimist when it comes to Africa’s agricultural development and to water
sustainability.
The introduction of new forms of irrigation pioneered by African scientists and research institutions has the potential to
transform the way staple foods are cultivated. Today, only 10% of Africa’s cultivated land is irrigated. Imagine what we can
do if this percentage is increased in a way which also does not overburden our water supplies.
We need to make more use of fertilizers to feed nutrient deficient soils, and of modern crop varieties and new farming
techniques to improve yields. We can see already what can be achieved with determination, vision and partnership.
With the right policies and commitment, Africa has the chance to match, indeed better the Asian agricultural miracle of
the last generation. Better because we can do so in an environmentally sustainable way, which takes fully into account the
fact that 80% of Africans are dependent in some way on agriculture.
Sustainable supplies of water, its better management and protection are the key to this success – just as increased
agricultural productivity holds the key to spreading prosperity and our other development goals.
This report relies upon the collective knowledge of scientists from across Africa, detailing how we can improve our
capacity to tackle these challenges by establishing new centres of scientific excellence and by bringing together the best
minds in science with governments to ensure water sustainability.
I have no doubt of the scale of the challenge, but I am also optimistic that with vision and will, we can encourage
governments across Africa to adopt these solutions and put them into practice.

H.E. Joaquim Alberto Chissano

Former President of Mozambique
Chairperson, Africa Forum for Former African Heads of State and Government
Chairperson, Joaquim Chissano Foundation

Africa’s Water Quality | 5

KEY MESSAGES
1. Scientists working within Africa have the 4. Food production accounts for a large proportion of
knowledge, expertise and potential to help formulate total water use. Any comprehensive strategy to address
and implement sustainable water strategies. Sound water scarcity and quality must also address sustainable
policy is based on the best available scientific evidence, food production. The conversion rates of water to food
so it is essential that scientists make their voices heard in Africa are amongst the lowest in the world, but there
within Government. Institutions must support a dialogue is enormous potential for improvement in the efficiency
between scientists and policy makers to ensure that of water use as well as land productivity. Africa has the
recommendations can be adopted and that a culture of potential to become the bread basket for the world, but
science-based water management is established. the challenge of providing adequate supplies of water for
agriculture, whilst maintaining a sufficient source of good
2. Increasing Africa’s capacity in analytical chemistry quality water for other purposes, must be addressed for
is imperative in order to support chemical monitoring this potential to be realised.
and water management activities. The creation of
centres of excellence in analytical chemistry, with the 5. Governments must be responsible and accountable
appropriate level of funding, will be essential to achieve for providing sustainable water strategies and a
a critical mass of scientifically qualified and technically framework to provide clean drinking water, sanitation
trained personnel. These centres should also play a role in services, and food. In order for management strategies
facilitating networking activities between African and non- to be effectively implemented, water must be viewed as
African scientists in water research and management, and a valuable, scarce resource. To ensure delivery, water data
ensuring that water quality data is shared. should be shared across jurisdictions and, if appropriate,
new institutions, regulatory bodies and organisations
3. Improving water quality is a vital requirement should be established.
for better public health, productivity and economic
prosperity. Even though Africa has abundant water
resources, these are not evenly distributed across the
continent, and rainfall patterns are becoming increasingly
unpredictable due to climate change. A growing number
of African countries are water stressed, with relatively low
water resources per capita. Where there is water its quality
is often deteriorating. This must be addressed through
innovative water management and water treatment
technologies, which are appropriate for local needs,
coupled with adequate monitoring systems.

6 | Africa’s Water Quality

1. WATER, FOOD AND POVERTY: THE CONTEXT
African heads of state joined the global consensus in The number of people experiencing starvation has
agreeing to reduce by half the proportion of people increased due to prolonged drought between 2007
“without sustainable access to safe drinking water” by and 2009 in many countries. In 2005, at least 280 million
2015.1 This is within the framework of the Millennium people were undernourished, with most of these living
Development Goals 1 and 7 (“Eradicate extreme hunger in Sub-Saharan Africa.7 Demand for water to grow food
and poverty” and “Ensure environmental sustainability”, has increased as a result of the increasing population and
respectively). They further agreed, at the World Summit Africa has not been able to produce enough food. Over
on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, to reduce the past 50 years, cereal yields in Africa have stagnated
by half the proportion of people living without access to whilst population has increased.8 A lack of investment in
improved sanitation by 2015, compared to 1990 levels. irrigation infrastructure and new technologies means that
The provision of water of suitable quality and in sufficient Africa has some of the lowest water-to-food conversion
quantity forms the cornerstone for achieving these rates in the world.
Millennium Development Goals.
The water resources that Africa has are being degraded
In 2009, Africa’s population exceeded 1 billion2 and due to high demand and untreated waste water entering
continues to increase at a rate of 2.4% annually. Of this the environment from industry and domestic sources.
population, 341 million lack access to clean drinking Adaptation and planning of water resources is difficult,
water,3 and a further 589 million have no access to as many African countries have no established water
adequate sanitation.4 In both cases, increases in coverage quality monitoring programmes. Most of the rivers and
are not keeping pace with population growth, which water courses are non-gauged and the rural and peri-
means it will be unlikely that the 2015 Millennium urban water supply is not considered to be an essential
Development Goals will be met. part of most water treatment systems. Water pollution
statistics are limited as adequate analytical laboratories are
It is estimated that around half of all patients occupying
scarce. There has been a lack of focus on water as a critical
African hospital beds suffer from water-borne illnesses
resource and therefore this sector has seen substantial
due to lack of access to clean water and sanitation. This is
under-investment. Above all, the absence of a structured
reducing the overall health and productivity of the adult
framework for water governance is hindering effective
workforce.5 Water-borne diseases like typhoid, cholera
water management.
and dysentery are among the major causes of mortality
and morbidity in Africa. Lack of safe water and sanitation
costs sub-Saharan Africa around 5% of its Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) each year.6 Households in rural Africa
spend an average of 26% of their time fetching water;
generally women are burdened with this task.

Africa’s Water Quality | 7

2. PROVISION OF WATER RESOURCES IN AFRICA
2.1 Where is the water? will further impact on the access that communities have to
water. However, the vulnerability of water supply cannot
Africa as a continent appears to have an abundance of be solely attributed to climate change. Other factors, such
water; it has 17 rivers, each with catchments over 100,000 as population increase and changes in land use, can also
km2, more than 160 lakes larger than 27 km2, vast wetlands contribute to water scarcity and the degradation of its
and limited, but widespread, groundwater. Rainfall similarly quality.
is plentiful, with Africa’s annual average precipitation being
at a level comparable to that of Europe and North America.9
2.2 Water stress and scarcity
Withdrawals of water in Africa for its three main uses –
agriculture, domestic, and industry – is low, estimated to be The disparity in water resources across Africa means that a
only 3.8% of total annual renewable water resources.10 quarter of all people are experiencing water stress (defined
as between 1000 and 1500 m3 per capita per year).14 With
However, Africa is a continent with large disparities in water
populations increasing, water scarcity (less than 1,000 m3
availability between sub-regions. About 50% of Africa’s total
per capita per year) is emerging as a major development
surface water is concentrated within a single basin – the
challenge for many African countries.
Congo river basin – and 75% of total water resources are
concentrated in just eight major river basins.11 The countries Water scarcity was experienced in 10 African countries in
with the highest available freshwater per capita include 1995: Algeria, Burundi, Cape Verde, Djibouti, Egypt, Kenya,
the Democratic Republic of Congo, with around 250,000 Libya, Malawi, Rwanda and Tunisia. Projections indicate that
m3 per capita per year. In contrast, Burundi and Kenya have the situation will worsen by 2025, 14 countries will suffer
only around 840 and 950 m3 freshwater per capita per year, water scarcity and a further 11 countries will suffer water
respectively. stress.15 In a few years, at the current rate of water demand,
almost all sub-Saharan African countries will be below the
Figure 1 shows the extreme spatial variability of rainfall
level at which water supply is enough for all. Even worse,
across the continent, from the humid tropics to the arid
most of them will be in a state of water-stress or scarcity.
Sahara. There are, of course, substantial differences in rainfall
at different times of the year and, in some regions, it also The amount of water available is a key concern in countries
varies from year to year and from one decade to the next. racing towards their physical limit of available fresh
water. In other countries, the rapid population growth
and the expansion of urban settlements, industry and
commercialised agriculture, is adding extra pressure on
water resources that are also degrading in quality.

2.3 Water quality

Water quality is impacted both by natural processes, such
as seasonal trends, underlying geology and hydrology,
weather and climate, and by human activities, including
domestic, agriculture, industry and environmental
engineering. 75% of Africa’s drinking water comes
from groundwater16 and is often used with little or no
purification. Water contaminated by microbiological
pollutants spread diseases such as dysentery, cholera and
typhoid. Chemical contaminants, including those naturally
found in the underlying bed rock, can also cause disease
Figure 1. Map of annual rainfall across Africa12 and developmental problems, and can adversely affect
Climate change is also likely to exacerbate this situation. agricultural yields and industrial processes. A detailed
The 4th Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change knowledge of water quality is essential so that drinking
Report states that climate change and variability have water can be adequately treated and the contamination of
the potential to impose additional pressures on water its sources can be prevented.
availability in Africa.13 It is also thought that the incidence The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has
of extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods, recently set up GEMStat database, dedicated to water

8 | Africa’s Water Quality

quality.17 The database includes data for all regions in the world water catchment. Most of the ground water resources have
including Africa, and contains information about physico- not been quantified, nor studied to assess the withdrawal
chemical parameters (e.g. pH), nutrients, major ions (including and recharge rates, and in fact, when properly utilized,
metals), organic matter and organic contaminants, together Africa’s aquifers may provide enough water for the growing
with microbiological and hydrological data. However, the data population as long as the water withdrawal and recharge rates
collected for Africa is only limited to specific regions and in are stabilized.
many cases does not give a detailed assessment of the sources
Not surprisingly, African towns and cities have better water
of ground and surface water.
supplies and sanitation services than rural areas, yet two-
Improvement in coverage is needed in parts of the globe, thirds of the African population live in the countryside. An
particularly in Africa. Where the quality of water is being estimated 82% of urban residents in Sub-Saharan Africa have
measured, a worrying picture is emerging. Many important access to safe water and 55% to sanitation facilities. Developed
water bodies, which provide water for drinking, washing and water supply and sanitation services in the urban areas are
irrigation for many thousands of local inhabitants, are showing concentrated in the upper and middle class areas. The urban
unacceptable levels of potentially toxic substances. These poor have the least access to these services and pay the
include heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) highest price for their water. Further differentiation is made
and biological contaminants. These pollutants originate from between urban centres with declining water distribution
a variety of sources, including local industries and domestic systems, due to inadequate, aging and overloaded networks
waste water. It is clear that, without increased monitoring, and the situation of peri-urban dwellers.
it will be difficult to protect water quality and implement
The lack of an adequate water supply at home or in its
preventative policies and practices.
immediate vicinity is a particular problem for women and
girls, who are often responsible for fetching water, often from
2.4 Drinking water and sanitation sources which are a long way from home. In rural regions of
Access to clean drinking water and basic sanitation, including Africa, they spend, on average, three hours a day engaged
toilets, waste water treatment and recycling, affects a country’s in the collection of water for a family of six. This restricts their
developmental progress in terms of human health, education opportunities for education, to say nothing of the physical
and gender equality. The provision of sustainable drinking burden to which they are thereby exposed.
water and sanitation are inadequate across many parts of
Africa and, where available, water supply and sanitation IN SUMMARY
services are differentiated according to urban, rural or informal
settlements.
• Africa has plentiful water resources but these are unevenly
distributed across the continent; rainfall can also vary
Provision of potable water varies amongst urban, rural and substantially from one year to the next. Climate change is
peri-urban dwellers. The middle- and upper-class urban likely to increase this variability still further, and will make it
dwellers receive water from major rivers, dams and deep well harder to provide a reliable supply of water.
sources. Most of Africa’s rural and peri-urban water-needy
depend on smaller tributaries and catchments and seasonal
• The available data suggests that water quality is declining,
but there is a pressing need for more data to be collected.
rivers. They also have access to shallow bore holes and rain

Figure 2. UNEP GEMS/ Water global Network worldwide distribution of over 2,800 monitoring stations

Africa’s Water Quality | 9

3. WATER AND FOOD PRODUCTION
Food production comprises a large proportion of Africa’s parallel approaches are required to manage them so that the
economy, bringing in, on average, 20% of the GDP for each environment benefits all.
country. In sub-Saharan Africa, it accounts for 67% of jobs.18
Agricultural intensification, if mismanaged, can cause
Africa has the highest rate of rural poverty in the world,
environmental problems relating to reduced biodiversity,
and the poorest remain in agriculture, with women taking
over-exploitation of water resources, and agrochemical
the leading role in agricultural activities. Improving and
pollution, including the misuse of pesticides. However,
sustaining agriculture in Africa will therefore be fundamental
the increase in agricultural activity required in Africa can
to economic development and the alleviation of poverty.
be made sustainable if modern practices are adapted for
In its Global Environmental Outlook 4, the UNEP said that, local conditions, and are coupled to good training and
‘to meet the Millennium Development Goals on hunger, stewardship.
a doubling of global food production will be required by
Firstly, the objectives of food security and environmental
2050’. Sub-Saharan Africa in particular is currently a net-
security must be integrated, and the relationship between
importer of grain but, with Africa’s population expected to
many Africans – particularly the poorest – and the lands on
at least double to 2 billion by 2050,19 it is essential that food
which they rely for their livelihoods must be recognised.
production increases, ideally to the point where the region
The co-development of food and water systems will need
evolves to become a net-exporter of food.
institutions that cross normal sector boundaries. New policies
Crop-yields in sub-Saharan Africa are particularly low, with on water that also include food are needed, and any food
the result that food production has not kept pace with policies must recognise the reliance of food production on
increases in the population. Cereal yields, for example, water. Poverty alleviation programs need to recognise that
have not increased over the last 50 years, whereas yields changes in agriculture needs will subsequently affect the
in developed countries have more than doubled in the environment. It will be essential to coordinate the activities of
same period of time. Calls have been made for a ‘Green institutions concerned with water, food and the alleviation of
Revolution in Africa’ to address low use of inputs and the poverty with all those who use water.
use of improved crop varieties and to put in place the robust
The land and environment should be looked on as a provider
institutional frameworks required to support change. The
of services to its inhabitants. A review of the status of any
call is even more urgent given recent evidence that climate
agricultural land will be needed (including for example the
change is likely to make a heavy impact on agricultural
ecology, water availability and potential to produce food);
production and food security in many African countries.20
then plans must be developed at different scales, from
It is essential that food production increases dramatically national and river basin/catchment levels down to individual
over coming decades, yet in doing so it cannot consume fields, on how best to provide the desired outcomes.
more water in regions already stressed, nor can it risk Recognition and payment to farmers or land owners for
compromising water quality. Taking Africa as a whole, environmental services can help protect watershed and
agriculture accounts for 70% of water withdrawal but in forestry environments, which in turn provide clean drinking
sub-Saharan Africa this figure is higher, approaching 90%.21 water, stable water flows to irrigation systems, carbon
With water scarcity facing several African countries, and sequestration, and protection of biodiversity. Compensation
the demand of rapidly growing urban areas increasing the of this type, however, will rely on appropriate subsidy policies
pressure on water supplies, a green revolution will be an and measurement of the services supplied (see Chapter 4 -
enormous challenge. But it is a challenge that Africa can Measuring Environmental Health).
meet by taking a holistic view of food and water systems and
by innovation through science and technology. 3.2 Increasing water efficiency
Access to water is a major determinant of land productivity
3.1 An integrated picture of water and and the stability of crop yields. Increasing productivity from
food systems rain-fed agricultural land should initially be a priority, as
Water flowing through African landscapes provides a range existing knowledge and technologies can be applied to aid
of supportive services, from water for direct consumption areas where crop yields are still below average.
and sanitation, through to water that supports food Approaches that require minimal external inputs, by
production and maintains environmental function. Water exploiting biological and ecological processes, include:
benefits are integrated throughout the landscape, and hence conservation tillage, green manure cover crops, and the

10 | Africa’s Water Quality

introduction of crop varieties that are more tolerant incorrectly disposed of, and eroded soil. All these
of pests, diseases and drought. Since the introduction potential contaminants should be managed carefully to
of cover crops, no-till acreage has increased by nearly minimize their movement into water. Growers should be
40%. This approach reduces the demand for energy and encouraged to use Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
water by reducing evaporation of moisture from the soil, programs recommended for their crops and local areas,
raising its carbon content and improving its structure, and when using any product the label should be read
increasing earthworm populations and combating wind and closely followed to minimize any residues escaping
and water erosion. However, lack of information on from the field and entering the local watershed.
agro-ecology and the high demand for management
skills are major barriers to the adoption of sustainable RECOMMENDATIONS
agricultural techniques in Africa.
Where appropriate, an increase in the area of irrigated
• A strong focus on developing and improving
technologies to conserve and reuse water for
land is also desirable, as irrigated land productivity agriculture is required; including optimising water use,
can be more than double that of rain-fed land.22 In treatment of contaminated water, recycling water,
sub-Saharan Africa, only 4% of the area in production desalinating water and harvesting water for irrigation.
is under irrigation, compared with 39% in South Asia
and 60% in India. With climate change leading to rising
• Modern biotechnology should be used to develop
crops that are resistant to attack by pests and to
uncertainties in rain-fed agriculture, investment in water
environmental stresses, including drought and salinity.
storage infrastructure and irrigation systems could
Nutritionally enhanced crops also hold tremendous
ensure crop yields should rainfall become more erratic.
potential to provide significant benefits for human and
The introduction of improved crop varieties generated livestock nutrition, health, welfare, and growth.
through conventional breeding or genetic modification
could also help to boost yields and improve the
• Higher yields from crops should be sought through
enhanced responsiveness to fertilisers and pesticides.
quality of many foodstuffs, as it has in other parts of
the world. The higher crop yields obtained through • Farmer education in the use and storage of plant
genetic modification are believed to have saved millions protection products should be continued.
of square miles of wildlife habitat from conversion
to agricultural use. In the past, most biotechnology
• The impact of agriculture on the entire cycle of water
use and water governance should be recognised.
research occurring outside Africa was driven by Water in agriculture is both a source of water pollution
commercial interest, which was of little benefit to (return flows, groundwater contamination and
small or poor consumers and did not suit Africa’s wide surface water eutrophication and salinization) and is
ranging ecosystems. This is beginning to change, with impacted by poor quality water – especially in the use
work being carried out, for example, on cowpea23 and of untreated wastewater in vegetable production and
maize,24 plus a number of other varieties of crop that are in the impact on farmers’ health through exposure to
nutritionally important to African communities. water-borne pathogens.

3.3 Water quality and agrochemicals

While low-input farming systems have valuable
resilience in the face of climatic or economic uncertainty,
it is clear that, to an extent, use of agrochemical inputs
to cropping systems must increase to achieve the levels
of water productivity necessary to meet the twin goals
of food and water security. Since their introduction,
crop protection products have played a significant
role in increasing yields; without them there would be
approximately 40% loss in agricultural productivity.25
In the context of agriculture, the most significant
water pollutants are excess nitrogen- and phosphorus-
containing compounds discharged via effluent from
livestock production, fertilizers and agrochemicals

Africa’s Water Quality | 11

4. WATER QUALITY: MONITORING ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Environmental monitoring is essential if we are to
identify sources of contaminants and build strategies Fit For Purpose Rapid Analytical Techniques:
to avoid these entering water resources that may be The Requirements
used for human consumption. Good environmental Analytical sampling is expensive and time consuming
monitoring, operating within a robust legislative and sample integrity may be lost even before it reaches
framework, is an essential prerequisite to achieve this. a laboratory. Monitoring needs to occur in situ, so that
The first step is an assessment of the present status of high quality data with excellent resolution can be
the aquatic environment. Effort can then be focused on collected for process studies and mapping. For this we
the restoration and protection of environmental health. require:
In order to build the capacity to protect environmental • robust, portable, automated instrumentation;
health, investment needs to be made in suitable
hardware (technology that is fit for purpose including • contamination-free environment (includes reagents,
containers, sampling apparatus, transportation);
low technology options). However, the training of
suitable personnel, together with the development of • sensitive and selective detection;
systems for data validation and quality assurance, are
equally important. This requires people to operate and
• removal of matrix interferences e.g. sea salts;
maintain the instrumentation and others to interpret • system stability (reagents, standards, pumps,
the data, formulate policy and implement strategy. This detector);
is achievable through the identification and support of • on-board filtration and prevention of bio-fouling;
‘Centres of Excellence’ within the region in question.
In determining a strategy for the protection of
• remote calibration, validation and maintenance.
environmental health of the African continent, it is
essential to involve and engage the communities
who will benefit most from the rewards of a healthy 4.2 Increasing analytical capacity in
environment. The equipment will need to be robust, Africa
low-cost and easy to maintain. The use of local or
The increasing growth in the African population,
indigenous knowledge, where appropriate, will increase
combined with a lack of stringent environmental
the probability of acceptance and success in the drive
safeguards, has given rise to serious concern about
for the protection of the health of both humans and
water quality, and the associated threats to human
ecosystem in Africa.
health and the environment. If Africa and its research
scientists are to embrace the recommendations of this
4.1 Environmental monitoring report, increasing Africa’s capabilities and capacity in
networks analytical chemistry is imperative. In order to support
The establishment or improvement of monitoring chemical monitoring and management activities such as
networks should: those discussed here, there is an urgent need for more

• ascertain where water quality and quantity is a personnel who are scientifically qualified and technically
trained in relevant advanced analytical techniques.
problem; These include, for example, modern capillary gas
• identify when remedial action is required; chromatography (GC) methods incorporating detection

• allow for short and long term planning and actions to either by electron capture (EC) or mass spectrometry
(MS). Thus, it is essential to create and support centres of
take place.
excellence in analytical chemistry, with a critical mass of
experts, in African universities.
The status of instrumentation in African Higher
Education institutions is a grave problem which urgently
requires addressing. Governments need to provide
funds to enable universities to access and maintain the
required equipment, and also to facilitate continued

12 | Africa’s Water Quality

training of researchers. Optimisation of resources is RECOMMENDATIONS
crucial if funds are to be used wisely, and national and
regional centres of excellence, with shared research • Increase networking and capacity-building activities
facilities, should be established as part of this effort. in analytical chemistry by providing, transporting
and commissioning equipment in good condition to
Underlying issues related to equipment donated to African research centres.
Africa should be considered, including:
1. Procurement: clearance problems at the port of entry
• Develop centres of excellence in experimental
techniques (at least one per country or region). These,
with consequent costs and delays; operating under the auspices of PACN for instance,
2. Installation: engineers’ expenses difficult to source; could run training courses to facilitate instrument
usage by other universities in the region.
3. Maintenance and repairs: lack of trained personnel,
engineers’ expenses; • Strengthen the already successful ‘centre of
excellence’ at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture
4. Experimental hardware: lack of specialized and Technology and develop shared facilities at new
instrumentation (e.g. GC/MS) in African universities, regional centres of excellence in other countries.
as well as a shortage of trained personnel able to use
and maintain such equipment; • Governments and universities should examine
possible funding schemes that could be viable in
5. Decommissioning: lack of knowledge of procedures Africa to facilitate creation of centres of excellence in
involved. the chemical sciences.
The Pan Africa Chemistry Network coordinates and
supports activities aimed at building capability and
• Facilitate networking activities of African and non-
African scientists in the area of water research and
capacity in this area. Examples are the commissioning and management.
installation of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
instrumentation at Jomo Kenyatta University of • Networking among African scientists both within and
Agriculture and Technology, Kenya, and more recently outside Africa is vital if African R&D is to be engaged
at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, and the provision of in the international arena: the PACN should be seen as
analytical training courses for researchers across Africa. an example of this.
The ultimate aim is to develop well-equipped chemical
research communities by supporting regional centres
of excellence. It is important that these centres are
supported, promoted and continuously funded.

Africa’s Water Quality | 13

5. TECHNOLOGIES TO PROTECT AND IMPROVE WATER QUALITY
Water quality is defined by its chemical, physical, and suspended solids and bulk organics by coagulation,
biological characteristics and needs to be considered sedimentation and filtration, followed by chemical
in the context of whether it is fit for purpose. This will disinfection where necessary.
depend on its intended use. Key processes that impact
Many rural communities in Africa use ground-, surface-
on water quality include:
or rain-water for drinking. Many cannot afford the
• Eutrophication, i.e. elevated nutrient concentrations expensive chemicals required to disinfect water, so
leading to excessive algal growth and deoxygenation they have to take it as it is, or simply leave it to settle to
due to diffuse run-off from agricultural land and point remove sediments. It is therefore essential to provide
source discharges from wastewater treatment plants; low-cost methods for testing water quality.

• Diffuse and point source discharges/drainage from Problems associated with drinking untreated water
mining activities; include:

• Localised discharges of organic micropollutants • contamination of surface water by bio-organisms;

and metals from specific industries and domestic
wastewater;
• contamination of groundwater by fluoride, arsenic,
nitrate, iron and of more recently, chromium from
• Saline intrusion into groundwater in coastal areas; natural geological sources or agricultural and industrial

• Erosion and sedimentation from, for example, activities;

deforestation, rainfall events (which are temporally and • excess salinity due to sea water infiltration.
spatially highly variable) and engineering projects.
For communities connected to a water supply network,
it is the responsibility of the service provider to produce
5.1 Clean drinking water water that is suitable for drinking when it reaches
Methods to produce clean drinking water differ across the consumer; it is essential that governments set up
the globe but, in general, involve the removal of monitoring systems to ensure this is the case. However,

Case Study 1 – EPA Compact Water Plants utilised a whole product solution. Operation of the plant requires
in Africa for small and remote communities only a low energy input (e.g. 4 hp - EPA 20, delivering
20 m3/hr ), when compared with other conventional
EPA (Estación Potabilizadora de Agua) Compact Water
solutions or more sophisticated technologies. In addition,
Plants use a conventional treatment system (coagulation,
operation of the plant is straightforward and can be
flocculation, sedimentation, rapid filtration and
carried out by one person. Local personnel can easily
disinfection process) with no need of pumps; instead they
be trained to operate the plant and take charge of its
use hydraulic flocculation, a settling tank and rapid sand
maintenance.
filters. Erection of the plant, training and the necessary
intake and distribution works are standardized, achieving In the case of four communities served by EPA Compact
Water Plants, it was noted that they developed a feeling
of “ownership”. They agreed to charge a fixed sum of
money per litre of treated water, assuring the funding for
proper operation of the plant. Anticipating the needs
of remote communities without access to an electricity
supply or other fuel source, a new model of the Compact
Water Plant has recently been introduced. This new
model includes a solar panel which covers all the energy
requirements (1 hp), while delivering half the flow rate
of the original model (10 m3/hr). Erection of this model
is also easier, reducing the overall cost of the plant, and
allowing communities to recover their costs more quickly.
EPA General Technical Specifications P. Mastrangelo, CSI Ingenieros, Montevideo, Uruguay.
(Dimensions: 4 m length, 2 m width, 3.5 m height) [email protected]

14 | Africa’s Water Quality

for many smaller, poor or rural African communities, compared with community treatment plants. Point of
no drinking water supply network is available. In these use devices should be simple and wherever possible
cases, technologies that produce water suitable for should be suitable for household operation, with
drinking need to be cheap, easy to use, robust and minimum chemical or physical intervention. The device
suitable for maintenance by the local population. They should also be less dependent on external energy
should produce water that is free from suspended sources. Examples of point of use water purification
particles and, most importantly, microbial contaminants, methods and devices include: mechanical filtration,
without the need for monitoring water quality output. disinfection with natural plant extracts (see Case Study
2), and solar disinfection.26 Devices for the specific
5.1.1 Point of entry treatment removal of fluorides (see Case Study 3) and arsenic
Point of entry treatment refers to water treatment have been designed for areas contaminated by these
carried out at the source of distribution. It is economical, naturally-occurring chemicals.27
convenient and suitable for urban or small rural
communities where the costs of water supply can 5.2 Waste water treatment
be shared (see Case Study 1). This type of project has The principle function of wastewater treatment is to
shown itself to be successful when water is seen as a remove solid, organic and microbiological components
valued commodity by the local population. that cause unacceptable levels of pollution to the
receiving water body. Depending on the source
5.1.2 Point of use treatment of waste, consideration also needs to be given to
Point of use treatment refers to water treatment at ammonia, nitrate, phosphorus, microorganisms, specific
the user end of supply; point of use devices have to organic pollutants and metals.
be operated and maintained by the individual. Quality
The processes most commonly encountered in
of supply is assured subject to the device operating
wastewater treatment include: (1) screens, (2) coarse
properly and an adequate supply of water obtained,
solids reduction, (3) grit removal, (4) sedimentation,
but the per capita capital expenditure may be greater

Case Study 2: Water purification using natural method of water purification, seeds of M. oleifera
plant coagulants (Moringa oleifera seeds and and root of M. decumbens were washed, oven-dried
Maerua decumbens root) and then ground and stored in sterile, air-tight glass
jars. Turbidity and microbiological analysis were then
Sources of water in the water-scarce areas of the Kitui
carried out on test water, before and after treatment
and Mwingi districts of Kenya include seasonal rivers,
with the plant coagulants.
shallow dug wells on dry river beds, sand dams and
wells, and open pans. These water sources have been The root of M. decumbens reduced the turbidity of
reported to be turbid and contaminated with micro- slightly turbid water by 95% and highly turbid water
organisms, especially during the rainy season. by 50% but was found to impart colour to the water.
The seeds of M. oleifera reduced the turbidity of slightly
turbid water by 98%, and of highly turbid water by
77% and impacted no colour and odour on the water.
In addition, the root of M. decumbens and seeds of M.
oleifera reduced the pathogenic microbial count by
99% and 100%, respectively.
In conclusion, both M. oleifera seed and M. decumbens
taproot extracts have been shown to clarify and
disinfect water; however, the former is superior. As
Shallow dug well on a river bed
such, communities living in arid areas should be
The indigenous people of the Kitui district improve the encouraged to grow the plant M. oleifera both for food
quality of water available to them by using powdered and to use the seeds for water purification.
Moringa oleifera seed and ground Maerua decumbens
A. Gachanja, Department of Chemistry, Jomo Kenyatta
root to clarify the turbid water. In order to test this
University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya

Africa’s Water Quality | 15

(5) biological treatment and (6) filtration. The majority of shells, macadamia nut shells, coffee husks, sawdust)
the processes work through the application of a physical is an emerging field of sustainable remediation under
force and are collectively known as physical processes. examination in Kenya.29
There is a vibrant field of research developing within • Fishbone adsorption: the adsorption of Pb from Nairobi
the African scientific community investigating emerging river using multi-layer fishbone beds is emerging as
water treatment technologies that utilise locally available a useful candidate for future development by the
biomaterials and resources. Promising bioresource University of Nairobi, Kenya.30
candidates, including examples presented at the PACN
Sustainable Water conference, include:
• Plant bio-accumulation: Zea mays (maize), Commelina
bengelensis (tropical spiderwort), Helianthus annuus
• Seeds of the Moringa olefeira tree, and roots from the (sunflower) and Amaranthus hybridus (amaranthus)
Maerua documbens, can be used as flocculating agents have been the subject of much study for their ability
(see Case Study 2). to bioaccumulate the metals Pb, Cu, Cd and Zn and

• African water hyacinth: recent comparisons of the have promising potential for removal metals from
wastewater.31 32 33
maximum sorption capacity of several untreated
biomaterial based residues showed that African water • Lignocellulose/clay nano-composites: the University of
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a suitable candidate for Fort Hare in South Africa is taking a leading role in the
use as biosorbent in the removal of heavy metal ions development of PMMA-grafted lignocellulose/clay
from aqueous solutions in water distribution systems in nano-composites for the removal of heavy metals and
Kenya and Ethiopia.28 chlorinated organics from water.34

• Activated carbon from agricultural waste: water treatment • Raw bauxite: the removal of fluoride contamination from
using activated carbon made from locally grown ground water using raw bauxite is being examined by a
agricultural waste (maize, cobs, bagasse, coconut group from Botswana, with promising early results.35

Case Study 3 – Development of a household water A series of batch adsorption tests were carried out to
de-fluoridation process for developing countries evaluate the effects of operational parameters such as
contact time, adsorbent dose, thermal treatment of
High levels of fluoride in groundwater has been
adsorbent, initial fluoride concentration, pH and other
reported parts of in Ethiopia, Malawi, Kenya and
ions which commonly exist in groundwater. Results
Tanzania and can lead to health problems including
showed that fluoride removal efficiency exceeding
dental fluorosis, osteosclerosis, thyroid problems,
90% was achieved within 1 hour contact time at an
growth retardation and even kidney failure. Most of
optimum adsorbent dose of 1.6 g/L, treating water
the methods currently available for the removal of
containing an initial fluoride concentration of 20 mg/L.
fluoride from drinking water are either too expensive,
are technically unfeasible for household use or change A HDU packed with 0.9 kg of adsorbent with 28.3 cm
the water quality. In this study, the removal of fluoride bed depth resulted in a specific safe water yield of
from water using aluminium hydroxide has been 823.79 L under the optimum operating conditions
investigated and a household defluoridation unit used in this study. Regeneration of the exhausted
(HDU) has been designed and tested. media using 1% NaOH and 0.1 M HCl showed that
Top lid
the adsorbent could be reused. The estimated
running cost of the unit was 28 USD/m3 of treated
Removable perforated
distribution plate water, which can be minimized further. Hence, it is
Activated Alumina
concluded that this proposed method is simple and
Micro filter has superior performance for the treatment of fluoride-
Rubber washer
1.5mm diameter orifice contaminated water with potential application in both
for water drip
Treated water
household and community water treatment systems.
collecting chamber
Z. Feleke, E. Mulugeta, A. Alemu and B. S.
Chandravanshi, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of
Science, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
The surface area and pore volume of the prepared
adsorbent were 110 m2/g and 0.29 cm3/g, respectively.

16 | Africa’s Water Quality

Other processes operate through a biological reaction, Rural communities can have domestic waste water
coupled to an adsorption step. In these cases, (from cooking, washing and laundry), which could
microorganisms utilise water components as part be a valuable resource for irrigation if some basic
of their growth cycle, converting dissolved organic filtration is undertaken (see Case Study 4). Methods to
components into solids for removal in downstream recycle domestic waste water must be cheap, easy to
physical processes. maintain and capable of removing potential sources of
environmental pollution through the removal of salts
For communities serviced with a sewerage system, it
and fats commonly found in detergents.
is the responsibility of the service provider to clean the
water to a standard where it can be discharged back
into the environment. This water is returned to the
RECOMMENDATIONS
water table or receiving body, such as a river or a lake.
In these instances, it is essential that governments, or
• Water supply and sanitation services need to be
tailored to meet the needs of the local population. In
the appropriate regulatory bodies, monitor the effluent general, technologies that are developed for use by
discharged. In rural communities that are not connected local populations need to provide water that is fit for
to sewerage systems, the most common latrine is a purpose, are cheap and easy to use and require low
pit latrine, which should be kept well away from local maintenance.
drinking water supplies.

Case Study 4 – Ecological Greywater Treatment Mulch tower (primary treatment)

Systems
Greywater is the term used to define domestic
Perforated basket with mulch
wastewater, which comes from a variety of sources
including the shower/bath, laundry and kitchen.
Vent pipe
The composition is usually variable and includes Mulch
suspended solids, greases and fats, pathogens
and chemicals derived from soaps and detergents.
7mm stone chips
Common disposal practices in Africa include reuse for
garden irrigation, or simple disposal into storm water 22mm stone chips

servitudes or the surrounding environment. In the

Outlet pipe leading to
long term, these practices are unsustainable and cause resorption bed
pollution for the environment, which is usually directly Concrete base
inhabited. Therefore, there is an urgent need for low
cost, small scale, household level greywater treatment
Sub-surface resorption bed with infiltration
systems.
zone (secondary treatment)
One potential system is the ecological greywater Drain pipe from
treatment system. mulch tower
Geotextile
This simple and cheap system treats effluent to meet
V-Shaped infiltra
South African effluent standards and produces water Geotextile
suitable either for irrigation or for release to the 7mm stone chips
environment.
P. Naickeri, School of Biological and Conservation 22mm stone chips
Sciences, Pollution Research Group, University of KwaZulu-
Geotextile
Natal, Durban, South Africa

Africa’s Water Quality | 17

6. BUILDING SCIENTIFIC AND HUMAN CAPACITY
For Africa to achieve its potential it should invest in research will give them a bargaining tool, enabling entry
human capital and reduce its dependence on increasingly to these networks and the benefits of global collaboration.
vulnerable natural resources. It should develop a common Water research is an example of such a priority area for
vision with science, technology and innovation indicators African researchers.
for the continent and integrate these into decision
Learned societies and networks such as the Pan Africa
making and policy spheres and increase substantially the
Chemistry Network (PACN) already help foster these global
investment in Africa from influential bodies.
collaborations. By providing access to societies such as the
It is essential that scientific networks are created with Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC), a world-wide network
common agendas and investment is made in infrastructure. of scientists, including African scientists, is being created.
These networks will help to focus higher education and Equally, financial support by the RSC, Syngenta and PACN
research and will create a culture of science. However, enables collaborations, fosters local learned societies,
Africa should not emulate existing foreign models but provides fellowships, supports attendance at conferences
invent ones that will work in Africa and foster research that and workshops and helps to sustain HE research.
goes beyond research about Africa to research for Africa
Strategies to develop the science base should encourage
and by Africans.
the development of a mixed system that allows investment
in infrastructure, formal education and research training,
6.1 A vision of scientific excellence while at the same time facilitating and fostering networking
in Africa between African scientists and the rest of the world.
The structure of scientific research is changing with the
rise of the new ‘invisible college’ and with a shift from 6.2 Increasing scientific dialogue
‘international’ to ‘global’ science.36 Researchers are able to with governments
join a specific community, regardless of where they are in
African scientists have the knowledge and potential to help
the world, driven purely by the desire to do original and
formulate and implement sustainable water strategies. It
creative research. Therefore, science policy makers should
is essential that their voices are heard within government,
change their thinking as research migrates away from the
by entering into dialogue with relevant policy makers.
national science models of the 20th century towards a
However, for change to occur, the appropriate institutions
global system.
must of course exist and be willing and able to implement
Global science is a network that greatly enhances the value the required regulatory change.
of individual researchers or research groups, as scientists
form links with each other in order to benefit from the RECOMMENDATIONS
resources and knowledge of others. It is a balance between
perceived risks (such as sharing ideas and unpublished
• Learned societies such as the RSC have a key role to play
in forging scientific links between the developed and the
data), against perceived benefits (such as receiving new
developing world, thus their efforts should continue and
ideas that can take research into unexpected outcomes)
increase.
ultimately resulting in the publication of new data. The
most important initiators of these networks are leaders in • Engagement with governments and policy makers
certain research fields, and these subject-specific networks is essential in order to increase awareness of the role
present an important opportunity for researchers in the of science and technology in social and economic
developing world. Identifying priority areas in which development and to create an innovative culture in
researchers can develop their own unique and impactful African universities. The latter includes the need for (i)
African researchers to work more closely with industry
“A newcomer to the research arena cannot hope to rival and (ii) both international and African companies to
the United States or Europe in high-cost discipline…, support research and development at African universities.
but by focusing on a unique resource or a uniquely
compelling problem, …may be able to build a new hub
• Scientists should become role models in Africa,
communicating with the non-scientific public about the
within the new invisible college” role of science in society, raising the profile of science
Caroline Wagner in “The New Invisible College: and attracting into the scientific domain the brightest
Science for Development”36 and best of the next generation.

18 | Africa’s Water Quality

7. BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE WATER SECURITY SYSTEM
Water is needed for domestic use, in businesses and  payingfor the services, tariffs, government subsidies
industry, and for agriculture, and it is also key to ensuring and taxes;
a healthy and diverse natural environment. Too much  water resources and demand management;
water is a threat to national security and property, and
too little water affects a country’s prosperity, and can • water quality management;
be a threat to the health of its citizens and to its natural • flood management and security;
environment. The value of water to all users varies
throughout the year and is generally at a premium when • water and sanitation services (ownership and service
delivery);
it is least available due to competing demands. The true
value and benefit of water cannot be realised unless all
its key uses are managed in a holistic way.
• addressing how water contributes to economic
development;

7.1 A national water strategy • proposals for improving health;

All governments must have a national water strategy
• recognition of construction and operation of water
infrastructure to the economy;
that captures the value of water as an economic good,
alongside the policies to deliver it. The strategy must first • education and social change;
deliver the correct quantity of water (linked to catchment
protection) and identify any new infrastructure that may
• plans for capacity building for all players;
be required, and then address the supply of water for • policies for emancipation particularly for women and
food, health, drinking water and sanitation. The strategy children for self-development;
must provide a long term framework that enables all
sectors of the economy to contribute to the provision of
• communication.
water and sanitation services. 7.2 Water institutions
The direct and indirect contributions of water and National water institutions are needed to deliver national
sanitation to GDP must be clearly identified and water strategies. They must include parliament, cross-
communicated to government departments responsible government departments, regulators (such as economic,
for economy, health, agriculture, environment and environment, drinking water), rural water and community
security. Their respective roles and contributions must schemes, regional planning and development, NGOs,
be clear with all relevant instruments put in place for stakeholder groups, centres of water research, and
delivery. Institutional barriers must be identified and government water policy including think-tanks and
steps taken to remove them. Where necessary, new consumers. For rural water supply it is critical that local
institutions, regulatory bodies and organisations must institutions are set up and empowered to operate at
be established as part of the institutional framework to community levels, whilst being coordinated nationally.
ensure the correct strategy is delivered.
Issues to consider include:
In addition, the true value of water must be
1. That water institutions tend to focus on either water, or
communicated to the local population so as to get buy-
agriculture, or development. They do not tend to cross
in and support for any new infrastructure. Charges to
sectors. It is important that activities put in place in one
customers must also reflect the value of the service they
sector are monitored to avoid inadvertent effects on
are being provided with. However, it is essential that a
another sector.
distinction is made between rural, urban and peri-urban
policy initiatives and that support is available for poorer 2. Water institutions occur at community, national and
communities. trans-national scales, but they are not linked. Linkage
must occur at two scales or more to be sustainable.
A sustainable water strategy should include:

• a long term economic framework for water and 3. Water institutions are generally lacking instruments of
change: policy, enforced law. Innovative solutions are
agriculture;
required to support change.
• a review of existing institutions to ensure changes are At both the national and international level, the lack of
enforced and delivered, and the establishment of new
institutions is the greatest obstacle to development.
ones where necessary;

Africa’s Water Quality | 19

Institution building must therefore form the basis for any 7.4 Policy owners and leadership
change process. It is clear that existing structures cannot
meet demand yet it is also clear that in many parts of Every government must make its sustainable national
Africa, many institutions exist at community and local water strategy an economic, health and social priority.
levels that could support the national and international Central government must take overall ownership of the
effort. policy and strategy, and must take responsibility for its
delivery and coordination at regional and local levels,
including within rural communities. National cross-border
7.3 Cross-border water institutions
agreement and coordination must also be addressed.
Many of Africa’s water resources and catchment areas Examples of good practices are already available in a
are trans-boundary, and in some cases more than one number of countries in Africa, Europe and Asia to use as
country can rely on a single resource such as the Nile. models.
It is therefore essential that any national water strategy
takes into account the requirement for international RECOMMENDATIONS
coordination. African cooperation on water issues
already occurs through intergovernmental river and • Every country must have a national water strategy and
lake basin organizations, and includes agreements develop the policies to deliver it. The strategy must
between countries where resources are shared. Some of first deliver the correct quantity of water (linked to
these organizations harness water for irrigation, energy catchment protection) and must then also address the
production, and water supplies for communities and essential elements of water for food, health, drinking
mining operations, and in their early years they drew and sanitation.
up ambitious plans for developing natural resources,
including shared water resources. However, most
• It is essential that all relevant national and international
institutions necessary for delivery of the strategy and
organizations have encountered serious problems policies are established.
including: a lack of strong and sustained political
commitment from member states, overly ambitious
• The economic impact of water and sanitation services
must be communicated, with particular emphasis on
programmes, a lack of focus on priority areas, and political
their contribution to GDP, in order to drive change.
and social instability. Revitalizing Africa’s river basin
organizations is an urgent priority, requiring political and • The true value of water must be communicated to
financial support. ensure the buy-in and support from society.

20 | Africa’s Water Quality

8. REFERENCES
1 Millennium Development Goal 7c: Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water
and basic sanitation, United Nations Development Programme
2 State of World Population 2009, United Nations Population Fund, 2009
3 A Snapshot of Drinking Water and Sanitation in Africa, WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and
Sanitation, 2008
4 A Snapshot of Sanitation in Africa, WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, 2008
5 Factsheet on Water and Sanitation, UN-Water, 2008
6 United Nations Development Programme, 2007
7 The State of Food Insecurity in the World, FAO, 2008
8 Agriculture’s performance, diversity and uncertainties, World Development Report, 2008
9 The Africa Water Vision for 2025: Equitable and Sustainable use of water for socioeconomic development, UN Water/Africa
10 The Africa Water Vision for 2025: Equitable and Sustainable use of water for socioeconomic development, UN Water/Africa, pg 8
11 Freshwater trends and projections: focus on Africa, WWF International 2005
12 http://maps.howstuffworks.com/africa-annual-precipitation-map.htm
13 Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, IPCC 4th Assessment report, Chapter 9: Africa, 2007
14 Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, IPCC 4th Assessment report, Chapter 9: Africa, pg 435, 2007
15 The Africa Water Vision for 2025: Equitable and Sustainable use of water for socioeconomic development, UN Water/Africa, pg 11
16 The Africa Water Vision for 2025: Equitable and Sustainable use of water for socioeconomic development, UN Water/Africa, pg 8
17 http://www.gemswater.org/
18 Mapping food, poverty and agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa, FAO, 2007
19 World Population Prospects, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2001
20 Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, IPCC 4th Assessment report, Chapter 9: Africa, pg 435, 2007
21 Climate change, water and food security, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 2008
22 Overview, World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development
23 http://www.monsanto.com/responsibility/our_pledge/stronger_society/partners.asp
24 http://www.syngentafoundation.org/index.cfm?pageID=172
25 Oerke E-C. Crop Losses to Pests; Journal of Agricultural Science (2006), 144, 31-43
26 Solar disinfection of drinking water (SODIS): an investigation of the effect of UV-A dose on inactivation efficiency, Eunice
Ubomba-Jaswa, Christian Navntoft, M. Inmaculada Polo-López, Pilar Fernandez-Ibáñez and Kevin G. McGuigan, Journal of
Photochemical and Photobiological Sciences, 2009
27 Feleke Z, Mulugeta E, Alemu A, Chandravanshi BS. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Addis Ababa University,
Ethiopia. “Development of a household water de-fluoridation process for developing countries”. Oral presentation at PACN,
Sustainable Water Conference 26th – 28th August 2009, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, September 2009
28 Onindo CO, Muthakia GK, Murithi G., “The Water Hyacinth Eichhornia Crassipies as a Biosorbent for Lead (II) Removal: Kinetic
and Equilibrium Studies.” Oral presentation at PACN, Sustainable Water Conference 26th – 28th August 2009, University of
Nairobi, Nairobi, September 2009

Africa’s Water Quality | 21

29 Gachigi K., Kithinji J.P. Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of Nairobi, Kenya,
“Characterisation and Evaluation of Activated Carbon Produced from Various Agricultural Wastes in Kenya for Water
Treatment”, Oral presentation at PACN, Sustainable Water Conference 26th – 28th August 2009, University of Nairobi,
Nairobi, September 2009
30 Odero O., Oduor FO., Wafula GA. 2009. Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi, Kenya. “Investigation of Lead
Concentrations in Nairobi River and Adsorption Properties of Fish Bone”. Oral presentation at PACN, Sustainable Water
Conference 26th – 28th August 2009, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, September 2009
31 Oyaro, N., Kimenyu, P.N., Chacha, J. S., Tsanuo, M. K. 2009. Department of Chemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kenya. “The Potential of Zea mays, Commelina bengelensis, Helianthus annuus and Amaranthus
hybridus for Phytoremediation of Waste Water”. Oral presentation at PACN, Sustainable Water Conference 26th – 28th
August 2009, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, September 2009
32 Gachanja A., Mwachiro E., Maina A.W. 2009. Department of Chemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology, Kenya. “Water Purification Using Natural Plant Coagulants (Moringa oleifera Seeds and Maerua decumbens
Root)”. Oral presentation at PACN, Sustainable Water Conference 26th – 28th August 2009, University of Nairobi, Nairobi,
September 2009
33 Mavura W. J. Chemistry Department, Egerton University, Kenya. “The Use of a Local Plant, Maerua subcordata Extract as a
Water Clarifying Agent: Investigation of Chemical and Biochemical Properties.” Oral presentation at PACN, Sustainable Water
Conference 26th – 28th August 2009, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, September 2009
34 Bunhu T, Tichagwa L. Department of Chemistry, University of Fort Hare, South Africa “Development of PMMA-Grafted
Lignocellulose/Clay Nano-Composites for the Removal of Heavy Metals and Chlorinated Organics from Water”. Oral
presentation at PACN, Sustainable Water Conference 26th – 28th August 2009, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, September
2009
35 Kayira C, Masamba W, Mwatseteza J, Sajidu S. 2009. Department of Chemistry, University of Botswana. “Defluoridation
of Groundwater Using Raw Bauxite” Oral presentation at PACN, Sustainable Water Conference 26th – 28th August 2009,
University of Nairobi, Nairobi, September 2009
36 The New Invisible College, Caroline S. Wagner, Brookings Institution Press, 2008

22 | Africa’s Water Quality

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