Study On The Fracture Resistance of Mixed Fiber Concrete Lining in A Reverse Fault TunnelApplied Sciences Switzerland

applied
sciences
Article
Study on the Fracture Resistance of Mixed Fiber Concrete Lining
in a Reverse Fault Tunnel
You Wang 1, * , Can Huang 1 , Ziwei Wang 2 , Rui Wang 1 , Siyuan Yu 1 and Yue Ma 1
1 School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410075, China; [email protected] (C.H.);
[email protected] (R.W.); [email protected] (S.Y.); [email protected] (Y.M.)
2 Highway Maintenance Center, The Highway Development Center of Gansu Province,
Lanzhou 730030, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: With the increasing complexity of engineering environments in tunnel construction, some
projects are located in areas with adverse geological conditions, including areas prone to fault move-
ments and other geological hazards. Fiber-reinforced concrete can significantly enhance structural
performance in such challenging conditions. Currently, the application of high-performance steel-
polypropylene fiber in tunnel linings and its anti-fault performance are quite limited. Therefore, this
paper focuses on studying the application of steel-polypropylene mixed fiber-reinforced concrete in
tunnel lining under reverse fault movements. In this paper, the constitutive relationship of mixed
fiber-reinforced concrete is modified based on literature data. Utilizing the Najar formula, fiber-
related variables were designed, and a three-dimensional numerical simulation model of a reverse
fault tunnel was established. By designing various parameter combination cases, the structural
response of tunnel linings was calculated and studied. then the influence patterns of mixed fiber
parameters on the anti-fault performance of tunnel linings are summarized, the relationships between
main variables are explored, and a reasonable value range for the two fibers is determined, which
can provide guidance for practical engineering.
Keywords: reverse fault tunnel; mixed fiber; reinforced concrete; numerical simulation; resistance
Citation: Wang, Y.; Huang, C.; Wang,
of fracture
Z.; Wang, R.; Yu, S.; Ma, Y. Study on
the Fracture Resistance of Mixed Fiber
Concrete Lining in a Reverse Fault
Tunnel. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55.
1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/ Fiber concrete first appeared in a research report by American scholar H.F. Porter
app14010055 at the beginning of the last century, and it is widely positioned as a composite material
composed of cementitious materials (cement stone, mortar, or concrete) and various types
Academic Editor: Syed Minhaj
Saleem Kazmi
of fibers. Cementitious materials have advantages such as good compressive properties
and high durability, but their low tensile strength and small elongation make them a brittle
Received: 3 November 2023 material, so the structural applicability of considering only ordinary cementitious materials
Revised: 7 December 2023 in engineering and construction is limited, and the safety risks are large. Fiber in the history
Accepted: 12 December 2023 of human construction has a fairly long history [1], with high tensile strength, elongation,
Published: 20 December 2023 toughness, etc., so adding fiber to the cementitious material helps to improve its flexural
and tensile properties while also helping to toughen the deformation resistance, cracking,
and impact resistance, etc., which greatly broadens the applicability of the cementitious
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
material of breadth and depth and therefore has more and more engineering applications,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and there is a study on the fiber concrete. At the same time, the research on fiber concrete is
This article is an open access article still broadening, and the fiber type is also gradually rich, from the initial commonly used
distributed under the terms and metal steel fiber development to today’s synthetic fibers, carbon fibers, and so on, and even
conditions of the Creative Commons a variety of fibers mixed came into being.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Currently, several scholars have studied concrete materials with steel fibers as the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ admixture, and their results show that the admixture of steel fibers can effectively improve
4.0/). the stability and strength of concrete, and the nature of the admixture, such as the shape,
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010055 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 2 of 33
size, etc., will also affect the performance of the final concrete material. At the same time,
a variety of materials simultaneously as an admixture will affect the performance of the
concrete material to varying degrees. In 1975, the first organic fiber and inorganic fiber
blending test was conducted by Walton [2] and others to investigate the tensile strength
and impact resistance of this cement-based composite material. Walton and other first
organic fibers and inorganic fibers for mixing test, the study of the tensile strength and
impact resistance of the cementitious composites, which is also the first systematic research
on mixed-fiber concrete. In 1987, Rossi [3,4] published a series of research results on mixed
fibers, which, for the research of this kind of material fever, swept the world. Since then,
many scholars have conducted research on mixed fiber concrete [5–7]. The results show
that mixed fibers have a more significant improvement in the mechanical properties of
cement composites. The current research on mixed fiber mainly includes steel fiber mixed
with polypropylene fiber, steel fiber mixed with polyvinyl alcohol fiber, steel fiber mixed
with basalt fiber, basalt fiber mixed with polypropylene fiber, polyvinyl alcohol fiber mixed,
etc., which can improve all kinds of properties of the concrete material in different degrees
and therefore has become a widely used construction material.
With the increasing complexity of the engineering environment in tunnel construction,
some projects are located in unfavorable geological conditions, including areas prone to
fault movement and other geological hazards. At present, some scholars have studied the
anti-fault measures, which mainly propose two ways of anti-seismic joints and flexible
joints, to study the anti-fault measures in tunnels. Current scholars on the application of
fiber concrete in tunnel lining have been part of the study, such as Wang [8], etc. Through
the reinforced concrete and basalt fiber concrete lining indoor mechanical properties model
test, the study of basalt fiber concrete lining bearing characteristics found that basalt fibers
help to improve the lining of the initial bearing performance, compared with reinforced
concrete, which is more conducive to controlling the deformation of the tunnel of the weak
surrounding rock. Liu [9] et al. conducted full-size tests of synthetic fiber concrete and
conventional reinforced concrete lining to investigate the damage mechanism of synthetic
fiber concrete tunnel lining and compared it with conventional reinforced concrete tunnel
lining. The results showed that the incorporation of synthetic fibers delayed the onset of the
yield state and led to higher yield loads compared to the conventional RC specification. [10]
conducted a comparative analysis of seismic displacements, stress responses, and sidewall
convergence of plain concrete, steel-fiber-reinforced concrete, and steel-basalt hybrid-fiber-
reinforced concrete secondary lining structures passing through fault zones using FLAC3D
to obtain that steel-basalt mixed fiber concrete secondary lining has better seismic perfor-
mance than steel fiber concrete secondary lining. Ren [11] investigated the suppression
of tunnel lining problems by multi-scale polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete and the
mechanical properties it used for secondary tunnel lining using numerical simulation and
field tests. However, there is limited research on the fault resistance of fiber concrete in
tunnel lining. Therefore, this paper focuses on the application of steel-polypropylene mixed
fiber-reinforced concrete under reverse fault movement in tunnel lining.
In this paper, the ontological relationship of mixed fiber-reinforced concrete is revised.
The damage coefficients and related parameters are calculated using Najar’s formula, with
experimental design variables containing all factors. Then a three-dimensional numerical
simulation model of a reverse fault tunnel was established to comparatively study the
structural stress–strain and damage of the tunnel lining under different conditions of mixed
fiber incorporation.
2. Methodology and Theoretical Background

2.1. Damage Variable
In order to study the fault-breaking resistance of the lining, it is necessary to introduce
the damage variable of the material as a key parameter of the study, which can reflect
the stiffness degradation of the material, play a deterministic role in the stress-strain
relationship of the material, and determine the basic load-bearing performance and damage
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 3 of 33
mode of the material. Research on the damage mechanics of materials initially started in
the field of metals [12,13], and since then it has gradually developed into different fields.
The damage mechanics of continuous media [14,15] consider that the damage to materials
is due to the gradual expansion and penetration of microscopic holes and microcracks
under external loading, so that the bearing capacity and mechanical properties of materials
are weakened or even fail, which can be considered as damage to materials, and therefore
the damage can be considered as the degradation of the material stiffness. Damage variable
d and effective stresses were first proposed by Rabotnov Y. N. [16] to quantify the damage
to the material, which can be expressed by the following equation:
d = A − A′ /A

(1)
σd = σ (1 − d) (2)
where A is the area of the material before damage, A′ is the area after damage, σ is the
total stress without considering damage, and σd is the actual effective stress considering
material damage.
The value range of damage variable d is [0, 1], d = 0 corresponds to a completely
damage-free state, d = 1 indicates that the material is completely damaged. As the value
gradually increases, the degree of damage is also gradually larger, indicating that the more
damage to the material, the more serious the degradation of the stiffness. The general
concrete can be regarded as completely damaged when d = 0.9 [17], according to which
the stress-strain relationship is shown in the following equation:
σ = (1 − d) E0 (ε − e
ε pl ) (3)
σ
σ= = E0 (ε − eε pl ) (4)
(1 − d )
e
where e σ is the effective stress, E0 is the initial elastic modulus of the material, ε is the strain,
and eε pl is the equivalent plastic strain.
After decades of development, a number of scholars have further studied the damage
variables according to the definition of damage variables and effective stresses, and cur-
rently, there are theoretical models such as the Najar damage model, the strain equivalence
model, the Sidiroff energy equivalence model, and the Birtle–Mark formula to modify the
calculation of damage variables. Among them, the damage factor calculation of Najar dam-
age theory requires the full curve of material stress–strain, so the calculation is relatively
cumbersome, but Hao [18,19] and Nan [19] show that the value obtained by using the Najar
damage calculation method has universality and higher accuracy, so in this paper, the Najar
damage theory is used to calculate the damage factor of concrete.
Najar defines the damage variables of brittle materials from the energy point of
view [20], and the uniaxial compression mechanism shown in Figure 1 is used as an
example to explain Najar’s damage theory. It is believed that the decrease in energy is due
to the damage to the material, so the damage variable d can be characterized by the change
in energy; the specific expression is as follows:
W0 − W ′
d= (5)
W0
1
W0 = Ec ε2 (6)
2
1
W ′ = Ec′ ε2 (7)
2
where W0 corresponds to the strain energy of the initial undamaged state in Figure 1, W ′ is
the strain energy of Najar’s simplified linear calculation of the damage state, and Ec is the
compressive modulus of elasticity of concrete.
1
W  Ec 2 (7)
2
where W0 corresponds to the strain energy of the initial undamaged state in Figure 1,
Appl. Sci. 2024,W  55is
14, the strain energy of Najar’s simplified linear calculation of the damage state, and 4 of 33
Ec is the compressive modulus of elasticity of concrete.
Figure 1. Najar damage

Figuretheory.
1. Najar damage theory.
Najar damage theoryNajar considers

damage theory considers the elastic-plastic
the elastic-plastic strain energy strain
and energy
damage and damage energy
energy
caused by the work done by an external force, which has high
caused by the work done by an external force, which has high applicability for concrete applicability for concrete
materials, but it can be found that its simplification in calculating the strain energy of the
materials, but it can be found that its simplification in calculating the strain energy of the
damage state has a certain gap with the actual post-damage strain energy shown in Figure 1,
damage state hasso a certain gap with the actual post-damage strain energy shown in Figure
many scholars have used mathematical integration methods such as segment integral,
1, so many scholars have used
Simpson’s mathematical
integral, and Gaussianintegration
integral tomethods such
correct the as segment
calculation of theinte-
energy of the
gral, Simpson’s integral, and Gaussian integral to correct the calculation of the
damage state [21,22], and therefore the expression of the energy-based damageenergy ofvariable is
the damage statewidely
[21,22],used
andastherefore
follows: the expression of the energy-based damage varia-
1 2 − εdε
R
ble is widely used as follows: E
2 c ε
d= 1
(8)
2
1 2 Ec ε
cE  2    d
Although the modified2method is generally applicable to concrete materials, it requires
d  (8)
1
the provision of pre-existing stress–strain curves and therefore has a high demand for a
true reflection of the stress–strainE  2
curves.
c
2
2.2. Uniaxial Tensile and Compressive Curve
For concrete material, its uniaxial tensile and compression curve, i.e., the stress-strain
curve under unidirectional tensile and compressive action, can reflect the development
of the force of the material under the action of the external load, and the analysis of the
curve can be used to find out the material’s force characteristics at various stages from a
macroscopic point of view, which is a reflection of the basic mechanical properties, so this
paper studies the uniaxial tensile and compressive curves of the steel-polypropylene mixed
fiber concrete.
Experimental studies have been carried out on the uniaxial tensile and compressive
curves of steel-polypropylene mixed fiber concrete, and mathematical expressions were
fitted to the curve equations according to the existing studies, but most of the current
studies do not take into account the effect of the grade of matrix concrete. Mei [23] carried
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 5 of 33
out a study on the uniaxial compressive performance of concrete with different contents of
steel fibers and polypropylene fibers and length-to-diameter ratios, and 34 sets of stress-
strain full curves were obtained. First, the equations for the relationship between the peak
stress of steel-polypropylene blended-fiber concrete and its corresponding strain and the
peak stress of plain concrete and its corresponding strain were fitted, and the equations
were selected based on the characteristics of the curves qualitatively, as shown in Equations
(9) and (10) shown in the expression form of a stress–strain curve with parameters:

f f t = f mt 1 + 0.366λs f + 0.277λ p f (9)

ε f t = ε mt 1 + 0.498λs f + 0.697λ p f (10)
where f mt , f f t is the peak stress of plain concrete and mixed fiber concrete, i.e., axial tensile
strength, ε mt , ε f t is the strain corresponding to the peak tensile stress of plain concrete and
mixed fiber concrete, respectively, λs f , λ p f is the product of the characteristic values of steel
fibers and polypropylene fibers, the length-to-diameter ratio, and the dosage, respectively:
λs f = ρs f ls f /ds f , λ p f = ρ p f l p f /d p f .
The parameter calculation method was also quantitatively fitted by testing specific values:
(
a1 x + (1.5 − 1.25a1 ) x2 + (0.25a1 − 0.5) x6 0 ≤ x < 1
y= x
x>1 (11)
1.7
α t ( x −1) +x

a1 = 1.2 1 + 0.265λs f + 0.277λ p f (12)
2
0.312 f mt
αt = (13)
1 + 3.366λs f + 3.858λ p f
In the formula, x, y are strain and stress normalization parameters, x = ε/ε t , y = σ/ f t ;
ε, σ represent strain and stress, ε t is the strain value corresponding to the peak stress, f t is
the peak stress that is the axial tensile strength; 0 ≤ x < 1 that is, the interval before the
peak strain that is the ascending section, x > 1 is the interval after the peak strain that is the
descending section; a1 is the parameter of the ascending section, the practical significance
for the ratio of tangent modulus of elasticity at the origin of the curve to the peak at the
cut-line modulus, αt is the parameter of the descending section, and the bigger the value of
which is the curve is the steeper, which influences the curve’s degree of fullness.
In this paper, the uniaxial tensile and compression equations for steel-polypropylene
fiber concrete with a matrix concrete grade of C30 are modified, and the resulting uniaxial
tensile full curve equations are as follows:



 f f t − c30 = 1.38 f mt 1 + 0.366λ s f + 0.277λ p f


 ε f t−c30 = 2.39ε mt 1 + 0.498λs f + 0.697λ p f

(14)


 a 1 − c30 = 1.42 × 1.2 1 + 0.265λ s f + 0.277λ p f
0.312 f 2


αt−c30 = 1.51 × 1+3.366λ +mt


sf 3.858λ
pf
The uniaxial pressurized full curve equation is as follows:




 f f c−c30 = 1.33 f mc 1 + 0.206λ sf + 0.388λ pf


ε f c−c30 = 1.5ε mc 1 + 0.705λs f + 0.364λ p f


(15)
a = 1.3 × 28.2283 − 23.2771 f 0.0374 + 0.4772λ − 0.4917λ
2 − c30 sf pf



 fc
αc−c30 = 0.54 × 1 + 0.3688 f f−c0.2846 + λs f + λ p f



Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 6 of 33
Observe the expression of the modified axial tensile and axial compressive stress-strain
full curve, which involves parameters such as steel fiber eigenvalues and polypropylene
fiber eigenvalues λs f and λ p f , matrix concrete axial tensile strength and corresponding
strains f mt and ε mt , and concrete matrix axial compressive strength and correspond-
ing strains f mc and ε mc . The calculations of the first two eigenvalues are shown in
Equations (9) and (10), which can be done by directly inputting the fiber mixing amount
and the length-to-diameter ratio. For the peak stresses and strains, due to the lack of
experimental data, it is necessary to give reference equations according to the specification
and the research of various scholars. The values of f mt , ε mc , and f mc are taken from the
specification [24], ε mt is taken from Bai’s research results [25]:
 0.55
f mt = 0.395 f cu,k

ε mt = 66 × f mc × 10−6

 0.52
(16)

 f mc = 0.72 f cu,k

ε mc = (700 + 172 f mc 0.5 ) × 10−6
where, f cu,k for the matrix concrete cubic compressive strength, other meanings are the
same as above.
2.3. Concrete Damage Plasticity Model

In this paper, the Najar damage model is simulated using the concrete damage plas-
ticity model (CDP model), which assumes that the concrete failure mechanism is mainly
based on uniaxial tensile cracking and uniaxial compressive cracking of the concrete ma-
terial and that the evolution of the yield surface is controlled by two hardening variables
associated with the compressive and tensile failure mechanisms (tensile and compressive
equivalent plastic strains e
ε pl ), which are simulated by using the CDP model with the aid of
the ABAQUS software (version 2020). In this paper, the material properties are simulated
using a CDP model of the material in ABAQUS software. Although the CDP model in
ABAQUS has some assumptions of simplification, it can capture the stress-strain evolution
of concrete materials in uniaxial tension and uniaxial compression, which can reflect the
main mechanical properties of the material.
For the damage variable dt , the calculation method has been described in Section 2.1,
and the corresponding cracking strain e εck εin
t and compressive strain ec values are calculated
according to the following formula:
pl
ε t = ε − εel0t ; εel0t = σt /Et
e (17)
pl dt
εck
εt = et − σt /Et (18)
(1 − d t )
e
εin
e el el
c = ε − ε 0c ; ε 0c = σc /Ec (19)
pl dc
εin
εc = ec − σc /Ec (20)
(1 − d c )
e
The concrete damage plasticity model assumes that the model follows non-associated
flow rule and its plastic potential function G is expressed by the Drucker–Prager yield
condition as follows: q
G = (εσt0 tan ψ)2 + q2 − p tan ψ (21)
where ψ is the dilation angle measured in the p-q plane at high confining pressure, σt0 is
the uniaxial tensile stress at failure, taken from the user-specified tension stiffening data,
ε is a parameter, referred to as the eccentricity, that defines the rate at which the function
approaches the asymptote (the flow potential tends to a straight line as the eccentricity
tends to zero).
The yield function proposed by Lubliner and improved by Lee and Fenves is used in
the calculation to account for different evolution of strength under tension and compression.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 7 of 33
The evolution of the yield surface is controlled by the hardening variables e

ε pl . In terms of
effective stresses, the yield function takes the form as follows:
1 pl
F= (q − 3αp + β(eε pl ) σ̂max − γ −σ̂max ) − σc (eε c ) = 0 (22)
1−α
With
(σb0 /σc0 ) − 1
α= (23)
2(σb0 /σc0 ) − 1
pl
σc (e
εc )
β= pl
(1 − α ) − (1 + α ) (24)
σt (e
εt )
3(1 − K c )
γ= (25)
2Kc − 1
where: σ̂max is the maximum principal effective stress, σb0 /σc0 is the ratio of initial equibi-
axial compressive yield stress to initial uniaxial compressive yield stress, Kc is the ratio of
the second stress invariant on the tensile meridian to that on the compressive meridian.
In this paper, several plasticity parameters were selected as default values for calcula-
tion, and the damage variables were calculated from Section 2.1 and entered into ABAQUS
in tabular form.
3. Model Implementation
3.1. Statement of Geometry
Take a single tunnel as an engineering example, based on the simulation software
ABAQUS, to establish the reverse fault fracture misalignment conditions of steel-polypropylene
fiber concrete materials used in the tunnel secondary lining numerical calculation model,
the tunnel section for the three-centered circle, and the specific dimensions as shown in
Figure 2. The simulated fault condition is set as a fixed value, the width of the fault zone is
20 m, the dip angle of the fault is 60◦ , and the vertical misalignment displacement is 30 cm
(horizontal misalignment is 17 cm). The tunnel width is 12.4 m, and the height is 9.9 m.
Based on St. Venant’s theorem, the size of the model should take the boundary effect into
consideration, and it is generally considered that the boundary is 3–5 times the diameter of
the hole from the center of the hole [17,26]. Based on this, the lateral boundary of this paper
takes 50 m, i.e., the model width is 100 m; the distance of the bottom boundary from the
bottom of the tunnel takes 60 m, and the depth of the tunnel is 20 m, so the whole model is
about 90 m high; the longitudinal length of the model is set to be 300 m and the lining of
the tunnel includes the initial support and the secondary lining, with thicknesses of 0.15 m
and 0.35 m, and the thickness of the whole support is 0.5 m. In the mesh delineation, faults,
fracture zones, and the surrounding rocks near the lining are taken into account, and the
lining is not as thick as it is. In the grid division, the faults and the surrounding rocks near
the lining are encrypted, and the final model and grid division are shown in Figure 3.
3.2. Materials and Contact Properties

The model contains surrounding rock, fault fracture zone, and lining, and the lining
contains initial support and secondary lining. The surrounding rock, fault fracture zone,
and initial support adopt the Mohr–Coulomb principal model and the secondary lining
selects the CDP model to simulate the fiber concrete material. The specific material param-
eters are shown in Table 1. Because the interaction between secondary lining and initial
support is not considered in this paper, these two parts are set as bound contact in the
model; frictional contact is used between the lining and surrounding rock, and the friction
coefficient is set to 0.6; and the contact friction coefficient between sliding surfaces of fault
fracture zones is set to 0.5 [27].
tom boundary from the bottom of the tunnel takes 60 m, and the depth of the tunnel is 20
with thicknesses of 0.15 m and 0.35 m, and the thickness of the whole support is 0.5
m, so the whole model is about 90 m high; the longitudinal length of the model is set to
the mesh
be 300 delineation,
m and faults,
the lining of fracture
the tunnel zones,
includes theand thesupport
initial surrounding
and the rocks nearlining,
secondary the lini
taken into account, and the lining is not as thick as it is. In the grid division,
with thicknesses of 0.15 m and 0.35 m, and the thickness of the whole support is 0.5 m. In the faul
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 the
thesurrounding rocks
mesh delineation, nearfracture
faults, the lining areand
zones, encrypted, and therocks
the surrounding finalnear
modelthe8and
of 33 grid
lining aredi
are shown
taken in Figure
into account, 3.the lining is not as thick as it is. In the grid division, the faults and
and
the surrounding rocks near the lining are encrypted, and the final model and grid division
are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2. Cross-section
Figure 2.
Figure Cross-section
Cross-section ofoftunnel (in(in
tunnel
of tunnel dm).
dm).
(in dm).
Figure 3. Statement
Figure 3. Statementofofgeometry
geometry and
and mesh.
mesh.
Figure
Table 1.3.Parameters
Statement of of geometry
materials andconstruction.
of tunnel mesh.
ρ E c φ
Materials µ
(kg/m3 ) (GPa) (MPa) (◦ )
Rock (in class IV) 2200 7 0.3 0.5 35
Fault fracture zone 2000 5 0.3 0.25 25
Initial lining (in C25) 2400 27.5 0.2 12.5 51
Secondary lining (in C30) 2500 29 0.25 / /
For concrete fiber admixture, the steel fiber and polypropylene fiber admixture and
L/D ratio (length to diameter ratio of fibers) settings are shown in Table 2, and the strain
capacity of polypropylene is 15–35%, as suggested by Mei [23]. Based on the values of the
variables identified in Table 2, several groups of variables were designed for calculation,
including the change of each parameter under mixed and single doped, and plain concrete
was designed as a control group.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 9 of 33
Table 2. Characteristic parameters of fibers.
Admixture (ρsf ) 0.5% 1.2% 1.9%

Steel
L/D ratio (lsf /dsf ) 30 60 80
Admixture (ρpf ) 0.05% 0.1% 0.15%
Polypropylene
L/D ratio (lpf /dpf ) 396
Existing studies have shown [23,28] that the modulus of elasticity of concrete with
blended fibers is slightly smaller than that of ordinary concrete, but the difference is
negligible, so the modulus of elasticity of C30 concrete for the secondary lining here is
still calculated according to ordinary concrete. The calculation of plastic variables for its
concrete plastic damage model is given in Section 2.3.
3.3. Boundary Conditions and Simulation Process

In this section, numerical software is used to simulate the mechanical properties and
damage distribution of secondary lining doped by different mixed fibers under fault mis-
alignment conditions, which need to focus on the simulation of reverse fault misalignment.
References [29,30] show the simulation is divided into three steps: (1) geostress equilibrium;
(2) tunnel excavation. Here, the simulation of tunnel excavation is simplified and the
softening modulus method [31] is used for one-step excavation; and (3) fault misalignment.
In the first step to balance the ground stress, except for the top free boundary, the other five
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 36 [32,33],
surfaces are set to normal constraints; in the third step to simulate the fault reference
the top of the model is still a free boundary, the displacement constraints are applied hori-
zontally in line with the fault strike, the normal displacement constraints are set vertically,
the normal constraints are set at the bottom of the lower plate, and the bottom of the left
fragmentation zone andasright
the sides
dividing interface. equal
are respectively With in the center
size, with of
thethe fault
center of zone as the
the fault in-
fragmentation
terface, the verticalzone
andashorizontal displacements of the left and right sides of the plate are
the dividing interface. With the center of the fault zone as the interface, the vertical
equal in size andand opposite
horizontalin sign in order oftothe
displacements realize
left andthe fault
right misalignment
sides of the plate arealong the
equal in size and
center of the fault zone as the sliding surface. The detailed fault simulation bottom con- fault
opposite in sign in order to realize the fault misalignment along the center of the
straints are shownzone as the sliding
in Figure 4. surface. The detailed fault simulation bottom constraints are shown
in Figure 4.
4. Boundary conditions of fault simulation.

Figure 4. Boundary Figure
conditions of fault simulation.
4. Validation
4. Validation Yang [34] mixed different types of steel fibers in different matrix strength concrete,
studied the effect
Yang [34] mixed different of steel
types offiber
steeltype on the
fibers in axial tensilematrix
different properties of concrete,
strength the literature
concrete,
studied the effect of steel fiber type on the axial tensile properties of concrete, the literatureF3-3010
as a concrete axial tensile properties of the calculations, selected test specimen
(C30 grade concrete, 1% shear-type steel fibers, with a L/D ratio of 55), according to the
as a concrete axialpre-modified
tensile properties of the calculations, selected test specimen F3-3010
[23] in Section 2.2, respectively, and modified curve prediction equations
(C30 grade concrete, 1% shear-type
in Section 2.2, and the steel fibers, results
calculated with awere
L/D compared
ratio of 55),
withaccording to theand the
the test results,
pre-modified [23] comparison
in Section 2.2, respectively,
results are shown inand modified
Figure 5. curve prediction equations in
Section 2.2, and the calculated results were compared with the test results, and the com-
parison results are shown in Figure 5.
Ni [35] took concrete matrix strength, steel fiber admixture, and steel fiber type as
variables and conducted axial compression tests on 63 specimens to investigate the effect
of steel fiber type and admixture on the axial compression performance of concrete with
different matrix strengths. The literature was used as an example of concrete axial com-
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 10 of 33
Ni (2020) Ni (2020)
4 4
Pre-correction prediction curve Pre-correction prediction curve
3 3
Stress/MPa
Stress/MPa
2 2
1 1
0 13, x FOR PEER

Appl. Sci. 2023, 1 REVIEW2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 12 of 36
−3 −3
Strain/(×10 ) Strain/(×10 )
(a) Uniaxial tensile curve
35 Ni (2020) 35 Ni (2020)
30 Pre-correction prediction curve 30 Pre-correction prediction curve
3.0 25 25
Stress/MPa
Stress/MPa
0.6
arch crown
Longitudinal strain/(×10-3)
2.5 20 arch haunch Fault 20 0.4 hanging wall footwall
0.2
Principal stress/Mpa
2.0 aich sidewall

15 15 0.0
1.5 arch springing
10 invert arch 10 −0.2
1.0 −0.4 arch crown
5 hanging wall footwall 5 −0.6
0.5 arch haunch
0.0 0 0 −0.8 arch sidewall
arch springing Fault
0 2 4 6 range of influence
8 10 0 −1.0 2 4 6 8 10
−0.5
Strain/(×10−3) 87.5m −1.2 invert Strain/(×10
arch −3
)
−1.0
0 50 100 150 200 (b) Uniaxial
250 300 0
compression curve 50 100 150 200 250 300
Longitudinal distances of model/m Longitudinal distances of model/m
Figure 5. Comparison of predicted curves with experimental results (compared to Ni’s experimental
(a) PrincipalFigure 5. Comparison of predicted curves with experimental results (compared
strain to Ni’s experimental
datastress
[35]). (b) Longitudinal
data [35]). 0.9
Compressive damage variable
0 arch crown 0.8 arch crown

Tensile damage variable
0.8
arch haunch arhc haunch
From Figure 5, it can be seen that thesteel
modified 0.7 prediction curve is consistent
typewith
Shear strain(×10-3)
−2
hanging wall footwall Ni [35] took concrete matrix strength, arch sidewall fiber admixture, and steel fiber arch sidewall as
0.6 arch springing 0.6
Ni’s experimental data,
variables and conducted axial compressionand the modified curve
tests on expression
63 specimens has to a high degree
investigate arch
the of coinci-
springing
effect of
−4 invert arch 0.5
scope of influence invert arch
75m
dence
steel with
fiber type theand
0.4 testadmixture
results in on terms
the of
axialboth the value0.4and
compression the change
performance of trend.
concrete with differ-
−6
The vertical displacement of the top of the 0.3obtained from the simulation of this
arch haunch
ent matrix strengths. The literature was used as lining
an example
0.2
of concrete axial compression
−8 arch sidewall 0.2 hanging wall
paper
performance
srch springing
is compared with
calculations,
hanging Qiu’s
wall in monitoring
which A1B1C1-B1.0 data
footwall
[32]. Due
(C300.1
to
grade the difference
concrete, 1% in thefootwall
simulation
shear-type steel
−10 method,
fibers, it is
0.0 necessary
with an0 L/D50ratio to offset
of 40) the
was simulation
used. results
Calculations 0.0 of
werethis paper
performed upward
according by a certain
to300
the
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250
Longitudinal distances of model/mamount, and[28]
pre-modified theLongitudinal
finalpost-modified
and comparison results
curve are
distances of model/m shown equations
prediction in Figure 6.
Longitudinal distances of
in Section 2.2,modell/m
respectively,
(c) Shear strain and the calculated results were
(d) Compressive compared
damage variablewith the test (e) results, anddamage
Tensile the comparison
variable results
are shown 30in Figure 5.
From Figure 5, it can be seen that the modified prediction curve Qiu(2021)is consistent with Ni’s
experimental data, and the modified curve expression has a high Simulation
degree of coincidence
with the24 test results in terms of both the value and the change trend.
Vertical displacements
The vertical displacement of the top of the lining obtained from the simulation of this
at tunnel vault/cm
paper is compared with Qiu’s monitoring data [32]. Due to the difference in the simulation
18
method, it is necessary to offset the simulation results of this paper upward by a certain
amount, and the final comparison results are shown in Figure 6.
12 Figure Fault
Observing 6, the simulation results are basically consistent with Qiu’s moni-
toring data [32]. Due to the inverse fault misalignment, the whole lining is “Z”-shaped
bending shape, basically symmetric about the center of the fracture zone. Due to the
simulation6of this paper, the material’s own gravity and the fault sliding displacement are
considered as two kinds of external loads, so there is a difference in the displacement value,
but the difference is small, and it does not affect the overall law, so it can be considered that
the model0of this paper has reasonableness, and it can be calculated in the next step.
−150 −100 −50 0 50 100 150

1 Distances/m
Figure 6. Vertical displacements at tunnel vault (compared to Qiu’s data [32]).
Observing Figure 6, the simulation results are basically consistent with Qiu’s moni-
Ni’s experimental data, and the modified curve expression has a high degree of coinci-
dence with the test results in terms of both the value and the change trend.
The vertical displacement of the top of the lining obtained from the simulation of this
paper is compared with Qiu’s monitoring data [32]. Due to the difference in the simulation
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, method,
55 it is necessary to offset the simulation results of this paper upward by a certain 11 of 33
amount, and the final comparison results are shown in Figure 6.
30
Qiu(2021)
24 Simulation
Vertical displacements
at tunnel vault/cm
18
12 Fault
0
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of
−150 −100 −50 0 50 100 150
Distances/m
5.Figure
Calculation
Figure 6. Vertical 6. Verticalof
displacements atthe Reverse
displacements
tunnel vault Faultvault
tunnel Tunnel
at (compared (compared
to to [32]).
Qiu’s data Qiu’s data [32]).
In this paper,
5. Calculation of thewe mainly
Reverse study
Fault the impact of inverse fault misalignment on tunn
Tunnel
Observing Figure
lining 6, the simulation results are
misalignment basically consistent with Qiu’s moni- conditions, an
In this paper, weperformance
mainly study the under
impact different mixed
of inverse faultfiber admixture
misalignment on tunnel
toring data lyze
[32]. Due to the inverseand
themisalignment
stress-strain fault misalignment,
damage theduring
whole fault
liningmisalignment
is “Z”-shaped
lining performance underof lining
different mixed fiber admixture conditions,according
analyze to n
bending shape, basically
merical symmetric
simulation
the stress-strain
about theresults,
andmonitoring
damage of lining
center ofset
during
theupfracture
faultkey zone.monitoring
lining
misalignment
Due to the sim-
according topoints shown in F
numerical
ulation of thissimulation
paper, themonitoring
material’s results,
own gravity up and the fault sliding displacement areFigure 7,
ure 7, monitor the maximum set key stress,
principal lining monitoring
longitudinal points shown
strain, andinshear strain of t
considered asmonitor
two kinds
the of external
maximum loads,
principal so there
stress, is a difference
longitudinal strain,in the
and displacement
shear strain of the lining,
lining, including the secondary lining three indicators, and carry out a detailed analy
value, but the including
differencethe is small, and lining
secondary it doesthree
not affect the overall
indicators, law,out
and carry so ita can be consid-
detailed analysis of the
of the corresponding tensile and compressive injuries.
ered that the model of this paper
corresponding tensilehas
andreasonableness, and it can be calculated in the next
compressive injuries.
step.
Figure 7. Monitoring points of the secondary lining.

Figure 7. Monitoring points of the secondary lining.
In this section, the parameters of the addition and L/D ratio of steel fiber and
In this section,
polypropylene the selected
fiber are parameters of (ρ
as 0.5% the
sf ),addition
30 (lsf /dsfand L/D(ρratio
), 0.05% pf ), 30of steel
(lpf fiber
/dpf ), and and po
propylene fiberthe
arespecific
selected ( sf ), 30 (oflsfthe
as 0.5%variations sf ), 0.05% (  pf ), 30 ( l pf / d pf ), and Figu
/ dmaximum
Figure 8 gives numerical principal stress values,
longitudinal strains, shear strains, compressive, and tensile damage variables distributed
8 gives the specific numerical variations of the maximum principal stress values, longit
along the longitudinal direction of the tunnel in the five monitoring points.
dinal strains, shear strains, compressive, and tensile damage variables distributed alo
the longitudinal direction of the tunnel in the five monitoring points.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 12 of 33
Figure 8. Longitudinal distribution of calculation results at monitoring points.
From Figure 8a, it can be obtained that the influence range of reverse fault misalign-
ment on the maximum principal stress of the lining is about 87.5 m in the vicinity of the
fault zone, and the maximum stress values of the five key parts within the range fluctuate
significantly, but the difference between the extremes of the values is not large, in which
the extreme values of the arch crown and the arch haunch are relatively large, respectively,
2.79 MPa and 2.74 MPa, while the extreme value of the invert arch is relatively small,
2.22 MPa. At the same time, it can be found that the maximum principal stress extreme
values of the arch crown and arch haunch are biased towards the hanging wall, in which
the arch crown is subjected to large tensile stress in addition to the hanging wall, and a
small area of compressive stress appears in the footwall; the maximum stress values of the
arch springing, arch springing, and invert arch are biased towards the footwall, in which
the arch springing is opposite to the arch crown and is subjected to a large range of tensile
in the footwall, and part of the compressive area appears in the hanging wall.
Figure 8b shows that the longitudinal strain changes are concentrated in the range of
100 m near the reverse fault, and it can more clearly reflect the longitudinal strain of the
lining structure in the hanging wall and footwall, which are subjected to different tensile
and compressive properties. Among them, the arch crown and arch haunch are tensile in
the fault zone near the hanging wall and compressive near the footwall, while the arch
sidewall, arch springing, and invert arch are compressive in the fault zone near the hanging
wall and tensile near the footwall. Among the several key parts, there are longitudinal
tensile and compressive extremes in the arch crown (560 µε in tensile and 1220 µε in
compressive), followed by the invert arch (320 µε in tensile and 980 µε in compressive),
and there is not much difference in the strain extremes of the arch haunch, arch sidewall,
and arch springing.
Figure 8c gives the specific value distribution of shear strain at the arch haunch, arch
springing, and arch springing. It can be obtained that the fluctuation range of lining shear
strain in the three parts is mainly concentrated at 75 m near the misalignment zone, i.e., the
lining is obviously influenced by shear stress in this range, and the maximum values of
shear strain are close to the fault zone. The maximum shear strain is found at arch springing
(9380 µε), the minimum at arch haunch (1910 µε), and at the invert arch (7790 µε).
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 13 of 33
In Figure 8d, the analysis can be obtained that the secondary lining pressure damage
under the reverse fault misalignment is concentrated at 75 m near the fault zone, and the
closer to the misalignment zone, the larger the damage value is. The pressure damage
extreme value at different locations is different, from big to small order for the arch spring-
ing, arch sidewall, arch haunch, arch crown, and invert arch. The maximum value of the
arch springing is 0.834, and the minimum value of the invert arch is 0.053, that is, the arch
springing under the reverse fault fracture misalignment under the pressure damage is the
most serious, and the invert arch under the pressure damage is relatively minor.
Figure 8e can be obtained in the fault fracture zone near the 80 m range of lining tensile
damage is serious, away from the broken zone damage gradually decreases, and the arch
and arch haunch tensile damage is located in the hanging wall; the other three parts of
the damage location tend to be close to the footwall. Comparing the extreme values of
tensile damage in five parts, the arch springing is the largest (0.854), the inverted arch is
the second largest (0.783), the arch crown and inverted arch are not much different from
each other, respectively, 0.501 and 0.371, and the damage to the arch haunch is the smallest
(0.188), which can be ignored in comparison.
According to the calculation results, maximum principal stress and longitudinal strain
at arch crown, shear strain at arch springing, compressive damage variable, and tensile
damage variable at arch springing were selected as the monitoring data in Section 6, and
the calculation results of the model were analyzed under different material conditions.
6. Parametric Study
Through numerical simulation, the effect of fiber compound parameters on the tunnel
misalignment is calculated. In this section, the results of five selected monitoring points
have been calculated and obtained, and based on this analysis, it is carried out to study the
connection between the parameters of the fibers and the effect on the performance of the
tunnel lining in terms of misalignment resistance.
6.1. Influences of Polypropylene Fiber (ρpf )

Figure 9 shows the results of the monitoring points under the condition of different
additions of steel fiber (ρpf ) and L/D ratios of steel fiber (lsf /dsf ), and with the gradual
increase in the addition of polypropylene fiber (ρpf ) from 0.05%, 0.10%, to 0.15%.
The analysis shows that as ρpf increases, the maximum principal stress at the arch
crown increases uniformly in the extreme value, and this law does not change with the
change of ρsf and lsf /dsf , i.e., the increase in ρpf in this range helps to improve the bearing
capacity of the concrete. At the same time, shear strain at arch springing, the extreme value
of the compressive damage variable at arch springing, and the extreme value of the tensile
damage variable at arch springing all decrease accordingly. Further, Figure 10 shows the
magnitude of change in each dependent variable as influenced by the independent variables.
As shown in Figure 10a, as ρsf or lsf /dsf grows, the increase in ρpf causes a gradual
decrease in the increase in the extreme value of the maximum principal stress at the arch
crown, i.e., the effect of ρpf on the stress is related to λsf . When λsf is 0.15, the maximum
principal stress increases by 30.8% when ρpf is increased from 0.05% to 0.15%, while when
λsf is increased to 1.52, the increase in the extreme value of the principal stress caused by
the same change in ρpf is 9%, and the former is about three times as much as the latter,
i.e., when λsf is lower, ρpf plays a role in increasing the principal stresses, and when λsf is
increased, the effect is gradually weakened. This is because when λsf is less than 0.15, the
influence of steel fibers is weaker; at this time, polypropylene fibers play a major role in
stress enhancement, and with the increase in λsf , the enhancement effect of steel fibers is
stronger than that of polypropylene fibers, and therefore the influence of ρpf diminishes,
from which it can be deduced that when λsf reaches a certain value, the stress change
caused by the continued increase in ρpf is weak and even produces a negative effect.
Similarly, when λsf is small, the effect of ρpf on longitudinal and shear strain does
not vary significantly with λsf , while λsf at larger scales, the magnitude of the reduction
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 14 of 33
diminishes with further increase. For longitudinal strains, when λsf reaches 0.57, the strain
reduction corresponding to the increase in ρpf from 0.05% to 0.15% is 14.9%, whereas when
λsf is increased to 1.52, the strain reduction for the same change in ρpf is 11.6%. This is
because the polypropylene fibers act as the main toughening role when the steel fiber
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 36
characteristics are not obvious, so the structural deformation is significantly affected by ρpf ,
while the growth role of the polypropylene fibers gradually assumes a secondary role as
the characteristics of the steel fibers become apparent, so the magnitude of the change is
polypropylene fibers play
reduced. However, a relatively
at this time, thelimited role in of
interaction shear
the resistance
two fibersiniscomparison with in the
weakly reflected
the maximum principal stresses and the longitudinal strains.
strain relative to the stress. While for shear strains, its weakening effect is relatively slight
Figure 10d,e, on the other hand, shows that there is no significant pattern in the mag-
even when λsf is large, which is because the polypropylene fibers assume the main role of
nitude of the extreme reduction of the compressive damage variable of the arch springing
shear resistance when the characteristics of the steel fibers are not obvious, and with the
caused by  pf with respect to the steel fiber parameters. It can be obtained that  pf has
enhancement of the characteristics of the steel fibers, the role of the polypropylene fibers is
a weaker effect on the tensile damage variable compared to the compressive damage var-
weakened, and in terms of the magnitude of the reduction, the polypropylene fibers play
iable, i.e., polypropylene fibers play a more significant role in compressive toughening
a relatively limited role in shear resistance in comparison with the maximum principal
performance than tensile bridging performance in concrete.
stresses and the longitudinal strains.
lsf/dsf=30,ρsf=0.5%
Distribution of longitudinal maxima of
6
maximum principal stresses/Mpa
5 lsf/dsf=60,ρsf=1.2%
4 lsf/dsf=60,ρsf=1.9%
0.05 0.10 0.15

ρpf /%
(a) Maximum principal stress at the arch crown
Maxium vertical strain at crown/(×10-3)
1.25
lsf/dsf=30, ρsf=0.5%
1.20
1.15 lsf/dsf=80, ρsf=0.5%
1.10
1.05 lsf/dsf=80, ρsf=1.2%
1.00 lsf/dsf=60, ρsf=1.9%
0.95 lsf/dsf=80, ρsf=1.9%
0.90
0.85
0.05 0.10 0.15
ρpf /%
(b) Maximum longitudinal strain at arch crown
Figure 9. Cont.
Appl. Sci.Appl.
2023,Sci. x FOR14,
13, 2024, 55 REVIEW
PEER 17 of 36 15 of 33
Maxium shear strain at haunch/(×10-3)

8.0
7.5
7.0 lsf/dsf=30, ρsf=1.2%
6.5
6.0 lsf/dsf=80, ρsf=1.9%
5.5
0.05 0.10 0.15
ρpf /%
(c) Maximum shear strain at arch haunch
0.8
0.7 lsf/dsf=80, ρsf=0.5%
0.6 lsf/dsf=60, ρsf=1.2%
0.5
0.4
0.05 0.10 0.15

ρpf /%
(d) Compressive damage variable at arch springing
0.86
0.84
Tension damage variable
0.82
0.80 lsf/dsf=80, ρsf=0.5%
0.78 lsf/dsf=30, ρsf=1.2%
0.76 lsf/dsf=60, ρsf=1.2%
0.74
0.72 lsf/dsf=60, ρsf=1.9%
0.70 lsf/dsf=80, ρsf=1.9%
0.68
0.66
0.64
0.05 0.10 0.15
ρpf /%
(e) Tension damage variable at arch springing
Figure 9. Calculation results in different ρpf .

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 16 of 33

Figure 9. Calculation results in different  pf .
35 ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%

0.15
Degree of increase/%
28
0.30
0.36
21 0.40
0.57
0.72
14 0.96
1.14
1.52
7
0
lsf/dsf=30 lsf/dsf=60 lsf/dsf=80
(a) Increase in maximum principal stress
20
ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
18
16
Degree of decrease/%
0.36 0.72 0.40

0.15 0.57 0.30 0.96
14
1.14 1.52
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
(b) Decrease in longitudinal strain at arch crown
10 ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%

0.30
0.15 0.36 0.57 0.72 1.14 0.40 0.96

8 1.52
0
(c) Decrease in shear strain at arch haunch
Figure 10. Cont.

Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2023, 14,x55
2024,13, FOR PEER REVIEW 1917ofof36
33
45
ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
40
35 0.57 0.72
30 0.36 0.40
0.96
0.30 1.14
25 0.15 1.52
20
15
10
5
0
(d) Decrease in compressive damage variable at springing
15
ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
12
0.36 0.30
0.57 0.40
9 0.15 0.72 1.14
0.96 1.52
6
0
(e) Decrease in tension damage variable at arch springing
Figure
Figure10.
10.Magnitude
Magnitudeofofresult
resultchanges
changescaused by llsf
causedby / dsfsf. .
sf /d
Figure 10d,e,
of L/D on theofother hand,( l shows that there is no significant pattern in the
6.2. Influences Ratio Steel Fiber sf / d sf )
magnitude of the extreme reduction of the compressive damage variable of the arch spring-
ing Figure
caused 11 by shows
ρpf with therespect
resultstoofthethesteelmonitoring points, computed
fiber parameters. It can be with lsf / that
obtained d sf in-
ρpf
creased from 30
has a weaker to 80on
effect under different
the tensile damagesf and  pf . compared to the compressive damage
variable
variable, i.e., polypropylene
The analysis shows thatfibersas lsfplay
/ d sf aincreases,
more significant role in compressive
the maximum toughening
principal stress at the
performance than tensile bridging performance in concrete.
arch crown increases, but the magnitude of the increase is different; the longitudinal strain
decreases; the extreme shear strain at arch springing decreases with the increase in lsf / d sf
6.2. Influences of L/D Ratio of Steel Fiber (lsf /dsf )
; the extreme compressive damage variable at arch springing decreases gradually; and the
Figure 11 shows the results of the monitoring points, computed with lsf /dsf increased
extreme tensile damage variable decreases gradually. Further, Figure 12 shows the mag-
from 30 to 80 under different ρsf and ρpf .
nitude of change in each dependent variable as influenced by the independent variables.
The analysis shows that as lsf /dsf increases, the maximum principal stress at the arch
Figure 11a shows that the stress increase caused by the increase in lsf / d sf is greater
crown increases, but the magnitude of the increase is different; the longitudinal strain
when sf isthe
decreases; larger,
extreme sf strain
andshear increases from
at arch 0.05% todecreases
springing 0.1% when thethe
with growth rate
increase in of en- ;
lsf /d sf
hancement
the extremeiscompressive
larger, and damage
with thevariable
further at increase in sf , the
arch springing enhancement
decreases is gradually
gradually; and the ex-
weakened.
treme tensile That is, although
damage variablethe increasegradually.
decreases in lsf / d sf Further,
will improve
Figure the bearing
12 shows thecapacity
magnitude of
concrete, but the corresponding sf is too small will affect the improvement effect, too
of change in each dependent variable as influenced by the independent variables.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 18 of 33
Figure 11a shows that the stress increase caused by the increase in lsf /dsf is greater
when ρsf is larger, and ρsf increases from 0.05% to 0.1% when the growth rate of enhance-
ment is larger, and with the further increase in ρsf , the enhancement is gradually weakened.
That is, although the increase in lsf /dsf will improve the bearing capacity of concrete, but
the corresponding ρsf is too small will affect the improvement effect, too large may produce
side effects, and is not conducive to the actual construction operation, so it is necessary
to take a reasonable value; and with the increase in ρpf , the corresponding increase in the
large may produce of
magnitude side theeffects,
slightand is not conducive
weakening, that is, to there
the actual construction
is also an interaction operation,
between ρpf and
so it is necessary to take a reasonable value; and with the increase in  pf , the correspond-
lsf /dsf , it is not appropriate to take a larger value at the same time.
ing increaseFigure in the magnitude
11b showsofthat the the
slight weakening,
reduction that is, there isand
of longitudinal alsoshear
an interaction
strain increases with
between 
the increase
pf and l sf / d
in ρsfsf . For longitudinal strain, the trend of its reductiontime.
, it is not appropriate to take a larger value at the same is basically uniform
Figure
when11b ρsf shows
is 0.5%that andthe lsf reduction of longitudinal
/dsf is increased from 30and shear
to 60. Whenstrain ρsfincreases with its reduction
is increased,
the increaseincreases in sfsignificantly
. For longitudinal when strain,
lsf /dthe trend
is of its reduction
increased in the is basically
small value uniform
range (30–60), and
sf
when then sf isdecreases
0.5% and when lsf / d sf itis isincreased from 30 to 60. When  is increased,
increased in the large valuesfrange (60–80), which is similar its re-
duction toincreases
the magnitude significantly when lsf / dprincipal
of maximum sf is increasedstress.in the
Forsmall
shear value range
strain, the(30–60),
reduction is more
and then pronounced
decreases when at larger ρsf and this
it is increased in the pattern is largely
large value rangeindependent
(60–80), whichof pf . In terms of the
is ρsimilar
to the magnitude
magnitude of changemaximum from principal
Figure 12c, when
stress. For increases
ρsfshear strain,from
the 0.5%
reductionto 1.2%, the role of lsf /dsf
is more
pronounced changes at larger sf and and
significantly, this pattern
the difference the effect ofoflsf/d
is largelyinindependent pf .sfIn terms of weaker
becomes the with the
magnitude further changeincrease
from in ρsf , i.e.,
Figure when ρsfsf varies
12c, when increases in afrom
low0.5%range, the increase
to 1.2%, the role in of lsf /dsf has a
lsf / d sf more
changes significant
significantly, shearand strain suppression
the difference in theeffect,
effecti.e.,
of lfor the suppression of shear strain
sf / d sf becomes weaker
with the further increase in sf , i.e., when sf varies in a low range,have
deformation, the two main parameters of the steel fibers still an interaction.
the increase in
Figure 12d,e show that the reduction of damage
lsf / d sf has a more significant shear strain suppression effect, i.e., for the suppression of
variables is relatively insignificant
when ρsf is low, and when ρsf increases from 0.5% to 1.2%, the damage suppression effect
shear strain deformation, the two main parameters of the steel fibers still have an interac-
tion. is significant after increasing lsf /dsf , and at this time, there are significant changes in the
reduction
Figure 12d,e of show damagethat the variables
reduction atof tunnel
damage crown when
variables is lrelatively
sf /dsf is increased
insignificant in a low range
interval (30–60).
when sf is low, and when sf sfincreases When l /d sf is increased
from 0.5% to 1.2%, the damage suppression even causing
again, the reduction gets weaker,
negative effects, which
effect is significant after increasing lsf / d sf , andmeans steel fiberatparameters
this time, there ρsf and lsf /dsf arechanges
are significant also unfavorable for
the suppression effect of compression damage when they are too large.
in the reduction of damage variables at tunnel crown when lsf / d sf is increased in a low
range interval (30–60).ofWhen
6.3. Influences lsf / d (ρ
Steel Fiber sf is increased again, the reduction gets weaker, even
sf )
causing negative effects, which means steel fiber parameters sf and lsf / d sf are also un-
Figure 13 shows the results of the monitoring points, computed with ρsf increases
favorable
fromfor0.5%
the suppression
to 1.9% for effect
differentof compression
l /d anddamage
ρ . when they are too large.
sf sf pf
Maximum principal stresses/Mpa
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=0.5%
6
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.2%
5
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.9%
4
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.9%
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.9%
3
30 60 80
lsf/dsf
Figure 11. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 19 of 33
1.25
Maxium longitudinal strain/(×10-3)

1.20 ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=0.5%
1.15
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=0.5%
1.10 ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.2%
1.05 ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=1.9%
1.00
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.9%
0.95 ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.9%
0.90
0.85
30 60 80
lsf/dsf
8.0
Maxium shear strain/(×10-3)
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=0.5%
7.5 ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=1.2%
7.0 ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=1.9%
6.5
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.9%
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.9%
6.0
30 60 80
lsf/dsf
0.8
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=0.5%
0.7 ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=1.2%
0.6 ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=1.9%
0.5 ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.9%
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.9%
0.4
0.3
30 60 80
lsf/dsf
Figure 11. Cont.

Appl. Sci.Sci.
Appl. 2023, 13, x14,
2024, FOR55 PEER REVIEW 22 of 36
20 of 33
0.88 0.88
0.86 0.86

0.84 0.84 ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=0.5%
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=0.5%
0.82 0.82
ρpf=0.15%, ρ
ρpf=0.15%, =0.5%
sf ρsf=0.5%
0.80 0.80
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.05%, ρsf=1.2%
0.78 0.78 ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.2%
0.76 0.76 ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.2%
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.2%
0.74 0.74 ρpf=0.05%, ρ
ρpf=0.05%, =1.9%
sf ρsf=1.9%
0.72 0.72 ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.9%

ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.9%
0.70 0.70 ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.9%
ρpf=0.15%, ρsf=1.9%
0.68 0.68
0.66 0.66
0.64 0.64
30 30 60 60 80 80
lsf/dlsfsf/dsf
(e) Tension
(e) Tension damage
damage variable
variable at arch
at arch springing
springing
FigureFigure 11. Calculation

11.Figure
Calculation results
results inresults
11. Calculation different lsf / dlsfsf ./ldsfsf/d
in different
in different . sf .
ρsf=0.5%
ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2%
ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
ρsf=1.9%
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
ρpf=0.05% ρ =0.10%
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.15%
ρpf=0.10% ρ =0.15%
pf pf
15 15 ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
12 12
9
9
6
6
3
3
0
0 ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
(b) Decrease in longitudinal strain at the arch crown
Figure 12. Cont.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci.2023, 14,x55
2024,13, FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of2136
of 33
18
ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
16
Degree of decrease /%
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
45
ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
15
ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
12
0
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
Figure
Figure12.
12.Magnitude
Magnitudeofofresult
resultchanges
changescaused bybyl sflsf//d
caused d sfsf..
Appl. Sci. Sci.
Appl. 2023, 13, x14,
2024, FOR55 PEER REVIEW 25 of2236of 33
6.5
Maximum principal stresses/Mpa

6.0 ρpf=0.05%, lsf/dsf=30
ρpf=0.10%, lsf/dsf=30
5.5
5.0
4.5 ρpf=0.15%, lsf/dsf=60
4.0 ρpf=0.10%, lsf/dsf=80
3.5
3.0
2.5
0.5 1.2 1.9
ρsf /%
1.20 ρpf=0.05%, lsf/dsf=30

1.14 ρpf=0.15%, lsf/dsf=30
1.08 ρpf=0.10%, lsf/dsf=60
1.02 ρpf=0.05%, lsf/dsf=80
0.96 ρpf=0.15%, lsf/dsf=80
0.90
0.84
0.5 1.2 1.9
ρsf /%
8.0
7.5
7.0 ρpf=0.05%, lsf/dsf=60
6.5 ρpf=0.05%, lsf/dsf=80
6.0
5.5
0.5 1.2 1.9
ρsf /%
Figure 13. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 23 of 33
0.8

0.7 ρpf=0.15%, lsf/dsf=30
0.6 ρpf=0.10%, lsf/dsf=60
0.5 ρpf=0.10%, lsf/dsf=80
0.4
0.3
0.5 1.2 1.9
ρsf /%
0.88
0.86
0.84 ρpf=0.05%, lsf/dsf=30

0.82
0.80
0.78 ρpf=0.10%, lsf/dsf=60
0.76 ρpf=0.15%, lsf/dsf=60
0.74 ρpf=0.05%, lsf/dsf=80
0.72 ρpf=0.10%, lsf/dsf=80
0.70 ρpf=0.15%, lsf/dsf=80
0.68
0.66
0.64
0.5 1.2 1.9
ρsf /%
(e) Tension damage variable at arch springing
Figure 13. 13.
Figure Calculation results
Calculation in different
results sfρ. .
in different sf
The analysis shows that as ρsf increases, the maximum principal stress at the arch
crown increases, i.e., an increase in ρsf helps to increase the bearing capacity of the lining; the
longitudinal strain at the arch crown decreases; the extreme shear strain at arch springing
decreases; the extreme compressive damage variable at arch springing decreases; and the
extreme tensile damage variable at arch springing decreases with an increase in ρsf . Further,
Figure 14 shows the magnitude of change in each dependent variable as influenced by the
independent variables.
Figures 13a and 14a show that the growth amplitude is more obvious when the value
of lsf /dsf is larger, but when lsf /dsf increases from 30 to 60, the effect of ρsf is more obvious,
and the amplitude change is gradually weakened when lsf /dsf is increased again, i.e.,
although a larger value of ρsf is favorable for lining load bearing in a certain range, a
negative interaction effect may occur when the corresponding lsf /dsf is larger as well; the
amplitude of the stress increase is weakened as ρpf increases, i.e., the values of ρpf and ρsf
should not both be too large.
Appl.
Appl.Sci.
Sci.2023,
2024,13,
14,x 55
FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 36
24 of 33
70 lsf/dsf=30 lsf/dsf=60 lsf/dsf=80
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
18
15
12
0
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
24
20
16
12
0
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
Figure 14. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 25 of 33
48 lsf/dsf=30 lsf/dsf=60 lsf/dsf=80
40
32
24
16
8
0
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.10% ρpf=0.15%
Figure
Figure14.
14.Magnitude
Magnitudeof
ofresult
resultchanges
changescaused by ρsfsf. .
causedby
Figure 13b,c
6.4. Influences shows
of Single that the magnitudes of both compressive and shear strain reduction
Fiber
are greater at larger
Figure 15 gives the l /d sf , and
sf results of when lsf /dsf is larger,
the monitoring points the effect
caused byof the on theof
ρsfchange strain
each at the
fiber
tunnel crown will be more obvious when it increases in the interval of the small value
parameter in a single fiber, respectively.
(0.5~1.2%), that is, when lsf /dsf is larger, the ρsf has a more appropriate value, which is the
The results show that in different conditions of each single fiber, due to the high elas-
best effect of strain control, and too small a value won’t achieve more significant effect,
tic modulus and excellent toughness resistance, it can also help the concrete to carry more
too large is not favorable to the economy. The eigenvalues are too significant to produce a
external force, and the maximum principal stress of the arch crown will also increase with
negative effect when both ρsf and lsf /dsf are larger, and therefore, it is recommended that
the increase in the fiber addition or the fiber L/D ratio. There is also an interaction between
l /d be taken to be 60 in the case of general fault resistance.
lsfsf / d sfsf and sf , i.e., the magnitude of the stress change caused by sf ( lsf / d sf ) is more
Figures 13d and 14d show that when lsf /dsf is larger, the increase in ρsf will help the
significant
fibers to act when
as a stronger sf ) is larger.
lsf / d sf (connection, The effect
which on the
can delay thelongitudinal
damage to the strain of the matrix.
concrete lining
isAndnot much different
ρsf increases infrom that ofvalue
the small compoundintervaldoping, and the
(0.5–1.2%) maximum
causing value of longitu-
compressive damage
dinal
variable reduction is greater, when lsf /dsf is taken to be 80, ρsf is taken to be fiber
strain at the arch crown decreases with the increase in the single-doped 1.2%doping
is more
or the aspectat
reasonable, ratio,
this and
time,there is an interaction
the compression between
damage suppression effectsfis. In
lsf / d sf and the range
better set
and more
ineconomical.
this study, However,
the increase forinthetwotension
kindsdamage
of fiber variable,
doping and when is 0.19%
L/Dρsfratio and at the
is beneficial same
to slow
time lsf
down /dlongitudinal
the sf is 80, the reduction
deformation of theoftensile
the topdamage
of the variable
lining, but of the
it isarch springing
necessary is 12.2%,
to consider
instead of decreasing, so it is more
the deformation suppression effect and economic benefits. reasonable to consider the optimum effect of tensile
damage, lsf /dsf is taken as 60 when ρsf is 1.9%.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 26 of 33

6.4. Influences of Single Fiber
Figure 15 gives the results of the monitoring points caused by the change of each fiber
parameter in a single fiber, respectively.
Shear strain at arch springing will be reduced, but at the same time, can be found at
The results show that in different conditions of each single fiber, due to the high
this time sf and lsf / d sf between the interaction effect is still obvious, that is, the two
elastic modulus and excellent toughness resistance, it can also help the concrete to carry
major
more characteristics
external force, and of the
the steel
maximumfiber inprincipal
the shearstress
resistance
of the of thecrown
arch singlewill
mixing
alsoparame-
increase
ters still have interaction.
with the increase in the fiber addition or the fiber L/D ratio. There is also an interaction
between Thel extreme value of the foot of arch compressive damage variable also decreases
sf /dsf and ρsf , i.e., the magnitude of the stress change caused by ρsf (lsf /dsf ) is
more significant whenislsfan
gradually. And there /dinteraction between sf and lsf / d sf , when lsf / d sf or sf is
sf (ρsf ) is larger. The effect on the longitudinal strain of the
larger,isthe
lining notreduction
much different of the foot
from ofthat
archofcompressive
compounddamage
doping,variable
and the with the increase
maximum valuein of
 or
longitudinal
sf l sf / dstrain
sf corresponds to more obvious.
at the arch crown decreases with the increase in the single-doped fiber
doping The
or extreme
the aspect values
ratio,ofand
thethere
tensileis damage variable
an interaction at invert
between lsf arch are all
/dsf and ρsfreduced, and
. In the range
theinmagnitude
set this study, of thethe changeincaused
increase by the
two kinds ofincrease in sfand
fiber doping ( lsfL/D
/ d sfratio
) is larger when lto
is beneficial sf / d sf
slow
( sf ) is larger, i.e., there is still an interplay between lsf / d sf and sf for the tensile dam-
down the longitudinal deformation of the top of the lining, but it is necessary to consider
the
age. deformation suppression effect and economic benefits.
6.0 3.6
Maximum principle stresses/Mpa
lsf/dsf=30 6.0 ρsf=0.5% lpf/dpf=396

5.4 lsf/dsf=60 5.4 ρsf=1.2% 3.4
4.8 lsf/dsf=80 ρsf=1.9% 3.2
4.8
4.2 4.2 3.0
3.6 3.6 2.8
3.0 3.0 2.6
2.4 2.4 2.4
0.5 1.2 1.9 30 60 80 0.05 0.12 0.19
ρsf /% lsf/dsf ρpf /%
1.4 1.4
Maximum longitudinal stress (×10-3)
lsf/dsf=30 ρsf=0.5% 1.3 lpf/dpf=396

lsf/dsf=60 ρsf=1.2%
1.3 lsf/dsf=80 1.3
ρsf=1.9%
1.2
1.2 1.2
1.1 1.1
1.1
1.0 1.0
0.5 1.2 1.9 30 60 80 0.05 0.10 0.15
8.1
Maximum shear strain/(×10-3)
8.0 lpf/dpf=396
7.8 8.0
7.6
7.5
7.2 7.8
7.2
6.9 6.8
7.6
6.6 lsf/dsf=30 ρsf=0.5%
6.4
6.3 7.4
lsf/dsf=80 6.0 ρsf=1.9%
6.0
0.5 1.2 1.9 30 60 80 0.05 0.10 0.15
(c) Decrease in shear strain at the arch haunch
Figure 15. Cont.

Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2023,
2024, 14,13,
55x FOR PEER REVIEW 3027ofof36
33
Compressive damage variable 0.9 0.9 0.88

lpf/dpf=396
0.8 0.8
0.84
0.7 0.7
0.80
0.6 0.6
0.5 lsf/dsf=60 0.5 ρsf=1.2% 0.76
0.4 0.4
0.5 1.2 1.9 30 60 80 0.05 0.12 0.19
(d) Decrease in compressive damage variable at arch springing
0.96
0.92 lsf/dsf=30 ρsf=0.5% lpf/dpf=396
Tension damage variable
0.88
lsf/dsf=60 0.92 ρsf=1.2%
0.88
lsf/dsf=80 0.88 ρsf=1.9% 0.86
0.84 0.84 0.84
0.80 0.80 0.82
0.76 0.76
0.80
0.72 0.72
0.5 1.2 1.9 30 60 80 0.05 0.12 0.19
Figure 15. Calculation results in individual fiber incorporation.
Figure 15. Calculation results in individual fiber incorporation.
7. Discussion
Shear strain at arch springing will be reduced, but at the same time, can be found at
this
7.1.time ρsf and
Influences of lFibers
sf /dsf Compound
between the interaction effect is still obvious, that is, the two major
characteristics
The properties of thefiber
of the steel in theare
materials shear resistance
compared of the singlesingle
by considering mixing parameters
fiber, mixed fiber, still
have interaction.
and no fiber. Figure 16 gives the variation of maximum principal stress and longitudinal
strain The extremeatvalue
extremes of the
the arch foot of
crown, archstrains
shear compressive
at the archdamage
sidewallvariable
and arch alsospringing,
decreases
gradually. And there is an interaction
and compressive and tensile damage variables in between ρ and l /d
sf the invert
sf , when l
sfarch for different
sf /d sf or ρ sf is larger,
conditions.
the reduction of the foot
The maximum of arch
principal compressive
stress damage
extreme value variable
at the with the
arch crown increase inlarger
is obviously ρsf or
lsfthan
/dsf that
corresponds to more obvious.
of plain concrete after mixed fiber concrete, and the size of the extreme value
always Themeets
extrememixedvalues of>the
fiber tensile
single fiberdamage
> plain variable
concrete,ati.e.,
invert
therearchis a are all reduced,
synergistic effectandof
the
the two kinds of fibers in the matrix concrete, and it is more beneficial to improve thelsf
magnitude of the change caused by the increase in ρ sf (l sf /d sf ) is larger when /dsf
load-
(ρbearing
sf ) is larger, i.e., there
capacity of theismatrix
still an interplay
concrete. The between
effect oflsfthe
/dtwo
sf and ρsf for the tensile
single-doped fibers isdamage.
related
to the sf , and when the sf < 0.15, the maximum value of the single polypropylene fiber
7. Discussion
is larger
7.1. thanofsingle
Influences Fiberssteel fiber. But when sf further increase, the maximum value of sin-
Compound
gle steel fiber is greater than that of single polypropylene fiber, and with continuous
The properties of the materials are compared by considering single fiber, mixed fiber,
growth of sf , the difference between the two single-doped effect is significant. This is
and no fiber. Figure 16 gives the variation of maximum principal stress and longitudinal
because
strain the steel
extremes fiber
at the archcharacteristics
crown, shearare not obvious,
strains at the arch polypropylene
sidewall and fiber plays a major
arch springing, and
bridging role,
compressive and tensileand  reaches a certain value, the steel fiber plays
sf damage variables in the invert arch for different conditions.a stronger role, from
whichThewe can put principal
maximum forward astress limitextreme
of the characteristics
value at the arch of the value
crown of sf-1 . Inlarger
is obviously this case,
than
that
the of plain concrete
boundary eigenvalue sf-1 forfiber
after mixed concrete, and
distinguishing the size
between of the
single extreme
steel fiber and value always
single pol-
meets mixed fiber
ypropylene fiber for
> single fiber > plain
the strength of theconcrete,
stress effecti.e.,isthere
0.15.is a synergistic effect of the two
kinds Due
of fibers
to thein enhanced
the matrixperformance
concrete, and ofitmixed
is more beneficial
fiber, to improve
the extreme value ofthetheload-bearing
longitudi-
capacity
nal strain at the arch crown of fiber-enhanced concrete is much smaller than thattoofthe
of the matrix concrete. The effect of the two single-doped fibers is related λsf ,
plain
and when the
concrete, and the λ < 0.15, the maximum value of the single polypropylene fiber
sf strain of mixed fiber is also smaller than that of single fiber, which indi- is larger than
single
cates steel
that thefiber.
mixedBut fiber
whenwill furtherthe
λsf inhibit increase, the maximum
longitudinal deformation value of single
at the arch crownsteel fiber
un-
isder
greater than that of single polypropylene fiber, and with
the fault fracture misalignment, and the effect of compound admixture is bettercontinuous growth of λsfthan
, the
difference between
that of single the twoFor
admixture. single-doped effect of
the comparison is significant.
the effects ofThis theistwo
because the steelfiber
single-doped fiber
characteristics are not obvious, polypropylene fiber plays a major bridging role, and λsf
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 28 of 33
reaches a certain value, the steel fiber plays a stronger role, from which we can put forward
a limit of the characteristics of the value of λsf-1 . In this case, the boundary eigenvalue λsf-1
for distinguishing between single steel fiber and single polypropylene fiber for the strength
of the stress effect is 0.15.
Due to the enhanced performance of mixed fiber, the extreme value of the longitudinal
strain at the arch crown of fiber-enhanced concrete is much smaller than that of plain
concrete, and the strain of mixed fiber is also smaller than that of single fiber, which
indicates that the mixed fiber will inhibit the longitudinal deformation at the arch crown
under the fault fracture misalignment, and the effect of compound admixture is better than
that of single admixture. For the comparison of the effects of the two single-doped fiber
strain suppressions, when λsf < 0.36, the single polypropylene fiber effect is better, with
the increase in λsf , the single steel fiber effect is gradually better. That is, for the inhibition
effect of longitudinal strain, the boundary eigenvalue λsf-1 of the two single-doped fibers
is 0.36.
The shear strain of arch springing and invert arch is obviously smaller than that of
plain concrete after mixed fiber, and the inhibition effect of mixed doped will be better than
single doped, for the comparison of two single doped fibers, arch springing in λsf ≤ 0.36,
single steel fiber inhibition effect is not better than single polypropylene fiber, and invert
arch in λsf > 0.15, the effect of single steel fiber inhibition of shear strain will be better
than single polypropylene fiber gradually, i.e., for shear strain, arch springing and invert
arch exist different boundary characteristic value λsf-1 , it can be obtained that invert arch
has a higher requirement for λsf , so it is more sensitive than other parts. At the invert
arch, there are different boundary characteristic value of λsf-1 , it can be obtained that invert
arch for λsf requirements are higher, so more sensitive than other parts. Considering the
economic effect, different part can be designed with different ratios. After analyzing, it can
be obtained that the relationship between fiber parameters and shear strain at the invert
arch and arch springing is not much different in mixed fiber and single fiber.
The extreme value of the compressive damage variable at the invert arch of mixed
fiber is smaller than that of plain concrete, and the compressive damage inhibition effect
of mixed fibers is much better than that of single fibers. For two different single-doped
cases, when λsf < 0.15, the single polypropylene fiber effect is better, with λsf gradually
increased, the effect of single steel fiber is gradually better, and when λsf increased again,
this effect is more significant; that is, the eigenvalue λsf-1 is 0.15 for the pressure damage
inhibition effect. In the comparison of single polypropylene fiber and mixed fiber, it can
be concluded that the damage inhibition effect of single polypropylene fiber is weak, and
single polypropylene fiber is not recommended in general.
The tensile damage at arch springing after adding fibers is significantly relieved, and
the effect of mixed fiber is better than single doping, but when λsf < 0.15, the inhibition
effect of single polypropylene fibers is better than single steel fiber, and with the grad-
ual increase in λsf , the effect of single steel fibers gradually becomes better, i.e., for the
inhibition of tensile damage, the boundary characteristic value λsf-1 is 0.15. The effect of
single polypropylene fiber to suppress tensile damage is poorer, and therefore it is not
recommended to dope polypropylene fiber individually.
7.2. Correlation Analysis

Through the above analysis, it can be obtained that ρsf , lsf /dsf and ρpf have mutual
influence on the extreme value of the maximum principal stress of the lining, and in order
to further analyze the degree of influence of these three parameters and four combined
variables (a total of seven variables), the Spearman’s correlation coefficient analysis in
spss was used to obtain Figure 17. The theoretical distribution interval of the correlation
coefficients in the table is [−1, 1], and in general, it is considered to have weak correlation
in the range of 0.3~0.5, medium correlation in the range of 0.5~0.7, and strong correlation
in the range of 0.7~0.9.
Appl.
Appl.Sci. 2023,14,
Sci.2024, 13,55
x FOR PEER REVIEW 32 36
29 of 33
Maximum principal stresses/Mpa 3.6

ρsf=0.5% 4.5 ρsf=1.9%
ρsf=1.2% 5.6
3.0 ρpf=0.05% 4.0 ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.05%
4.8
3.5
2.4 3.0 4.0
λsf=0.15 2.5 3.2
1.8
2.0 2.4
1.2 1.5 1.6
1.0
0.6 lsf/dsf=80 0.5 lsf/dsf=80 0.8 lsf/dsf=80
S-P S P PC S-P S P PC S-P S P PC
Maximum longitudinal strain/(×10-3)

lsf/dsf=80 lsf/dsf=80 1.8 lsf/dsf=80
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6 1.6
1.4
1.4 1.4 λsf=0.36
ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% 1.2 ρsf=1.9%
1.2 ρpf=0.05% 1.2 ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.05%
1.0
1.0 1.0
(b) Maximum longitudinal strain at the arch crown
13 14 14
Maximum shear strain/(×10-3)
12 lsf/dsf=60 lsf/dsf=60 12 lsf/dsf=60

12
11
10
λsf=0.15 10
10
8
9 ρsf=0.5% 8 ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%
ρpf=0.05% ρpf=0.05% 6 ρpf=0.05%
8
(c) Maximum shear strain at arch springing
0.9
0.92 0.9
λsf=0.15 0.8
0.88 0.8
0.7
0.84
0.7 0.6
0.80 lsf/dsf=30 lsf/dsf=30 lsf/dsf=30
0.6 0.5
0.76 lsf/dsf=80 lsf/dsf=80 0.4 lsf/dsf=80
0.5
0.72 0.3
0.94 0.96 0.96
lsf/dsf=30 l /d =30
sf sf
lsf/dsf=30
0.92 0.92
lsf/dsf=60 lsf/dsf=60 0.92 lsf/dsf=60

0.90 lsf/dsf=80 lsf/dsf=80 0.88 lsf/dsf=80
0.88
0.88 λsf=0.15 0.84
0.84
0.86 0.80
0.80
0.84 ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% 0.76 ρsf=1.9%
0.82 ρpf=0.05% 0.76 ρpf=0.05% 0.72 ρpf=0.05%
0.80 0.72 0.68
(e) Tensile damage variable at arch springing
Figure 16. Comparison of different admixture of fibers (S for single steel fiber, P for single polypro-
Figure 16. Comparison of different admixture of fibers (S for single steel fiber, P for single polypropy-
pylene fiber, S-P for mixed steel-polypropylene fiber, PC for plain concrete).
lene fiber, S-P for mixed steel-polypropylene fiber, PC for plain concrete).
Through the above analysis, it can be obtained that sf , lsf / d sf and  pf have mu-
tual influence on the extreme value of the maximum principal stress of the lining, and in
order to further analyze the degree of influence of these three parameters and four
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55
com-
30 of 33
bined variables (a total of seven variables), the Spearman’s correlation coefficient analysis
in spss was used to obtain Figure 17. The theoretical distribution interval of the correlation
From Figure 17, it can be significantly observed that seven variables have a significant
coefficients in the table is [−1, 1], and in general, it is considered to have weak correlation
correlation with maximum principal stress and maximum longitudinal strain at arch crown,
in the range of 0.3~0.5, medium
maximum shearcorrelation in the range
strain at arch springing, of 0.5~0.7,
compressive damage and strong
variable at archcorrelation
springing,
and
in the range of 0.7~0.9. tensile damage variable at arch springing. Among them, the four combined parameters
are more relevant to the results than the three initial parameters.
Maximum principal stress

Spearman's correlation coefficient
1.0 Maximum longitudinal strain

Maximum shear strain
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
ρsf lsf/dsf ρpf ρsfꞏlsf/dsf ρsfꞏρpf ρpfꞏlsf/dpf ρsfꞏρpfꞏlsf/dpf

Parameters of fiber
Figure 17. Spearman’s correlation coefficient of parameters of fiber.
Figure 17. Spearman’s correlation coefficient of parameters of fiber.
For the maximum principal stress and longitudinal strain at the arch crown, the
most significant influence is ρpf ·ρsf ·lsf /dsf , which indicates that the combined performance
From Figure 17, it can be significantly observed that seven variables have a significant
of steel-polypropylene fiber can significantly improve the bearing performance of the
correlation with maximum
lining top. principal stress and maximum longitudinal strain at arch
crown, maximum shearForstrain at arch
shear strain at arch springing,
sidewall, it can compressive
be found that the damage
correlationvariable
coefficient at
of ρarch
pf
is the lowest, and lower relative to several other variables, i.e., considering ρpf alone has
springing, and tensile damage variable at arch springing. Among them, the four combined
less influence on the shear strain; at the same time, it can be found that several variables
parameters are morecontaining
relevanta factor to the of results
ρsf have athanhigherthe three with
correlation initial parameters.
the shear strain, and the ones that
consider and those that consider
For the maximum principal stress and longitudinal strain at the arch
λ sf the combination of the three variables
crown, havethe
a high
most
degree of correlation with it, so it can be assumed that ρsf has a determinative effect on the
is shear
significant influence lining pf ·  sfresistance.
· lsf / d sf , which indicates that the combined performance of
steel-polypropylene fiber Forcan the compressive
significantly damage variable the
improve and tensile
bearing damage variable at arch
performance ofspringing,
the lining
the most important influencing factors are ρpf ·ρsf ·lsf /dsf and ρsf ·lsf /dsf , respectively, which
top. are strongly correlated. In the compressive damage variable, lsf /dsf and ρpf showed weak
For shear straincorrelation,
at arch sidewall, ρsf and ρpfit ·lsfcan
/dsf be found
showed that the
moderate correlation
correlation, which coefficient
also indicatesofthat
pf
steel-polypropylene mixed fiber is more effective in resisting compressive damage. In the
is the lowest, and lower
tensilerelative to several
damage variable, lsf /dsfother
, ρsf , ρpfvariables,
·lsf /dsf and ρsfi.e., considering
·ρpf are  pf alone
all medium correlation, whilehas
ρpf ·ρsf ·lsf /dsf correlation is only the second one, which explains that in the tensile damage,
less influence on thetheshear strain; at the same time, it can be found that several variables
steel fibers are more important than polypropylene fibers, and in order to inhibit the
containing a factor of sfdamage,
tensile have itaishigher
necessarycorrelation
to reasonably selectwiththe the shear
steel strain, and the ones
fiber parameters.
that consider sf and those that consider the combination of the three variables have a
8. Conclusions
high degree of correlation with
In this it, so
paper, it can be assumed
steel-polypropylene mixedthat sf applied
fibers are has atodeterminative effect
tunnel lining the me-
chanical properties of the secondary lining of the tunnel were analyzed in various fiber
on the lining shear resistance.
parameters when the inclination angle is 60◦ , the displacement of vertical misalignment is
For the compressive damage variable and tensile damage variable at arch springing,
the most important influencing factors are  pf · sf · lsf / d sf and sf · lsf / d sf , respectively,
which are strongly correlated. In the compressive damage variable, lsf / d sf and  pf
showed weak correlation,  and  · l / d showed moderate correlation, which also
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 31 of 33
30 cm, and the distribution of the damages by five indicators, and the main conclusions
obtained are as follows:
(1) The fluctuation range of the secondary lining caused by reverse fault misalignment is
concentrated within 80 m near the fault zone, where the steel-polypropylene mixed
fibers can be used to focus on the reinforcement. The misalignment causes tensile at
the arch crown and invert arch, as well as significant shear at the arch sidewall. Fiber
parameters do not affect the basic distribution law of the mechanical properties of
the lining, but the corresponding index extremes are closely correlated with the three
parameters of ρpf , ρsf and lsf /dsf .
(2) With the increase in ρpf , the stress, strain, and damage indicators decrease, and the
law is more significant when λsf is small, where the characteristics of the steel fibers
are relatively inconspicuous, and the polypropylene fibers play a major role, and
assume stress-enhancing, deformation-inhibiting, and damage-weakening effect, and
as λsf increases, the effect produced by ρpf change is weakened, even may produce a
negative effect. In addition, the effect of ρpf is relatively weak for shear and inhibit
tensile damage, it is recommended that in a reasonable range, ρpf to take a small value,
λsf to take a relatively large value.
(3) With the increase in ρsf or lsf /dsf , stress indicator gradually increases, strain factors
gradually decrease, and damage indicators also decrease, and there is an interaction
between ρsf and lsf /dsf , it is recommended ρsf takes 1.9% when lsf /dsf takes 60, and
ρsf takes 1.2%, when lsf /dsf takes 80. For the serious tensile damage near fault zone,
both lsf /dsf and ρsf can be taken as larger values.
(4) Fibers play an important role in anti-fault performance, and mixed fibers have with
better effect than single fiber, and there existed a characteristic value λsf-1 for the
two fibers in single doped, less than λsf-1 , the effect of single polypropylene fiber is
better, more than λsf-1 , the other become better. It is not recommended to use single
polypropylene fiber for its weak shear deformation and damage inhibition effects. The
value of λsf-1 varies at different part, therefore, the ratio of each part can be designed
according to actual engineering requirements.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.W. and C.H.; Methodology, Z.W. and R.W.; Software,
Y.W. and C.H.; Validation, C.H. and Z.W.; Data curation, C.H., Z.W., S.Y. and Y.M.; Writing—original
draft, Y.W. and C.H.; Writing—review & editing, Z.W. and R.W.; Visualization, R.W. and S.Y.; Super-
vision, Y.W. and Y.M.; Funding acquisition, Y.W. and Y.M. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The research reported in this paper has been funded by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (51778633, 51308552); China Railway Construction Corporation 2022 Annual
Scientific and Technological Research and Development Plan and Funding Subjects (2022-C1); Science
and Technology Research and Development Plan of China Railway Corporation in 2020 (41,243); 2022
degrees Guangzhou Metro Design and Research Institute Co. (KY-2022-014); Science and technology
research and development plan topics of China Railway Second Bureau Group Co. (2022-B-4).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current
study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The data are not publicly
available due to the policies adhered to in our laboratory.
Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge the reviewers and editors for their valuable
comments and suggestions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 32 of 33
Nomenclature
Damage variable, tensile damage variable,

d dt dc xy strain and stress normalization parameters
compressive damage variable
A area of material before damage εt strain value corresponding to peak stress
A′ area of material after damage ft peak stress
actual effective stress considering material parameter of ascending section and
σd a1 α t
damage descending section
concrete matrix axial compressive strength
E0 initial elastic modulus f mc ε mc
and corresponding strains
ε strain εck
et eεin
c cracking strain and compressive strain
ε pl
e equivalent plastic strain G Non-associated flow plastic potential
σ
e effective stress ψ dilation angle in p-q plane
W0 strain energy of initial undamaged state σt0 uniaxial tensile stress at failure
strain energy of Najar’s simplified
W′ σ̂max maximum principal effective stress
linear calculation of the damage state
initial equibiaxial compressive yield stress
Ec compressive modulus of elasticity of concrete σb0 σc0
and initial uniaxial compressive yield stress
f mt f f t peak stress of plain concrete and mixed fiber concrete Kc Bulk modulus
strain corresponding to the peak tensile stress
ε mt ε f t ρ Density of material
of plain concrete and mixed fiber concrete
product of the characteristic values of steel
λs f λ p f E Elastic modulus
fiber and polypropylene fiber
ls f /ds f l p f /d p f L/D ratio of steel fiber and polypropylene fiber µ Poisson’s ratio
ρsf ρpf Admixture of steel fiber and polypropylene fiber c Cohesion
φ internal friction angle
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Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010055 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

2. Methodology and Theoretical Background

Figure 1. Najar damage

Najar damage theoryNajar considers

The uniaxial pressurized full curve equation is as follows:

2.3. Concrete Damage Plasticity Model

The evolution of the yield surface is controlled by the hardening variables e

3.2. Materials and Contact Properties

Table 2. Characteristic parameters of fibers.

Admixture (ρsf ) 0.5% 1.2% 1.9%

3.3. Boundary Conditions and Simulation Process

4. Boundary conditions of fault simulation.

0 13, x FOR PEER

2.0 aich sidewall

0 arch crown 0.8 arch crown

−150 −100 −50 0 50 100 150

Figure 7. Monitoring points of the secondary lining.

Figure 8. Longitudinal distribution of calculation results at monitoring points.

6.1. Influences of Polypropylene Fiber (ρpf )

0.05 0.10 0.15

Maxium shear strain at haunch/(×10-3)

0.05 0.10 0.15

Figure 9. Calculation results in different ρpf .

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 55 16 of 33

35 ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%

0.36 0.72 0.40

10 ρsf=0.5% ρsf=1.2% ρsf=1.9%

0.15 0.36 0.57 0.72 1.14 0.40 0.96

Figure 10. Cont.

Figure 11. Cont.

Maxium longitudinal strain/(×10-3)

Figure 11. Cont.

Compressive damage variable

0.72 0.72 ρpf=0.10%, ρsf=1.9%

FigureFigure 11. Calculation

Maximum principal stresses/Mpa

1.20 ρpf=0.05%, lsf/dsf=30

Figure 13. Cont.

Compressive damage variable

0.84 ρpf=0.05%, lsf/dsf=30

70 lsf/dsf=30 lsf/dsf=60 lsf/dsf=80

Figure 14. Cont.

48 lsf/dsf=30 lsf/dsf=60 lsf/dsf=80

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 29 of 36

lsf/dsf=30 6.0 ρsf=0.5% lpf/dpf=396

lsf/dsf=30 ρsf=0.5% 1.3 lpf/dpf=396

Figure 15. Cont.

Compressive damage variable 0.9 0.9 0.88

7.2. Correlation Analysis

Maximum principal stresses/Mpa 3.6

2.2 lsf/dsf=30 2.2 lsf/dsf=30 2.2 lsf/dsf=30

12 lsf/dsf=60 lsf/dsf=60 12 lsf/dsf=60

lsf/dsf=60 lsf/dsf=60 0.92 lsf/dsf=60

Maximum principal stress

1.0 Maximum longitudinal strain

ρsf lsf/dsf ρpf ρsfꞏlsf/dsf ρsfꞏρpf ρpfꞏlsf/dpf ρsfꞏρpfꞏlsf/dpf

Damage variable, tensile damage variable,

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