Computer programming Chapter one Computer System

CHAPTER ONE
PROBLEM SOLVING USING COMPUTERS
Computer software
Software is a term for computer programs. A program is a set of instructions that enables a computer to
operate or instructions that tell the computer how to perform a specific task.
Computer software has two major categories:
 System software
 Application software
Systems software
Systems software includes the computer's basic operating system and language software. The term also
usually covers any software used to manage the computer and the network. Thus we can say that systems
software includes operating systems, device drivers, programming tools, utilities and more.
Language Software
 Are software which are used by programmers to develop application software and translate
programs to machine code.
 Language software is a generic name consisting of various programs that serve as editors &
translators to develop programs in a number of programming languages.
 Includes: - Translators, general purpose routines and utilities & high level languages
1) Translator: - is a program that converts one or more languages to another language. The
three types of translators are assemblers, Compilers & interpreters.
a. Assemblers: - is a program that translates assembly languages into machine code.
b. Compiler: - is a program that translates a high level language into machine code.
(Pascal, Fortran Cobol)
c. Interpreter: - is a program that translates each instruction of high-level language &
executes the instruction before translating the next instruction.
2) The general-purpose routine and utilities include programs, which are used to handle file
processing, editing and debugging.
3) High-level language software is software, which have their own compilers to detect syntax
errors of the user’s program code.
a. For example Cobol, Fortran, Pascal, C/C++ etc.
Programming Language
A language is a systematic set of rules for communicating ideas. With a natural language, like English, the
communication is between people and the language is used in both spoken and written. A programming
language is a language for communication between a person and computer. The content of communication
is known as a program. Programs are set of instructions, which enable a computer to perform a required
operation.

Several hundred programming languages are in use today, each varying in their specific syntax, but
showing similarities in purpose. Input/output instructions, arithmetic instructions, logic instructions,
control instructions, data movement instructions and specification instructions are such common purpose
instructions. Together with the improvement of hardware and processing speed and memory size increase

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computer languages changed to languages that were easier for humans to understand. So generations of
programming languages are developed to correspond with the generations of computer hardware.

There are five generations of programming language. These generations of programming languages can
also be categorized into two broad categories: -low and high-level languages. Low-level languages are
machine-dependent; that is, they are designed to be run on a particular computer. In contrast, high-level
languages (for example, COBOL and BASIC) are machine-independent and can be run on a variety of
computers.

The first two generations were low-level and the rest high-level of programming languages.

The higher-level languages do not provide us with greater programming capabilities, but they do provide a
more sophisticated program/computer interaction with simple instructions. In short, the higher the level of
the language, the easier it is to understand and use. For example, in a fourth-generation language you need
only instruct the computer system what to do, not necessarily how to do it.

When programming in one of the first three generations of languages, you have to tell the computer what to
do and how to do it. What comprises a new generation is less clear; therefore, languages after the fourth
generation are referred to as very high-level languages.

With each new level, fewer instructions are needed to tell the computer to perform a particular task. A
program written in a second-generation language that computes the total sales for each sales representative,
then lists those over quota, may require 100 or more instructions; the same program in a fourth-generation
language may have fewer than 10 instructions.
The ease with which the later generations can be used is certainly appealing, but the earlier languages also
have their advantages. All generations of languages are in use today.

1.2.4 Basics of program development

The vehicle for the computer solution to problem is a set of explicit and unambiguous instructions
called programs expressed in programming language.
Quality programming is necessary for the economic and correct solution of problems. This only comes
from good program design. The programs we design need to be:
 Reliable: the program should always do what it is expected to do and handle all types of
expectations
 Maintainable: the program should be in a way that it could be modified and upgraded when the
need arises.
 Portable: it needs to be possible to adapt the software written for one type of computer to another
with minimum modification.
 Efficient: the program should be designed to make optimal use of time, space and other
resources.

Software Engineering" has been used to describe "building of software systems which are so large or so complex that
they are built by a team or teams of engineers".

Programming Life cycle

The method (approach) that software Engineers use in solving problems in computer science is called the software
development method. Another name that is commonly used for the software development method is software life
cycle.

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The software life cycle has the following components

1. Preliminary Investigation
2. Analysis
3. Design
4. Implementation
5. Testing
6. Maintenance
Preliminary Investigation
 Defining the problem (examines documents, work papers, and procedures; observe system operations;
interview key users of the system). Suggesting a solution (often improving an existing one or building a
new information system)
 Feasibility study (determine whether the solution is feasible)
 Technical feasibility: whether implementation is possible with the available or affordable
hardware, software and other technical resources.
 Economic feasibility: whether the benefits of the proposed solution outweigh the costs
 Operational feasibility: whether the proposed solution is desirable within the existing
managerial and organizational framework.

Analysis (Requirement gathering)

 Try to understand the business in general (activities done, how it is done, etc)
 Define the specific information requirements: who needs what information, where, when, and how.
Present a detail description of the functions the new system must perform
 In this phase we identify:
 Inputs to the problem and their form (Filing status: Single, Married, divorced)
 Outputs expected from the solution and their form (Intermediate results or Final results –Completed tax
information)
 Constraints (What are the limits on the data? Income cannot be a negative number)
 Assumptions (Problem deals in $US, Only for 2005)
 Formulas (For determining the area, it is length x width)
Design
Based on the requirements specified in the analysis phase algorithms are developed at this stage. Develop a
series of steps with a logical order which, when applied to the input would produce the specified output.
 Consider alternative technology configurations to develop the system (hardware, software,
security capability of the system, network alternatives etc.)
 Management and control of the technical realization of the system: detailed program
specification,
 Detail system specifications for the functions identified in the analysis: managerial,
organizational and technological components of the system solution (input, output, user interface,
database design, processing, manual procedures, controls: input, processes, output and procedural
controls; security, documentation, training, organizational change)

Implementation
During implementation, we translate (code) each step of the algorithm in the design specifications into a
statement in the particular language selected, and end up with a computer program.

Testing (Will the system produce the desired results?)

Unit testing (Program testing): test each unit of program in the system separately
System testing: test the functions of the system as a whole (performance, capacity for file storage, recovery
and restart capabilities)
Acceptance testing: system is evaluated by users and management

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Maintenance
Changes in hardware, software, documentation, or procedures to correct errors, meet new requirements, or improve
processing efficiency.

– Fix bugs found by the customer

– Make modifications
– Add new features
Documentation: Written descriptions of, specifications, development, and actual code of program. Documentation
is valuable because:

1. It is probable that you may come back to this program sometime in the future in order to use it again, or you
may want to use part of it in developing the solution for another similar problem.

2. If you have developed this program for a client's use, he or she will need some information so that in your
absence the program can be used.
3. If you are working for a company and have developed this program as an addition to the company's software
library, some other programmer may be assigned to maintain it or to make additions to it.

4. It is possible that sometime after you have developed the program, you may discover some errors in it and you
may be required to correct them.

The significance of proper program documentation in the software life cycle cannot be overemphasized. Program

documentation consists of

1. A concise problem specification;

2. Descriptions of inputs, expected outputs, constraints, and applicable formulas;
3. A pseudo code or flowchart for its algorithm;
4. A source program listing;
5. A self-documenting code: a program containing meaningful identifiers as well as clarifying comments;
6. A hard copy of a sample of data and output of test run of the program; and
7. A user's guide explaining to nonprogrammer users how the program should be used.

Algorithm development
An algorithm is procedure for solving a problem in terms of
 the action to execute (what to do) and
 the order in which these actions are executed(done)-how to do

An algorithm needs to be
 Precise and unambiguous (no ambiguity in any instruction and in the order of execution)
 Simple
 General (one inch is equal to 2.54cm is not an algorithm, it has to convert a supplied number of inches)
 Correct
 Finite (has to have an end)
 Handles all expectations
 Produce expected output
 Efficient: in time, memory and other resources

An algorithm can be expressed in many ways. Some of these methods are narrative, flowchart and pseudo-code:

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Narrative: often used to narrate the algorithm, can be understood by any user who may not have any knowledge of
computer programming. Too wordy, too ambiguous and can be interpreted in different ways.
Example: Accept salary of the employee. Calculate bonus as 10% of salary and add it to salary. Accept service year
of employee. If the service year is greater than 10, give additional 100 birr as bonus. Display the bonus of the
employee.

Flowcharts: a diagram consisting of labeled symbols, together with arrows connecting one symbols to another.

Basic flowcharting symbols are:

Terminal point: marks the beginning or end of a program

Process: indicates any arithmetic computations or data movement

Decision: Indicates a yes/no decision to be made by the program

Input/output: is used to show input or output data

Flow line: is used to show the direction of logical flow

On-page Connector: used to connect two points without drawing a flow line

Annotation flag: used to add clarifying comments or descriptions

Inter-page Connector: used as exit or entry from a flowchart on one page to

a flowchart in another page

Predefined Process: indicates a process defined elsewhere

Example: A certain company plan to give a 10% bonus to each of its employees at the end of every year. If an
employee has been working 10/more years at the company, she/he is to get an additional birr 100. Draw a flowchart
of an algorithm to calculate and print the bonus for a given employee.
Solution:

Analysis: the problem is to compute bonus for employee. To do so, the salary and number of service years of the
employee must be known. Let the salary be denoted by SAL, service be denoted by YEAR and bonus by BONUS.
To compute the bonus, we multiply the salary by 10% and assign the result to BONUS. Thus, BONUS = SAL *
0.10. If the employee has served at least 10 years, birr 100 is added to the computed bonus of the employee and the
result is displayed. Otherwise the originally computed bonus is displayed.

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Algorithm: uses English to write operations in a group.

1. Read employee’s salary and year of service
2. Calculate the employee’s bonus
3. If years of service is greater than or equal to
10 then increase the bonus.
Otherwise only print the bonus
START E.g 1) A flowchart for
calculating bonus

READ
SAL,
YEAR

Bonus
0.1*SAL
0.1*SAL
No
BONUS
YEAR> =BONUS+100
=10
Yes

WRIT
E
BONU

STOP
Start

Read NAME, BALANCE,

RATE
2) A flow chart for calculating interest amount
3) A program that identifies a larger and smaller number from two numbers
4) Calculate grade for ten students based on the scale:
>80-A
>60-B Interest=BALANCE *RATE
>50-C
>40-D
<40-F

Display NAME,
INTEREST

Stop

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Read A, B
Computer programming Chapter one Computer System

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Start

Count=1

Read NAME, MARK

Yes
MARK>80? GRADE-A

No

Yes GRADE-B
MARK>60 ?

No

Yes GRADE-C
MARK>50?

No

Yes GRADE-D
MARK>40 ?

No
GRADE-F

Increment Count

No
Count>10 ?

yes
Display NAME, GRADE Stop
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Pseudo-code:
It is much similar to real code. We use verbs to write pseudo-code. Capitalize important words that show
actions.
Eg 1) A pseudo-code to calculate interest rate
ACCEPT Name, Principal, Rate
Interest=Principal X Rate
DISPLAY Name, Interest
2) A pseudo-code to calculate bonus
ACCEPT Name, Salary
Bonus=SalaryX0.1
ACCEPT Serviceyear
IF Serviceyear>10 Then
Bonus+100
ENDIF
DISPLAY Bonus
3) A pseudo-code that calculates grade
ACCEPT Mark, Name
IF Mark>80 Then
GradeA
ELSE IF Mark>=70 Then
GradeB
ELSE IF Mark>=60 Then
GradeC
ELSE IF Mark>=50 Then
GradeD
ELSE
GradeF
ENDIF
DISPLAY Grade, Name
Most algorithms incorporate three programming conventions
 Sequence
 Decision and
 Repetition
Sequence
STOCK=STOCK+ QUANTITY
Decision
IF HOURS>40
THEN
PERFORM OVERTIME
ELSE
PERFORM REGULAR
ENDIF
Repetition

INITIALIZE SUM TO ZERO

WHILE SUM<100
GET DATA
ADD DATA TO SUM

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ENDWHILE

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